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General principles of the metabolic processes regulation
in the human organism. Hormones: general
characteristics, classification
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Hormones – organic biologically active compounds of different chemical nature that are produced by the endocrine glands, enter directly into blood and accomplish humoral regulation of the metabolism of compounds and functions on the organism level.
Hormonoids (tissue hormones) – compounds that are produced not in glands but in different tissues and regulate metabolic processes on the local level, but some of them (serotonin, acetylcholine) enters blood and regulate processes on the organism level.
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Specific stimulus for hormones secretion is:
-nervous impulse
-concentration of the certain compound in blood passing through the endocrine gland
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1. Hypothalamus2. Pituitary3. Epiphysis4. Thymus5. Thyroid gland6. Parathyroid glands7. Langergans’ islands of pancreas8. Epinephrine glands9. Sex glands
Endocrine glands:
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Classification of hormones according to chemical
nature1. Proteins: hormones of anterior pituitary
(except ACTH), insulin, parathyroid hormone.2. Peptides: ACTH, calcitonin, glucagon,
vasopressin, oxytocin, hormones of hypothalamus (releasing factors and statins).
3. Derivatives of amino acids: catecholamins (epinephrine and norepinephrine), thyroxin, triiodthyronin, hormones of epiphysis.
4. Steroid (derivatives of cholesterol): hormones of the cortex of epinephrine glands, sex hormones.
5. Derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty (arachidonic) acids: prostaglandins.
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Receptors of hormonesTwo groups:-placed on the surface of membrane – peptide and protein hormones, prostaglandins;-placed inside the cells (cytoplasm, nucleus) – steroid and thyroid hormones
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1. Change the permeability of cell membrane, accelerate the penetration of substrates, enzymes, coenzymes into the cell and out of cell.
2. Acting on the allosteric centers affect the activity of enzymes (Hormones penetrating membranes).
3. Affect the activity of enzymes through the messengers (cAMP). (Hormones that can not penetrate the membrane).
4. Act on the genetic apparatus of the cell (nucleus, DNA) and promote the synthesis of enzymes (Steroid and thyroid hormones).
THE FINAL EFFECTS OF HORMONES ACTION
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Tight anatomical bonds with pituitary gland
Two groups of hormones related to anterior and posterior lobes of pituitary
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Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
Bound with anterior pituitary by the capillary net – hypothalamic portal system
Releasing factors and statins rich the anterior pituitary via this system
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HYPOPHISIS - “conductor of the hormonal orchestra of the
organism” There are hormones of anterior, posterior and intermediate lobes of pituitary gland.
The most important – anterior lobe (secrets tropic hormones)
Tropic – because stimulate functions of peripheral endocrine glands
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Acts both directly and through the stimulation of the formation of polypeptides somatomedins (insulin-like growth factors).
ILGF are synthesized in liver
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The effect of STH on the protein metabolism
Promotes the entrance of AA into cells, Inhibits catabolism of proteins and AA Activates the synthesis of proteins, DNA, RNA.
The effect of STH on the carbohydrate metabolism
Antiinsulin hormone – activates insulinase of liver
Activates the exit of glucose from liver Inhibits the conversion of glucose into fat
The effect of STH on lipid metabolism
Stimulates the decomposition of lipids (lipolisis)
Stimulates the oxidation of fatty acids.
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In the inherited hypoplasia of pituatary gland dwarfism is developed.
For the treatment GH is used.
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Hyperproduction of GH before puberty and before the completion of ossification results in gigantism
Yao Defen, the tallest women
in the life, 2.36 м
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Hyperfunction of pituitary inadults results in acromegaly – unproportionally intensive growth of particular body parts (fingers, nose, lower jaw, tongue, inner organs).
Cause – tumor of anterior pituitary
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone (АCTH)
Chemical nature – polipeptide
Secretion is stimulated by corticoliberin Feedback regulation of the speed of secretion depending on the cortisol level
Controls the cortex of epinephrine gland where cortisol is produced:-promotes the increase of cholesterol content in epinephrine glands cortex and its conversion into corticosteroids;-activates the passing of glucose into epinephrine glands and pentose phosphate cycle (NADPH synthesis) -has melanocyte stimulating activity
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Thyrotropic hormone (ТТH)
Chemical structure – protein (glycoprotein)
Secretion is stimulated by thyroliberin The speed of secretion is regulated according to the feedback regulation by thyroid hormones
It is necessary for the normal functioning of thyroid gland:-promotes the accumulation of iodine in thyroid gland and its insertion into tyrosine;-stimulates the synthesis of try- and tetraiodthyronin
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Gonadotropic hormones
Chemical nature – protein (glycoprotein)
Secretion is stimulated by foliliberin Function: stimulates the function of follicles in women and spermatogenesis in men
Follicle-stimulating гормон
Luteinizing hormone
Chemical nature – protein (glycoprotein)Secretion is stimulated by luliberin Function: stimulates the follicular growth and conversion of the follicle into a corpus luteum in women and secretion of testosterone in men
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ProlactinChemical nature – protein Secretion is stimulated by prolactoliberin
Functions: -stimulates the function of mammary glands (lactation);-provides the body with sexual gratification after sexual acts-stimulates the function of corpus luteum (progesterone secretion);-stimulates the growth of tissue of prostatic gland in men;-responsible for the mother instinct
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Lipotropic hormonesChemical nature – simple proteins
Functions: -mobilization of lipids from depot;-melanocyte stimulating function;-decrease Ca in blood
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THE INTERMEDIATE LOBE OF PITUITARY
Chemical nature – peptide
Functions: -stimulates melaninogenesis;-adaptation of vision in darkness
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (melanotropin)
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Oxytocin
Chemical nature – peptide
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EPIPHYSIS (PINEAL GLAND) Produces: Мelatonin from serotonin (regulates
the pigment metabolism) Adrenoglomerulot
ro-pin – stimulates secretion of mineralocorticoids in the epinephrine glands cortex.
Inhibitor of gonadotropin – inhibits the synthesis of prolactin, cholesterol
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PANCREAS Exocrine and endocrine parts
Endocrine – Langerhans islets (alpha-, beta- and delta-cells)
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Alpha-cells: glucagonBeta-cells: insulinDelta-cells: somatostatinEpithelium of ducts: lipocain
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The effect on carbohydrate metabolism
•Increases the permeability of membranes for glucose•Activates glucokinase (hexokinase) in glycolysis•Activates TAC (citrate synthase)•Activates PPC (G-6-PDH)•Activates glycogen synthase•Activates pyruvate- and alpha-кetoglutarate dehydrogenase•Inhibits gluconeogenesis•Inhibits the decomposition of glycogen (glucose-6-phosphatase)
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Effect on the protein metabolism•Increases the permeability of membranes for AA•Activates synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids•Inhibits gluconeogenesis
Effect on the lipid metabolism•Activates of the lipids synthesis•Promotes the saving of fats activating the decomposition of carbohydrates•Inhibits gluconeogenesis
Effect on the mineral metabolism•Activates Na/K-АТP-аse
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Glucagon Nature – polypeptide Antagonist of insulin Synthesis is activated in fasting
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FunctionsActivates the
decomposition of glycogen in liver
Activates gluconeogenesis
Inhibits glycolysisActivates lipolysis
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THYROID GLAND
Hormones of two types:
1. Iodine containing : thyroxin (tetraiodthyronin) and triiodthyronin – derivatives of tyrosine;
2. Calcitonin - peptide
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Functions of iodine containing hormones
Necessary for normal growth, differentiation, sex and mental development
Regulate the speed of metabolism
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Effect on protein metabolismIn physiological concentration stimulate synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids. In the increased concentration activate the protein decomposition.
Effect on carbohydrate metabolism
Accelerate the absorption of carbohydrates in the intestineActivate the decomposition of glycogen.
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Effect on lipid metabolismActivate the exit of lipids from depot, its decomposition and oxidation
Effect on energetic metabolismIn excess thyroxin uncouples respiration and phosphorilation, decreases the ATP formation and increases the heat formation
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Hyperfunction of gland – diffuse toxic
goiter (thyrotoxicosis, Graves disease)
•Goiter – hyperplasia of gland•Hypermetabolism•Increase of body temperature•Sweating, muscle weakness•Weight loss with good appetite •Tremor, emotional lability, insomnia •Exophtalm
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Hypofunction of gland (occurs in the deficit of iodine in water, soil, air)
•Decrease of metabolism•Decrease of body temperature
Hypofunction in childhood - cretinism•Growth inhibition•Unproportional body development•Disorders of mental development
Hypofunction in adults – mixedema•Edema of mucosa
mixedema
cretinism
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Calcitonin Is synthesized by
parafollicular cells of thyroid gland
Affects the metabolism of Са and Р - Promotes the transferring of Са2+ from
blood into bones- Inhibits reabsorption of Р in kidneys
(decreases the content of Р in blood due to its excretion with urine)
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PARATHYROID GLANDS Parathyroid hormone - protein
Affects the metabolism of Са and Р
- Promotes moving of Са2+ from bones into blood
- Inhibits reabsorption of Р in kidneys (decreases the content of Р in blood due to its excretion with urine)
- Stimulates the absorption of Ca in the intestine
Дія зв’язана з вітаміном D (утворює активну форму вітаміну D в нирках)
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Hyperfunction (Recklinghausen’s disease)
- hypercalciemia- hypophosphatemia- hyperphosphaturia- osteoporosis- Accumulation of Са
in tissues
Hypofunction- hypocalciemia- hyperphosphate
mia- hypophosphaturia- tetanus
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Hormones of medulla - catecholamines
Epinephrine, norepinephrine and DOPA Nature – derivatives of tyrosine Excretion is regulated by sympathetic
nervous system and brain cortex
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Functions:Stress hormones. Contraction of vessels,
increase the blood pressure, accelerate pulse. Contraction of uterus muscles. Epinephrine relaxes the muscles of bronchi and intestine.
On carbohydrate metabolism:-activates the decomposition of glycogen in liver
and muscles-activates glycolysis, PPC, TAC and tissue
respirationOn protein metabolism-accelerate the decomposition of proteinsOn lipid metabolism-activates lipase, mobilization of lipids and their
oxidation
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Hormones of cortex - corticosteroids
There are more than 50 corticosteroids Nature – steroids Are synthesized from cholesterol
Two groups-glucocorticoids (protein, carbohydrate
and lipid metabolism)-mineralocorticoids (mineral metabolism)
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Glucocorticoids
Most important: corticosteron, cortison, hydrocortison
Synthesis is regulated by ACTHAre transported combined with proteinsHalf-life time – till 1 hourIn the decomposition17-ketosteroids
are formed (excretion with urine). Diagnostic significance – index of the function of cortex of epinephrine glands and testis
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Effect on protein metabolism
• Stimulate catabolic processes in connective, lymphoid and muscle tissues
• Activate protein synthesis in liver• Stimulate amino transferases• Stimulate the urine biosynthesis
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Effect on the carbohydrate metabolism
Increase the glucose level• Activate gluconeogenesis• Inhibit hexokinase (glycolisis)
Effect on the lipid metabolism
• Activate lipolysis• Activate the conversion of FA
into carbs
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MineralocorticoidsThe most important hormone:
aldosteronExcretion is controlled by rhenin-
angiothensin systemFunctions:-activate the
reabsorption of Na, water and Cl in kidney canaliculi
- Promotes the excretion of К ions via the kidneys, skin and saliva
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Disorders of the function of epinephrine gland
cortexInsufficiency: Addison disease
(bronze disease)Causes: -injury of epinephrine gland cortex-insufficient production of ACTHBlood pressure
decrease, loss of weight, weakness, anorexia.Hyperpigmentation - bronze skin
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Hyperproduction: Kushing syndromCauses: hypeplasia or tumor of
epinephrine gland cortexObesity, particularly of the trunk and face (“moon face“) with sparing of the limbs; striae (stretches of the skin)Proximal muscle weaknessHirsutism (facial male-pattern hair growth)Insomnia, impotence, amenorrhoea, infertilityHeart diseases, hypertensionPolyuria, hypokalemia hyperglycemia, glucosuria (steroid diabetes) Kidney bonesDepression, anxietyHyperpigmentation
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Aldosterone hyperproductionCauses: -aldosteroma
Symptoms:-hypokaliemia-hypernatriemia-hyperchloremia-hypervolemia-edema,
hypertension
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A little amount of female sex hormones is formed in male organism and vice versa.
Female – estrogens, progesteron.
Male – androgens.
Sex hormones
Are synthesized in:-sex glands-placenta-cortex of epinephrine
glands
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EstrogensNature: steroidsEstradiol – is formed in follicles of
ovariumEstron and estriol – are formed in liver
and placenta in the metabolism of estradiol
eстрадіол естріол
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Functions of estrogensDevelopment of the female reproductive
system organs Ability to fertility in reproductive period
Biochemical functions of estrogens
Anabolic action on the tissues of reproductive organs
Inhibit the exit of Ca from bones (osteoporosis in menopause)
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Functions of progesteronPrepares the endometrium of uterus to
implantation of ovumInhibits the uterus contraction during
pregnancyStimulates the growth of mammary
glands
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AndrogensTestosteron
Nature: steroidIs formed in the interstitial cells of
testisIs excreted as 17-кetosteroids
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Functions of testosteroneDevelopment of the primary sex
featuresDevelopment of the secondary sex
featuresStimulates spermatogenesis
Biochemical functions of testosterone
Strong anabolic action (stimulates the synthesis of NA, proteins, phospholipids) – increases the mass of muscles
Keeps the Ca and P in organism
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Derivatives of androgens – active anabolics