General Information

General Information

Air Pollution, Climate Change and Ozone

Depletion

Chapter Overview QuestionsWhat layers are found in the atmosphere?

What are the major outdoor air pollutants, and where do they come from?

What are two types of smog?

What is acid deposition, and how can it be reduced?

What are the harmful effects of air pollutants?

How can we prevent and control air pollution?

Chapter Overview Questions

How have the earth’s temperature and climate changed in the past?

How might the earth’s temperature change in the future?

What factors influence the earth’s average temperature?

What are some possible beneficial and harmful effects of a warmer earth?

Chapter Overview Questions

How can we slow projected increases in the earth’s temperature or adapt to such changes?

How have human activities depleted ozone in the stratosphere, and why should we care?

CLIMATE: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION

________is a local area’s short-term _________ conditions such as __________ and ___________.

________ is a region’s _________ weather conditions over a long time.

__________ and _________ help determine climate.

Solar Energy and Global Air Circulation: Distributing Heat

_______ air circulation is affected by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface by __________, seasonal changes in ________ and ____________.

Figure 5-3Figure 5-3

Definition

___ _______is pressure exerted by the _____ of Earth’s ________. At sea level it is equal to _____ pounds per square inch.

A _________ is used to measure ________ _______.

Air Pressure

Pressure Gradient

This changes from ____ to ____. On a map there is an arrow to show this. A _______ pressure gradient means ________ winds (the isobars on a weather map would be drawn closer together).

Air Pressure

Cause

_______ is caused by the pressure gradient force. High pressure means _____ air, and _____ pressure means _____ air. The air moves from high to low, causing wind.

Wind

________ Effect

_______ air circulation is affected by the _______ of the earth on its _____.


Fig. 5-4, p. 102

Cold deserts

Equator

Cold deserts

Forests

Forests

Hot desertsSoutheast trades

Westerlies

ForestsWesterlies

Hot desertsNortheast trades

The Coriolis Effect_______ in the atmosphere, created by the _______of the Earth on its axis, that ______ winds to the _____ in the ___________ and to the ____ in the _____________.

Wind

_________ Currents

Global air circulation is _______ by the properties of ____, ______, and _______.


____________ Cells

______ and _________ are distributed over the earth’s surface by _______ currents, which form ____giant _________ cells at different _________.


Fig. 5-6, p. 103

Cell 3 North

Moist air rises — rain

Cell 2 North

Cool, dryair falls

Cell 1 North

Moist air rises,cools, and releasesMoisture as rain

Cell 1 South

Cool, dryair falls

Cell 2 South

Moist air rises — rain

Cell 3 South

Cold,dry airfalls

Polar cap

Temperate deciduousforest and grassland

Desert

Tropical deciduous forest

Tropicalrain forest

Equator

Tropical deciduous forest

Cold,dry airfalls

Polar capArctic tundra

Evergreenconiferous forest

Temperate deciduousforest and grassland

Desert

60°

30°

0°

30°

60°

__________

This is a ______________ of the pressure ________ force and the ____________. Friction at the Earth’s surface causes winds to _____ a little. Friction runs parallel to the ________.

Wind

________ Level Flow

There is _________ friction up in the upper ____________, driving surface features. Ex. during big _____________, the wind in the ______ level will tell which _____ the thunderstorm will ______.

Wind

__________

(called __________ in the Atlantic and ________ in the Pacific)

Violent storms that form over ______ ocean waters and can pass over coastal land.

Giant, ________ storms with winds of at least ___ mph. The most powerful ones have wind velocities _______ than _____ mph.

Wind

____________

An ___________ system of winds _________ outward from a high-pressure center, circling __________ in the _____ Hemisphere and _____________ in the ______Hemisphere.

Wind

________ CellsWind that _____ at the ___________. As air rises, it _______ out ______ & ______, then ______ and sinks at ____ degrees. This is why most of the world’s _______ are found at 30 degrees. These are called the _____ latitudes because early settlers would get stuck here in their boats & couldn’t move. They would finally throw their horses overboard to lighten the load & get moving again.

Circulation Patterns

__________ Cells

______ water transfers _____ to the _________, especially near the hot ________.

This _______ convection cells that transport heat and water from one area to another.

The resulting convection cells circulate ____, _____, and _________ both vertically and from place-to-place in the troposphere, leading to different _______ & patterns of vegetation.


_______ Cells

Air _____ at about ___ degrees, floats _____, and _____ at around ____ degrees, both _____ and ______.


____________

These are __________ breezes that occur during the _____.

______________

These are __________ breezes that occur at _______.

______________

As the _____ blows from the ______ into a _____ between ____mountains, the wind must divert into a smaller area. This causes ____ winds to form through the ________.

_________________

______ air coming from the ____ of the mountain _____ down on the eastern slope, causing _______ winds on the mountain.

Polar vs. Tropical

The atmosphere has ______ prevailing winds. Prevailing winds that blow from the ________ near the ________ or from the _________ near the _______ are called polar ____________.

_____________winds that blow from the ________ in the N. Hemisphere or from the ________ in the S. Hemisphere are called trade winds.

Air Masses and Storms

Continental vs. Maritime

___________ fronts are generally ____ and ____, whereas _______ (ocean) fronts are generally ____ and ______. When these two air masses ________, the result is usually _____.

Air Masses and Storms

_______ Front

The boundary between an advancing ______air mass and the ______ one it is replacing. Because ______ air is _____ dense than cool air, an advancing ______ front will ______ up ______ a mass of ______ air.

Weather

______ Front

The _____________of an advancing air mass of _____ air. Because _____ air is _____ dense than warm air, an advancing _____ front stays close to the ______and wedges underneath less dense, warmer air. A ______ front __________rapidly moving, towering clouds called _____________.

___________ Front

A stationary front is a _____________ zone between ____ nearly stationary air masses of different ________.

____________ Front

An occluded front is the air ______ established when a ______ front _________ (________ the passage of) a ______ front.

Ocean Currents: Distributing Heat and Nutrients

Ocean currents influence climate by distributing ______ from place to place and _________ and ___________ nutrients.


Ocean Currents: Distributing Heat and Nutrients

______________:Considerable scientific __________ and ______________ indicate that large inputs of ___________ gases from anthropogenic activities into the __________ can enhance the ________ greenhouse effect and change the earth’s _________ in your lifetime.

STRUCTURE AND SCIENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The ________ consists of several layers with different ____________, ___________, and _______________.


Fig. 19-2, p. 440

Atmospheric pressure (millibars)

Temperature

Thermosphere

Pressure

Mesopause

Heating via ozoneMesosphere

Stratopause

Alt

itu

de

(kil

om

eter

s)

Stratosphere Alt

itu

de

(mil

es)

Tropopause

Ozone “layer”

Heating from the earthHeating from the earthTroposphere

Temperature (˚C)

Pressure = 1,000 millibars at ground level

(Sea level)

STRUCTURE AND SCIENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere’s _______ layer (____________) is made up mostly of _________ and _________, with smaller amounts of _______ vapor and ______.

________ in the atmosphere’s ________ layer (________________) filters out most of the sun’s ______ radiation that is harmful to us and most other species.

______________

75% of mass of atmosphere

___ to ____ miles in altitude

____ nitrogen, _____ oxygen

Location of Earth’s ________

Temperature _______ with ________ until the next layer is reached, where there is a sudden rise in temperature

The Earth’s Atmosphere

_________________

____ miles to _____ miles in altitudeCalmTemperature ________ with __________Contains ______ the ______ of the rest of the atmosphere; ozone forms in an equilibrium reaction when _________ is converted to _______ by lightning and/or sunlight_____of ultraviolet radiation (especially UV-B) is _________ by the stratosphere

________________

____ to ____ miles in altitude

The temperature _______ with increasing __________

________________

___ to ____ miles in altitude

Temperature _________ with increasing altitude

Very _____ temperatures

______

The Earth’s _____ degree incline on its axis remains the same as it travels around the sun. As the earth _____ around the ____ the seasons ______.

Weather

________ is the __________ in the atmosphere at a ______ ______ and ______. It includes _________, atmospheric pressure, ___________, cloudiness, ____________, and wind.

Climate

________ is the _________ ___________ conditions that occur in a place over a period of ______.

The two most important factors are __________ and _____________.

____________of the Atmosphere

Components – Oxygen ____, Nitrogen ___

Layers – ______sphere, ______sphere, ______sphere, ______sphere, _____sphere (extends from _____ miles to interplanetary space)

Composition of the Atmosphere (cont.)

_______ Pollutants – _______, ______, _____ particles, _____________, and ____________________ (CFC’s)

Causes of Primary Pollutants – _________, ______, wind and soil, __________, forest fires, pollen, decaying plants, salt particles from the sea, and _____________.

AIR POLLUTION

_______ primary air pollutants may _____ with one _________ or with other _________ in the air to form ___________ air pollutants.


Fig. 19-3, p. 442

Primary Pollutants

CO CO2Secondary Pollutants

SO2 NO NO2

Most hydrocarbons SO3

Most suspended particles HNO3

H2O2 O3 PANs

Most NO3– and SO4

2– salts

Sources Natural Stationary

Mobile

H3SO4

Major Air Pollutants

_________________: ________________(CO) is a highly toxic gas that forms during the ________ combustion of carbon-containing materials.

______of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the troposphere occurs as a result of the ________ cycle.

_____of CO2 in the troposphere occurs as a result of ____________(mostly burning _______ fuels).

• It is ______ regulated as a pollutant under the U.S. Clean Air Act.


______________and __________: Nitrogen oxide (NO) forms when _______ and ________ gas in air ______ at the high-combustion temperatures in ________ engines and _____________ plants. NO can also form from ___________ and certain _____ bacteria.

• NO reacts with air to form NO2.

• _______reacts with water vapor in the air to form nitric acid (_______) and nitrate salts (______) which are components of _______ deposition.


______________(SO2) and ____________:

About _________ of SO2 in the troposphere occurs __________ through the _______ cycle.

__________ come from ______ sources, mostly __________ (S+ O2 _____) of sulfur-containing coal and from oil refining and smelting of sulfide ores.

SO2 in the atmosphere can be _______ to sulfuric acid (_______) and sulfate salts (______) that return to earth as a component of _____ deposition.


_________________________(SPM):Consists of a variety of ______ particles and _______ droplets small and light enough to remain __________ in the air.

The most ________ forms of SPM are ______ _________ (PM-10, with an average diameter < ___ micrometers) and _______ particles (PM-2.5).

According to the EPA, ______ is responsible for about ________ premature deaths a year in the ______.


_______________Is a highly reactive ______ that is a major component of _____________ _______.

It can • Cause and aggravate ______________illness.

• Can aggravate ________ disease.

• Damage _______, rubber in tires, fabrics, and paints.


__________________________(VOCs):Most are ____________ emitted by the leaves of many ______ and _____________.

About __________of global methane emissions comes from ___________ sources.

Other VOCs include industrial solvents such as (TCE), _________, and vinyl chloride.

• Long-term exposure to benzene can cause ________, blood ____________, and __________ system damage.


__________ (Rn):Is a ____________ occurring radioactive gas found in some types of ______ and _______.

It can seep into ________ and __________ sitting above such deposits.

___________ Pollutants

Form when ________ pollutants react

________ OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION

_________ smog is a mixture of___________, droplets of sulfuric ______, and a variety of suspended solid _________ emitted mostly by burning ______.

In most __________ countries where coal and heavy oil is burned, industrial smog is ______ a problem due to reasonably good pollution _______ or with tall smokestacks that _______ the pollutant to _________ areas.

Sunlight plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog

___________ smog is a mixture of air pollutants formed by the reaction of _______ oxides and volatile organic __________ under the influence of ____________.

Sunlight plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog

_______ City is one of the many cities in sunny, warm, dry climates with many _______ vehicles that suffer from ____________ smog.


Factors ____________ Levels of Outdoor Air Pollution

________ air pollution can be _________ by:settling out, _________, _____ spray, ________, and chemical reactions.

__________ air pollution can be _________ by:urban _________ (slow wind dispersal of pollutants), __________ (promote temperature inversions), and _______ temperatures (promote photochemical reactions).

Temperature Inversions

Cold, ______ weather in a valley surrounded by mountains can ______ air pollutants (left).

Areas with sunny climate, light winds, mountains on ______ sides and an ocean on the other (right) are susceptible to _____________.


Fig. 19-5, p. 447

Warmer air Descending warm air mass

Inversion layer Inversion layer

Sea breezeIncreasing altitude

Decreasing temperature

__________ DEPOSITION

Sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulates can react in the atmosphere to produce ________ chemicals that can travel long ________ before returning to the earth’s surface.

Tall __________ reduce _____ air pollution but can _______ _________ air pollution.

ACID DEPOSITION

Acid deposition consists of _____, _____, _____, or _____ with a ____ lower than ____.


Fig. 19-6, p. 448

WindTransformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)

Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated soil partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts

Wet acid depostion (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3 dissolved in rain and snow)

Nitric oxide (NO)Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO

Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts)

Acid fogFarm

OceanLakes in deep Lakes in deep

soil high in soil high in limestone are limestone are

bufferedbuffered

Lakes in shallow Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone soil low in limestone

become acidicbecome acidic

ACID DEPOSITION

pH measurements in relation to major coal-burning and industrial plants.


ACID DEPOSITION

Acid deposition contributes to chronic __________ disease and can leach toxic metals (such as ______ and ________) from soils and rocks into acidic lakes used as sources for ________ water.

ACID DEPOSITION


ACID DEPOSITIONAir pollution is one of several interacting _______ that can damage, weaken, or kill trees and ______ _______ and ____________.


Fig. 19-9, p. 451

Emissions

SO2 NOxAcid deposition

H2O2 O3

Others

Direct damage to leaves & bark

Reduced photo-synthesis and growth

Susceptibility to drought, extreme cold, insects, mosses, & disease organisms

Soil acidification

Tree death

Leaching

of soil nutrients

Release of toxic metal ions

Root damage

Reduced nutrient & water uptakeAcids

Lake

Groundwater

PANs

Fig. 19-10, p. 452

Solutions

Acid Deposition

Prevention Cleanup

Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency

Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes

Reduce coal use

Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes

Increase natural gas use

Increase use of renewable energy resources

Burn low-sulfur coal

Remove SO2 particulates & NOx from smokestack gases

Remove NOx from motor vehicular exhaust

Tax emissions of SO2

Air Quality is better in US; EPA estimates since ______

Particulate Matter (PM)- down ______

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)- down ______

Nitrogen Dioxide (Nox)- up ______

Lead (Pb)- down ______

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)- down _______

Air quality is worse in _________ countries:

________ City & _______: air exceeds WHO standards 350 days/year

INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

________ air pollution usually is a _____ threat to human _______ than outdoor air pollution.

According to the EPA, the four most dangerous indoor air pollutants in _______ countries are:

_________ smoke.

______________.

Radioactive ______-222 gas.

Very small fine and ultrafine __________.

Chloroform

Benzo--pyrene

Styrene

Radon-222

Methylene Chloride

Tobacco Smoke

Carbon Monoxide

Asbestos

Nitrogen Oxides

1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane

Particulates

FormaldehydeTetrachloroethylene

Para-dichlorobenzene

Fig. 19-11, p. 453

INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

Household _____ mites that feed on ______ skin and dust, live in materials such as _______ and furniture __________.

Can cause ________ attacks and ________ reactions in some people.


Case Study: Radioactive Radon

______-222, a radioactive gas found in some soils and rocks, can seep into some _____ and increase the risk of ______cancer.

Sources and paths of entry Sources and paths of entry for indoor radon-222 gasfor indoor radon-222 gas.


HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Normal human lungs (left) and the lungs of a person who died of _____________ (right).


Air Pollution is a Big Killer

Each year, air pollution prematurely kills about __ million people, mostly from ______ air pollution in ___________ countries.

In the U.S., the EPA estimates that annual deaths related to indoor and outdoor air pollution range from ________ to _________.

According to the EPA, each year more than __________ Americans get ______ from breathing ________ fumes.

Air Pollution is a Big Killer

Spatial distribution of premature deaths from air pollution in the United States.


PREVENTING AND REDUCING AIR POLLUTION

The _______________in the United States have greatly _______ outdoor air pollution from ____ major pollutants:

_______ monoxide

Nitrogen ________

________ dioxides

Suspended ___________ matter (less than PM-10)

Using the Marketplace to Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution

To help reduce ____emissions, the ______ ____ _____ authorized an emission trading (cap-and-trade) program.

Enables the _____ most polluting power plants to buy and sell _____ pollution rights.

Between ________, the emission trading system reduced emissions.

In _______, the EPA reported the cap-and-trade system produced _____ emission reductions than were projected.

Solutions: Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution

There are a of ways to _______ and _____air pollution from coal-burning facilities.

_____________________: are used to attract negatively charged particles in a smokestack into a collector.

___________: fine mists of water vapor trap particulates and convert them to a sludge that is collected and disposed of usually in a landfill.

Solutions: Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution

There are a # of ways to prevent and control air pollution from ________ vehicles.

Because of the Clean Air Act, a new car today in the U.S. emits ______ less pollution than did pre-_______ cars.

There is and ________ in motor vehicle use in ___________ countries and many have ____ pollution _________ devices and burn leaded gasoline.

Fig. 19-19, p. 460

Solutions

Motor Vehicle Air Pollution

Prevention Cleanup

Emission control devices

Mass transit

Bicycles and walking

Less polluting engines

Less polluting fuels

Improve fuel efficiency

Car exhaust inspections twice a year

Get older, polluting cars off the road

Give buyers large tax write-offs or rebates for buying low-polluting, energy efficient vehicles

Stricter emission standards

Indoor Air Pollution

_______ effort has been devoted to ___________ indoor air pollution even though it poses a much _______ threat to human health than outdoor air pollution.

Environmental and health scientists call for us to focus on preventing air pollution (especially indoor) in developing countries.

Fig. 19-20, p. 461

Solutions

Indoor Air Pollution

Prevention

Cover ceiling tiles & lining of AC ducts to prevent release of mineral fibers

Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces

Increase intake of outside airBan smoking or limit it to well ventilated areas

Change air more frequently

Set stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials

Circulate a building’s air through rooftop green houses

Prevent radon infiltration Use exhaust hoods for stoves and appliances burning natural gasUse office machines in well

ventilated areas

Use less polluting substitutes for harmful cleaning agents, paints, and other products

Install efficient chimneys for wood-burning stoves

Cleanup or Dilution

Core Case Study: Studying a Volcano to Understand Climate Change

______ scientist correctly predicted that the 1991 _________ explosion would ______ the average temperature of the earth by 0.5Co over a 15 month period and then return to normal by _______.


PAST CLIMATE AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Over the past ___________ years, the troposphere has experienced __________ periods of global _________ and global ____________.

For the past ________ years, temperatures have remained fairly ______ but began to ______ during the ______ century.

PAST CLIMATE AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT


Fig. 20-2a, p. 465

Thousands of years ago

Average temperature over past 900,000 years

Ave

rag

e su

rfac

e te

mp

erat

ure

(°C

)

Fig. 20-2b, p. 465

Ave

rag

e su

rfac

e te

mp

erat

ure

(°C

)

Year

Average temperature over past 130 years

Fig. 20-2c, p. 465

Average temperature over past10,000 years = 15°C (59°F)

Tem

per

atu

re c

han

ge

(C°)

Temperature change over past 22,000 years

Agriculture established

End oflast iceage

Years ago

Fig. 20-2d, p. 465

Tem

per

atu

re c

han

ge

(C°)

Temperature change over past 1,000 years

Year

How Do We Know What Temperatures Were in the Past?

Scientists analyze tiny _____ bubbles trapped in ___ cores learn about past:

___________ composition. __________ trends.greenhouse _____ concentrations.solar, snowfall, and forest fire activity.


How Do We Know What Temperatures Were in the Past?

In 2005, an ____ _____ showed that _____ levels in the troposphere are the ______ they have been in ________ years.


Fig. 20-4, p. 466

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n o

f ca

rbo

n d

ioxi

de

in t

he

atm

osp

her

e (p

pm

)

Var

iati

on

of

tem

per

atu

re (

C°)

fro

m c

urr

ent

leve

l

Thousands of years before present

End of last ice age

Temperature change

Carbon dioxide

The _______ Greenhouse Effect

Three major factors shape the earth’s climate:The sun.

Greenhouse effect that warms the earth’s _______troposphere and surface because of the presence of ____________ gases.

Oceans store CO2 and heat, evaporate and receive water, move stored heat to other parts of the world.

Natural ______ process through _____ vapor in the troposphere (heat rises).

Major Greenhouse Gases

The major greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere are _______, ___________, __________, and ______________.

These gases have always been _______ in the earth’s troposphere in ______ concentrations.

Fluctuations in these _______, plus changes in _____ output are the major factors causing the changes in tropospheric temperature over the past ____________ years.

Major Greenhouse Gases

___________ in average concentrations of _____ greenhouse gases in the troposphere between ____ and ______, mostly due to ______ fuel burning,___________and ________________.


_________CHANGE AND _________ACTIVITIES

__________ that the earth’s troposphere is warming, mostly because of human actions:

The ____ century was the _______ century in the past ________ years.Since 1900, the earth’s average tropospheric temperature has risen ________.Over the past 50 years, ________Arctic temperatures have _______ almost twice as fast as those in the rest of the world._________ and ________ sea ice are melting and shrinking at increasing rates.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES

_______ temperatures in Alaska, Russia, and the Arctic are melting ________ releasing more ______ and _______ into the troposphere.

During the last century, the world’s ____ level _____ by 10-20 cm, mostly due to _______ from melting and land-based ice and the expansion of ocean water as temperatures rise.

The Scientific Consensus about Future Climate Change

Measured and projected changes in the _________ temperature of the atmosphere.


FACTORS AFFECTING THE EARTH’S TEMPERATURE

Some factors can _________ (positive feedback) and some can _______ (negative feedback) projected global warming.

There is uncertainty about how much CO2 and heat the oceans can remove from the troposphere and how long the heat and CO2 might remain there.

______ temperatures create more clouds that could _____ or _____ the troposphere.

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

Between _____ and _____, average Arctic sea ice dropped _____ (as shown in blue hues above).


Conduction

_______ air holds more _______ than cold air. During conduction, _____ & ______ from the ocean or land moves into the atmosphere.

Ex. cold air moving over warm water (like a lake), forming steam fog.

Heat Transfer

Convection

This causes rising air currents and leads to cloud formation.

It takes heat from the lower atmosphere to the higher atmosphere where pressure is less, causing air to expand, which in turn cools the air.

The air cannot hold as much moisture because it is cooler, so clouds form (condensation).

Heat Transfer

Radiation

Radiation drives weather. Heat from the sun warms the earth, which radiates the heat back into the atmosphere.

Heat Transfer

ScatteringAs the sun hits the earth, molecules are scattered into the air. This changes the direction of the heat coming in. Some are scattered back to space, but others are absorbed. Scattering is what

makes the sky blue.

Solar Radiation

AlbedoThe proportional reflectance of the Earth’s surface.

Ex, glaciers and ice sheets have a high albedo and reflect 80-90% of the sunlight hitting them, but asphalt and buildings have low albedos and reflect 10-15%, and oceans and forests reflect only about 5%.

Solar Radiation

Absorption70% of the solar radiation that falls on Earth is absorbed and runs the water cycle, drives winds and ocean currents, powers photosynthesis, and warms the planet.

Solar Radiation

Control of Temperature

When there isn’t a lot of moisture in the atmosphere & it’s a clear night, we have a large temperature drop (like in the desert), but when there is a blanket of clouds, the temperature stay uniform.

Solar Radiation

Rising Sea Levels

During this century rising seas levels are projected to flood low-lying urban areas, coastal estuaries, wetlands, coral reefs, and barrier islands and beaches.


Rising Sea Levels

If seas levels rise by 9-88cm during this century, most of the Maldives islands and their coral reefs will be flooded.


Changing Ocean Currents

Global warming could alter ocean currents and cause both excessive warming and severe cooling. Figure 20-12Figure 20-12

CharacteristicsThunderstorms have high, cumulonimbus clouds that can reach 50,000 feet. An updraft of warm air causes cold air to rush downwards. This is why you feel a sudden cold breeze right before a thunderstorm. Lightening causes the ozone smell.

StormsThunderstorms

Problems•Problems include rain, flooding, hail, lightening, high winds, and loss of life can occur.

Characteristics

Tornadoes are a powerful, rotating funnel of air associated with severe thunderstorms. Tornadoes form when a mass of cool, dry air collides with warm, humid air, producing a strong updraft of spinning air on the underside of a cloud. It is a tornado if the spinning air descends and touches the ground.

Tornadoes

Problems

They can destroy buildings, bridges, and freight trains, and even blow the water out of a river or small lake, leaving it empty. Tornadoes also kill people; more than 10,000 people in the U.S. died in tornadoes in the 20th century. They are most common in the Great Plains and Midwestern states (especially Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas), as well as states along the Gulf of Mexico.

Tornadoes

Characteristics

Hurricanes are giant, rotating tropical storms with winds of at least 74 miles per hour, with some reaching 155 miles per hour. They form as strong winds pick up moisture over warm surface waters of the tropical ocean and start to spin as a result of the rotation of the Earth. The spinning causes an upward spiral of massive clouds as air is pulled upward.

Hurricanes

Problems

These are destructive when they hit land, not so much from strong winds as from resultant storm surges, but waves that rise as much as 25 feet above the ocean surface. These can damage property and result in loss of life.

Hurricanes


A warmer troposphere can decrease the ability of the ocean to remove and store CO2 by decreasing the nutrient supply for phytoplankton and increasing the acidity of ocean water.

Global warming will lead to prolonged heat waves and droughts in some areas and prolonged heavy rains and increased flooding in other areas.


In a warmer world, agricultural productivity may increase in some areas and decrease in others.

Crop and fish production in some areas could be reduced by rising sea levels that would flood river deltas.

Global warming will increase deaths from:

Heat and disruption of food supply.

Spread of tropical diseases to temperate regions.

Increase the number of environmental refugees.

DEALING WITH GLOBAL WARMINGClimate change is such a difficult problem to deal with because:

The problem is global.

The effects will last a long time.

The problem is a long-term political issue.

The harmful and beneficial impacts of climate change are not spread evenly.

Many actions that might reduce the threat are controversial because they can impact economies and lifestyles.

DEALING WITH GLOBAL WARMING

Two ways to deal with global warming:Mitigation that reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

Adaptation, where we recognize that some warming is unavoidable and devise strategies to reduce its harmful effects.

Fig. 20-14, p. 481

Cut fossil fuel use (especially coal)

Shift from coal to natural gas

Improve energy efficiency

Shift to renewable energy resources

Transfer energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies to developing countries

Reduce deforestation

Use more sustainableagriculture and forestry

Limit urban sprawl

Reduce poverty

Slow population growth

Remove CO2 from smoke stack and vehicle emissions

Store (sequester)CO2 by planting trees

Sequester CO2 deep underground

Sequester CO2 in soil by using no-till cultivation and taking cropland out of production

Sequester CO2 in the deep ocean

Repair leaky natural gas pipelines and facilities

Use animal feeds that reduce CH4 emissions by belching cows

Solutions

Global Warming

Prevention Cleanup

Solutions: Reducing the Threat

We can improve energy efficiency, rely more on carbon-free renewable energy resources, and find ways to keep much of the CO2 we produce out of the troposphere.

WHAT IS BEING DONE TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS?

Getting countries to agree on reducing their greenhouse emissions is difficult.

A 2006 poll showed that 83% of Americans want more leadership from federal government on dealing with global warming.

International Climate Negotiations: The Kyoto Protocol

Treaty on global warming which first phase went into effect January, 2005 with 189 countries participating.

It requires 38 participating developed countries to cut their emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012.

Developing countries were excluded.• The U.S. did not sign, but California and Maine are

participating.

• U.S. did not sign because developing countries such as China, India and Brazil were excluded.

Moving Beyond the Kyoto Protocol

Countries could work together to develop a new international approach to slowing global warming.

The Kyoto Protocol will have little effect on future global warming without support and action by the U.S., China, and India.

Actions by Some Countries, States, and Businesses

In 2005, the EU proposed a plan to reduce CO2 levels by 1/3rd by 2020.

California has adopted a goal of reducing its greenhouse gas emission to 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% below by 2050.

Global companies (BP, IBM, Toyota) have established targets to reduce their greenhouse emissions 10-65% to 1990 levels by 2010.

OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE

Less ozone in the stratosphere allows for more harmful UV radiation to reach the earth’s surface.

The ozone layer keeps about 95% of the sun’s harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth’s surface.

Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) have lowered the average concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere.

In 1988 CFCs were no longer manufactured.

Fig. 20-18, p. 486

A free oxygen atom pulls the oxygen atom off the chlorine monoxide molecule to form O2.

Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) molecule, such as CFCl3, breakingoff a chlorine atom and leaving CFCl2. Sun

Repeated many times

The chlorine atom and the oxygen atom join to form a chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO).

Summary of ReactionsCCl3F + UV Cl + CCl2FCl + O3 ClO + O2

Cl + O Cl + O2

UV radiation

The chlorine atom attacksan ozone (O3) molecule, pulling an oxygen atom offit and leaving an oxygen molecule (O2).

Once free, the chlorine atom is off to attack another ozone moleculeand begin the cycle again.

Cl


During four months of each year up to half of the ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica and a smaller amount over the Artic is depleted.



Since 1976, in Antarctica, ozone levels have markedly decreased during October and November.



Ozone thinning: caused by CFCs and other ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs).

Increased UV radiation reaching the earth’s surface from ozone depletion in the stratosphere is harmful to human health, crops, forests, animals, and materials such as plastic and paints.

Human Health• Worse sunburn• More eye cataracts• More skin cancers• Immune system suppression

Food and Forests• Reduced yields for some crops• Reduced seafood supplies from reduced phytoplankton• Decreased forest productivity for UV-sensitive tree species

Wildlife• Increased eye cataracts in some species• Decreased population of aquatic species sensitive to UV radiation• Reduced population of surface phytoplankton• Disrupted aquatic food webs from reduced phytoplankton

Air Pollution and Materials• Increased acid deposition• Increased photochemical smog• Degradation of outdoor paints and plastics

Global Warming• Accelerated warming because of decreased ocean uptake of CO2 from atmosphere by phytoplankton and CFCs acting as greenhouse gases

Effects of Ozone DepletionNatural Capital Degradation

Fig. 20-21, p. 488

Case Study: Skin Cancer

Structure of the human skin and relationship between radiation and skin cancer.


Pollution Control DevicesEmission Control Devices – filter particles

Scrubbers – use water to filter particles and gases

Catalytic Converters – on cars; finish burning wastes to decrease carbon monoxide levels

1-800-453-SMOG

Human Impact (Positive)

Law – Clean Air Act

1963 - first passage 1970, 1977 and 1990 - amendedInvolves EPASets standards for acceptable levels of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, ozone, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, lead, & moreProvides pollution credits for industries that utilize pollution-control devices+Bush administration has relaxed rulesIt established NAAQS and AQI

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

Sets acceptable concentrations for 6 “criteria” pollutants that:

Threaten public health/the environment over broad areas (non-point)

Are emitted in large quantities

CO, Pb, Nitrogen Oxides, Ozone, Particulate Matter and Sulfur Dioxides

Air Quality Index (AQI)

Measures levels of 5 criteria pollutants

Forecast of daily air pollution levels

Purpose to educate and protect public- focuses on health effects

Categories: green= good, yellow= moderate, orange= unhealthy for sensitive groups, red= unhealthy, purple= very unhealthy

National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

Regulates emissions (from point sources)For specific substances (air toxics w/ known or suspected serious health effects (mutagens, carcinogens, neurotoxins)Tend to be localized, from point sourcesExamples: Ammonia, chlorine, asbestos, arsenic, mercury, benzene

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