General Chemistry Part II 5 6

8/16/2019 General Chemistry Part II 5 6

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GENERAL

CHEMISTRY PART-II5. Chemistry of Elements

Dr.rer.nat. I Wayan Karyasa, M.Sc.Program Studi S- SainsPPS - !"DIKS#$


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$. #ydrogen#ydrogen named after the %ree&'ord for ('ater)forming(In *+*, oert /oyle disco0eredhydrogen.

It is most aundant element in the!ni0erse. #ydrogen is founde0ery'here and in most com1ounds.

#ydrogen is rarely found as a gas onEarth and it catches 2re and it can e

e31losi0e.

#ydrogen has three isot41es• hydrogen #* 6symol #7 natural

aundance 88.895:• deuterium # 6symol D7 natural

aundance 4.4*5:• ;


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unning your car on 'ater.

It>s all aout #ydrogen gas ?e3tracted from 'ater ? for free ? andfed into your car>s engine as fuel ? tore1lace gasoline.Does it 'or&@ $solutely notA ? factsthat any Physics Professor 'illcon2rm.

t'or&.


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Com1ounds of #ydrogen

*.Water 6#7


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Ionic hydrides Covalent hydrides Interstitial hydrides

. #ydride

Ca# "i-# atteries


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*. Shiny metallic a11earance

. Solids at room tem1erature 6e3ce1tmercury7

;. #igh melting 1oints. #igh densities5. Farge atomic radii+. Fo' ioniGation energies

. Fo' electronegati0ities9. !sually, high deformation8. Malleale*4.Ductile**.


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%eneral 0ie's of earth al&alimetals•


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D. $luminium$luminium is an aundant element in the earthscrust

6.5: y mass7, ut it is not found free in nature.$luminium is a sil0ery-'hite metal 'ith manydesirale characteristics. It is light, nonto3ic 6asthe metal7, nonmagnetic and nons1ar&ing. It iseasily formed, machined, and cast. $luminium issoft and lac&s strength, ut alloys 'ith small

amounts of co11er, magnesium, silicon,manganese, and other elements ha0e 0ery useful1ro1erties.


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E. Caron


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Com1ounds of caron

6inorganic7Caron comines 'ith metals to form carides, thereare ionic 6CaC, /eC, $lC;7N co0alent 6SiC7N and

interstitial 6WC7.

Cyanide com1ounds contain the anion grou1 of C≡"-

Cyanide ions are e3tremely to3ic. #C" has the aromaof itter almonds, it is to3ic, 0olatile, and 0ery 'ea&

acid.Cyanide ions are used to e3tract gold and sil0er.

$u6s7 9C"-6aL7 6g7 #6l7 → O$u6C"7-6aL7

#- a


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. "itrogen and

Phos1horus"itrogen is aout 9: of air y 0olume.


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Phos1horus occurs most commonly in nature as 1hos1hate roc&scalcium 1hos1hate, Ca;6P7, and uoroa1atite, Ca56P7;.


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%. 3ygen and

Sulfur3ygen is y far the most aundantelement in Earth>s crust, constitutingaout +: of its mass.3ygen is a uilding loc& of alliomolecules and the essential o3idant inthe metaolic rea&do'n of food

molecules.

3ygen has t'o allotro1es 6o3ygen7and ; 6oGone7. molecule is1aramagnetic.; is rather to3ic, light-lue gas, and

1ungent odor. ; is used to 1urifydrin&ing 'ater, to deodoriGe air andse'age gases, and to leach 'a3es, oils,and te3tiles.

3ygen forms three ty1es of o3ides o3ides 6-7, 1ero3ides 6-7, andsu1ero3ides 6-73ides asic 6"a, Mg7N am1hoteric 6$l;7N and acidic 6Si, P*4,S;, Cl7.

Pero3ides # is colorless, syru1y liLuid, dis1ro1ortionation, miscile 'ith'ater in all 1ro1ortion.


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$lthough sulfur is not a 0ery aundance element, it

is readily a0ailale ecause it occurs commonly innature in elemental form. It occurs also in gy1sum6CaS.#7 and 1yrite 6eS7 as 'ell as innatural gases as #S and S.ne of se0eral allotro1ic forms of sulfur is S9, a

1uc&ered ring structure.Com1ounds

• hydride #S• o3ides S, S;• o3oacids #S;, #S• salts "aS, eS, eS, CaS, etc.

• 43oanionic salts CaS• others CS, S+


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Pro)erties


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Salt .or,ation

#alogens 'ill react 'ith metals to /or, salts.or e3am1le, if chlorine gas is 1assed o0er aheated iron 'ire, a ro'n solid is formed u1on

cooling.iron & chlorine -0 iron $III% chloride#.e$s% & (Cl# $*% -0 #.eCl# $s%


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Chlorine and Chlorides

Chlorine has a 0ery interesting reaction 2ith 2ater, it is are0ersile reaction and also sho's something calleddis)ro)ortionation Odis-1ro-1or-shon-ay-shon.

Dis1ro1ortionation means a reaction 'here one s1ecies 6inthis case chlorine7 is simultaneously o3idised and reduced.

$nother reaction 'e are going to loo& at is chlorine 'ith cold,dilute sodium hydro3ide 6"a#7.


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General Pro)erties


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3aria+le "idation States/ecause the s and ;d energy le0els are so similar, the transition

elements can loose diering numers of electrons and ha0e asimilar staility.


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3ygen from the air can act as an o3idisingagent on many com1ounds such as Co6#7 to

Co6#7;.


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Redo Titrations


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E3am1le


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GENERALCHEMISTRY PART-II

+. "uclear ChemistryDr.rer.nat. I Wayan Karyasa, M.Sc.Program Studi S- SainsPPS - !"DIKS#$


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I"


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"!CFE$ S


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ision and usion


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FissionWhen atoms are bombarded with neutrons, their

nuclei splits into 2 parts which are roughly equal in

size.

Nuclear fission in the process whereby a nucleus,with a high mass number, splits into 2 nuclei which

have roughly equal smaller mass numbers.

During nuclear fission, neutrons are

released.


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Nuclear Fission

here are 2 types of fission that e!ist"

#. $pontaneous %ission

2. &nduced %ission


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Spontaneous Fission

$ome radioisotopes contain nuclei which are

highly unstable and decay spontaneously by

splitting into 2 smaller nuclei.

$uch spontaneous decays are accompanied by

the release of neutrons.


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Induced Fission

Nuclear fission can be induced by bombarding

atoms with neutrons.

&nduced fission decays are also accompanied by

the release of neutrons.

he nuclei of the atoms then split into 2 equal parts.


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'2()*2n

# +

The Fission Process

neutron travels at high speed towards auranium-2() nucleus.


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'2()*2n

# +


The Fission Process


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'2()*2n

# +


The Fission Process


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'2()*2n

# +

he neutron stries the nucleus which thencaptures the neutron.

The Fission Process


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'2(/*2

he nucleus changes from being uranium-2() touranium-2(/ as it has captured a neutron.

The Fission Process


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he uranium-2(/ nucleus formed is very unstable.

&t transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

The Fission Process


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The Fission Process


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The Fission Process


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&t then splits into 2 fission fragments and releasesneutrons.

The Fission Process

#0#)/1a

*2(/r

n # +

n # +

n # +


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The Fission Process

#0#)/1a

*2(/r

n # +

n # +

n # +


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The Fission Process

#0#

)/1a

*2(/r

n #

+

n # +

n # +


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#0#)/1a

*2

(/r #

n # +

n # +

The Fission Process


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Nuclear Fission Examples

'2()

*231a

#0#

)/3 n

#

+(n

#

+3r

*2

(/

'2()*2

34s#(5))

3 n#+

2n#+

36b*/(7


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Energy from Fission

1oth the fission fragments and neutrons travel athigh speed.

he inetic energy of the products of fission are far

greater than that of the bombarding neutron andtarget atom.

E K before fission


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Energy from Fission

'2()

*234s

#(5

))3 n

#

+2n

#

+36b

*/

(7

Element Atomic Mass (kg)235

92U 3.9014 x 10-25

13855Cs 2.2895 x 10

-25

93!"# 1.5925 x 10

-25

10n 1.!50 x 10

-2!


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Energy from Fission

4alculate the total mass before and after fission taes place.

The total mass before fission (LHS of the equation):

The total mass after fission (RHS of the equation):

3.9014 x 10-25 + 1.6750 x 10-27 = 3.91815 x 10-25 kg

2.2895 x 10-25 + 1.5925 x 10-25 + (2 x 1.6750 x 10-27) = 3.9155 x 10-25 kg


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Energy from Fission

The total mass before fission =

The total mass after fission =

3.91815 x 10-25 kg

3.91550 x 10-25 kg

otal mass before fission > total mass after fission


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Energy from Fission

mass difference, m = !a" mass #ef!re fissi!n $ !a" mass afer fissi!n

m 9 (.*#5#) ! #+-2) : (.*#))+ ! #+-2)

m 9 2./) ! #+-25 g

his reduction in mass results in the release of energy.


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Energy Released

he energy released can be calculated using the equation"

8 9 mc2

Where"

8 9 energy released ;


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Energy from Fission

8 9 mc2

'

2()

*2 34s

#(5

))3 n

#

+2n

#

+ 36b

*/

(7

4alculate the energy released from the following

fission reaction"

m 9 2./) ! #+-25 g

c 9 ( ! #+5

ms-#

8 9 88 9 2./) ! #+

-25

! ;( ! #+5

=2

% = 2.385 x 10-11 &


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Energy from Fission

he energy released from this fission reaction does

not seem a lot.

his is because it is produced from the fission ofa single nucleus.

>arge amounts of energy are released when alarge number of nuclei undergo fission reactions.


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Energy from Fission

&f one uranium-2() atom undergoes a fission

reaction and releases 2.(5) ! #+-## < of energy,

then the amount of energy released by # g of

uranium-2() can be calculated as follows"

total energy = energy per fission x number of

atoms

total energy 9 2.(5) ! #+-##

! 2.)/ ! #+20

total energy 9 /.#+)/ ! #+#( <


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Nuclear Fusion

&n nuclear fusion, two nuclei with low mass numberscombine to produce a single nucleus with a higher

mass number.

@ 2

# 3@e 0

23 n#

+@(

# 38nergy


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The Fusion Process

@ 2 #

@ ( #


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@ 2 #

@

(

#

The Fusion Process


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@ 2 #

@ ( #

The Fusion Process


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@ 2

#

@ ( #

The Fusion Process


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The Fusion Process


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The Fusion Process


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The Fusion Process


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@e 0 2

n # +

8 N 8 6 A B

The Fusion Process


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@e 0 2

n # +

8 N 8 6 A B

The Fusion Process


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@e 0 2

n # +

8 N 8 6 A B

The Fusion Process


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@e 0 2

n

#

+

8 N 8 6 A B

The Fusion Process


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Energy from Fusion

Element Atomic Mass (kg)21$ 3.345 x 10

-2!

31$ 5.008 x 10

-2!

42$e .4! x 10

-2!

10n 1.!50 x 10

-2!

@ 2

# 3@e 0

23 n#

+@(

# 38nergy

E g f F i


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Energy from Fusion

4alculate the following"

• he mass difference.

• he energy released per fusion.

E g f F i


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Energy from Fusion

The total mass before fusion (LHS of the equation):

The total mass after fission (RHS of the equation):

3.345 x 10-27 + 5.008 x 10-27 = 8.353 x 10-27 kg

6.647 x 10-27 + 1.675 x 10-27 = 8.322 x 10-27 kg

@ 2

# 3@e 0

23 n#

+@(

# 38nergy

Energ fromF sion


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Energy from Fusion

m 9 total mass before fission : total mass after fission

m 9 5.()( ! #+-27 : 5.(22 ! #+-27

m 9 (.# ! #+-2* g

EnergyfromFusion


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Energy from Fusion

8 9 mc2m 9 (.# ! #+-2* g

c 9 ( ! #+5 ms-#

8 9 8

8 9 (.# ! #+-2* ! ;( ! #+5=2

% = 2.79 x 10-12 &

@ 2

#3@e

0

23 n

#

+@

(

# 38nergy

The energy released per fusion is 2.79 x 10 12 !.


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adioacti0ity


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Scientists Luic&ly learnedthat there 'ere threedierent &inds of radiation

gi0en o y radioacti0e materials.$l1ha rays

/eta rays

%amma rays


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We no' &no' thatradioacti0ity comes fromthe nucleus of the atom.

If the nucleus has toomany neutrons, or isunstale for any otherreason, the atom

undergoes radioacti0edecay.


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In al1ha decay, the nucleus eZects t'o 1rotons andt'o neutrons.

/eta decay occurs 'hen a neutron in the nucleus

s1lits into a 1roton and an electron.%amma decay is not truly a decay reaction in the

sense that the nucleus ecomes something dierent.

adioacti0ity


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adioacti0e decay gi0es o energy.


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If you started 'ith one &ilogram of C-* it 'oulddecay into 4.888899 &g of "-*.

s formula E = mc

.

adioacti0ity


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Systems mo0e from higher energy to lo'er energyo0er time.

$ all rolls do'nhill to the lo'est 1oint or a hot cu1 of

coee cools do'n.$ radioacti0e nucleus decays ecause the neutrons

and 1rotons ha0e lo'er o0erall energy in the 2nalnucleus than they had in the original nucleus.

adioacti0ity


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adioacti0e decay de1ends on chance.

It is 1ossile to 1redict the a0erage eha0iorof lots of atoms, ut im1ossile to 1redict

'hen any one atom 'ill decay.ne 0ery useful 1rediction 'e can ma&e is the

half-life.


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#alf-lifeMost radioacti0e

materials decay in aseries of reactions.

adon gas comes fromthe decay of uraniumin the soil.

!ranium 6!-;97decays to radon-6a-7.

$11lications of


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$11lications of

radioacti0ityMany satellites use radioacti0e decay fromisoto1es 'ith long half-li0es for 1o'er ecauseenergy can e 1roduced for a long time

'ithout refueling.Isoto1es 'ith a short half-life gi0e o lots of

energy in a short time and are useful inmedical imaging, ut can e e3tremely

dangerous.


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Caron dating

Fi0ing things contain a large amount of caron.

When a li0ing organism dies it sto1s e3changingcaron 'ith the en0ironment.

$s the 23ed amount of caron-* decays, the ratioof C-* to C-* slo'ly gets smaller 'ith age.


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Calculating 'ith isoto1es$ sam1le of *,444

grams of the isoto1e C-* is created.


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adiation


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adiation


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IntensityI ; P A

Po2er $2att%

Area $,#

%

Intensity $8 >


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#armful radiationadiation ecomes

harmful 'hen it hasenough energy to

remo0e electrons fromatoms.


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#armful radiationIoniGing radiation asored y 1eo1le is

measured in a unit called the rem.


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Sources of radiationIoniGing radiation is a natural 1art of ouren0ironment.


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/ac&ground radiation

/ac&ground radiationle0els can 0ary 'idely

from 1lace to 1lace.

Cosmic rays are highenergy 1articles thatcome from outside oursolar system.

adioacti0e material

from nuclear 'ea1ons iscalled fallout.

adioacti0e radon gas is1resent in asementsand the atmos1here.


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T-ray machines


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C$< scan


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C$< scanPeo1le 'ho 'or& 'ith

radiation use radiationdetectors to tell 'hen

radiation is 1resent and tomeasure its intensity.


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$ntimatter, neutrinos and

others 1articles


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$ntimatter, neutrinos and

others 1articlesE0ery 1article of matter has an antimatter

t'in.

$ntimatter is the same as regular mattere3ce1t 1ro1erties li&e electric charge arere0ersed.

$n anti1roton is Zust li&e a normal 1rotone3ce1t it has a negati0e charge.

$n antielectron 6also called a positron7 is li&ean ordinary electron e3ce1t that it has

1ositi0e charge.


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"eutrinosWhen eta decay 'as 2rst disco0ered,1hysicists 'ere greatly distured to 2nd thatthe energy of the resulting 1roton and

electron 'as less than the energy of thedisintegrating neutron.


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"eutrinosDes1ite the diHculty of

detection, se0eral

carefully constructedneutrino e31erimentsha0e detectedneutrinos coming from

nuclear reactions in thesun.

$11lication "uclear


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11Po'er

General Chemistry Part II 5 6

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Transcript of General Chemistry Part II 5 6