General About Carolings

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Contents Articles History Line 1 Carolingian Empire 1 Carolingian dynasty 6 Treaty of Verdun 12 Oaths of Strasbourg 14 Languages Of Time 18 Langues d'oïl 18 Occitan language 24 Old Occitan 45 Occitan literature 49 Medieval Latin 62 Vernacular 71 Vernacular literature 81 Life Of Empire 82 Government of the Carolingian Empire 82 Carolingian Renaissance 85 Carolingian minuscule 89 Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868 92 Sequence of Saint Eulalia 94 Carolingian architecture 99 Palace of Aachen 100 Palatine Chapel, Aachen 111 Lorsch Abbey 113 St. Michael's Church, Fulda 117 Corvey Abbey 118 Michelstadt 121 Saint Justinus' church, Frankfurt-Höchst 129 Benedictine Convent of Saint John 132 Reichenau Island 135 Carolingian art 139 References

Transcript of General About Carolings

Page 1: General About Carolings

ContentsArticlesHistory Line 1

Carolingian Empire 1Carolingian dynasty 6Treaty of Verdun 12Oaths of Strasbourg 14

Languages Of Time 18

Langues d'oïl 18Occitan language 24Old Occitan 45Occitan literature 49Medieval Latin 62Vernacular 71Vernacular literature 81

Life Of Empire 82

Government of the Carolingian Empire 82Carolingian Renaissance 85Carolingian minuscule 89Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868 92Sequence of Saint Eulalia 94Carolingian architecture 99Palace of Aachen 100Palatine Chapel, Aachen 111Lorsch Abbey 113St. Michael's Church, Fulda 117Corvey Abbey 118Michelstadt 121Saint Justinus' church, Frankfurt-Höchst 129Benedictine Convent of Saint John 132Reichenau Island 135Carolingian art 139

References

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Article Sources and Contributors 146Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 148

Article LicensesLicense 151

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History Line

Carolingian Empire

The Carolingian Empire at its greatest extent, with the three main divisions of 843.

Carolingian Empire (800–888) is ahistoriographical term which has been usedto refer to the realm of the Franks under theCarolingian dynasty in the Early MiddleAges. This dynasty is seen as the foundersof France and Germany, and its beginningdate is based on the crowning ofCharlemagne, or Charles the Great, and endswith the death of Charles the Fat. Dependingon one's perspective, this Empire can beseen as the later history of the FrankishRealm or the early history of France and ofthe Holy Roman Empire.

The term refers to the coronation ofCharlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800.[1]

Because Charles and his ancestors had beenrulers of the Frankish realm earlier (hisgrandfather Charles Martel had essentiallyfounded the empire during his lifetime), thecoronation did not actually constitute a new empire. Most historians prefer to use the term "Frankish Kingdoms" or"Frankish Realm" to refer to the area covering parts of today's Germany and France from the 5th to the 9th century.

Buildup and defense of the Frankish Realm

Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, where hestopped an Umayyad invasion force.

Though Charles Martel chose not to take the title King, as his sonPepin III the Short would, or Emperor, as his grandson Charlemagnewould be titled, he was absolute ruler of virtually all of today'scontinental Western Europe north of the Pyrenees. Only the remainingSaxon realms, which he partly conquered, Lombardy, and the MarcaHispanica north of the Pyrenees were significant additions to theFrankish realms after his death.

Martel was also the founder of all the feudal systems that marked theCarolingian Empire, and Europe in general during the Middle Ages,though his son and grandson would gain credit for his innovations.What is more, Martel cemented his place in history with his defense ofChristian Europe against a Muslim army at the Battle of Tours in 732.The Iberian Saracens had incorporated Berber lighthorse cavalry with the heavy Arab cavalry to create a formidable

army that had almost never been defeated. Christian European forces, meanwhile, lacked the powerful tool of the stirrup. In this victory, Charles earned the surname Martel ("the Hammer"). Edward Gibbon, the historian of Rome

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and its aftermath, called Charles Martel "the paramount prince of his age."Pepin III accepted the nomination as king by Pope Zachary in about 751. Charlemagne's rule began in 768 at Pepin'sdeath. He proceeded to take control over the kingdom of his brother, which was also inherited from Pepin, and wascrowned Roman Emperor in the year 800.[2]

The Empire during the reign of Charlemagne (768–814)

A coin of Charlemagne with the inscriptionKAROLVS IMP AVG (Karolus imperator

augustus)

The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne covered most ofWestern Europe like the Roman Empire had before. Unlike theRomans, who ventured beyond the Rhine only for vengeance after thedisaster at Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), Charlemagne decisively crushedall Germanic resistance and extended his realm to the Elbe, influencingevents almost to the Russian Steppes.

The Empire of the Carolingians had been divided among variousmembers of the Carolingian dynasty. From the inception of theEmpire, these included: King Charles receiving Neustria, King Louisthe Pious receiving Aquitaine, and King Pepin receiving Italy. Pepindied with an illegitimate son Bernard in 810, and Charles died withoutheirs in 811. Although Bernard succeeded Pepin as King of Italy, Louiswas made co-Emperor in 813 and the entire Empire passed to him withCharlemagne's death in the winter of 814.[3]

The Empire until the Treaty of Verdun (814–840)

Louis the Pious on a sesquisolidus

Louis the Pious often had to struggle to maintain control of the Empire.King Bernard of Italy died in 818 in imprisonment after rebelling ayear earlier, and Italy was brought back into Imperial control. Louis'show of penance for Bernard's death in 822 greatly reduced his prestigeas Emperor to the nobility. Meanwhile in 817, Louis had establishedthree new Carolingian Kingships for his sons of his first marriage:Lothar was made King of Italy and co-Emperor, Pepin was made Kingof Aquitaine, and Louis the German made King of Bavaria. Hisattempts in 823 to bring his fourth son (from his second marriage),Charles the Bald into the will was marked by the resistance of hiseldest sons, and the last years of his reign were plagued by civil war.

Lothar was stripped of his co-Emperorship in 829 and was banished toItaly, but the following year his sons attacked Louis' empire and

dethroned him in favour of Lothar. The following year Louis attacked his sons' Kingdoms, stripped Lothar of hisImperial title and granted the Kingdom of Italy to Charles. Pepin and Louis the German revolted in 832, followed byLothar in 833, and together they imprisoned Louis the Pious and Charles. In 835, peace was made between thefamily and Louis was restored to the Imperial throne. When Pepin died in 838, Louis crowned Charles king ofAquitaine whilst the nobility elected Pepin's son Pepin II, a conflict which was not resolved until 860 with Pepin'sdeath. When Louis the Pious finally died in 840, Lothar claimed the entire empire irrespective of the partitions.

The dispute sparked another war, this time with Charles and Louis the German allied against Lothar. After losing the Battle of Fontenay to his younger brothers, Lothar fled to his capital at Aachen and raised a new army. The new

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forces were inferior to that of the younger brothers. In 842, the Oaths of Strasbourg Charles and Louis agreed todeclare Lothar unfit for the imperial throne. The Oaths of Strasbourg, marked, before the Verdun Treaty theEast-West division of the Empire between Louis and Charles. Considered a milestone in European history, the Oathsof Strasbourg symbolize the birth of both France and Germany.[4] The empire was finally partitioned in 843 by theTreaty of Verdun.[5]

The Empire after the Treaty of Verdun (843–877)

Carolingian Empire after the Treaty of Verdunpartition of 843.

Lothar received the Imperial title, the Kingship of Italy, and theterritory between the Rhine and Rhone Rivers, collectively called theCentral Frankish Realm. Louis was guaranteed the Kingship of alllands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, whichwas called the Eastern Frankish Realm which was the precursor tomodern Germany. Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, whichwas called the Western Frankish Realm.

Lothar retired Italy to his eldest son Louis II in 844, making himco-Emperor in 850. Lothar died in 855, dividing his kingdom into threeparts: the territory already held by Louis remained his, the territory ofthe former Kingdom of Burgundy was granted to his third son Charlesof Burgundy, and the remaining territory for which there was notraditional name was granted to his second son Lothar II, whose realm was named Lotharingia, or Lorraine.

Carolingian Empire after the Treaty of Meerssen

Louis II, dissatisfied with having received no additional territory uponhis father's death, allied with his uncle Louis the German against hisbrother Lothar and his uncle Charles the Bald in 858. Lothar wasreconciled with his brother and uncle shortly after. Charles was sounpopular that he could not raise an army to fight the invasion andinstead fled to Burgundy. He was only saved when the bishops refusedto crown Louis the German King. In 860, Charles the Bald invadedCharles of Burgundy's Kingdom but was repulsed. Lothar II cededlands to Louis II in 862 for support of a divorce from his wife, whichcaused repeated conflicts with the Pope and his uncles. Charles ofBurgundy died in 863, and his Kingdom was inherited by Louis II.

Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his Kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Louis theGerman in 870 by the Treaty of Meerssen. Meanwhile, Louis the German was involved with disputes with his threesons. Louis II died in 875, and named Carloman, the eldest son of Louis the German, his heir. Charles the Bald,supported by the Pope, was crowned both King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. The following year, Louis theGerman died. Charles tried to annex his realm too, but was defeated decisively at Andernach, and the Kingdom ofthe eastern Franks was divided between Louis the Younger, Carloman of Bavaria and Charles the Fat.

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The Empire in decline (877–888)

Charles the Bald, denier, Bourges, after 848

The Empire, after the death of Charles the Bald, was under attack inthe north and west by the Vikings, and was facing internal strugglesfrom Italy to the Baltic, from Hungary in the east to Aquitaine in thewest. Charles the Bald died in 877 crossing the Pass of Mont Cenis,and was succeeded by his son, Louis the Stammerer as King of theWestern Franks, but the title of Holy Roman Emperor lapsed. Louis theStammerer was physically weak and died two years later, his realmbeing divided between his eldest two sons: Louis III gaining Neustriaand Francia, and Carloman gaining Aquitaine and Burgundy. TheKingdom of Italy was finally granted to King Carloman of Bavaria, buta stroke forced him to abdicate Italy to his brother Charles the Fat andBavaria to Louis of Saxony. Also in 879, Boso, Count of Arlesfounded the Kingdom of Lower Burgundy in Provence.

In 881, Charles the Fat was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor while Louis II of Saxony and Louis III of Franciadied the following year. Saxony and Bavaria were united with Charles the Fat's Kingdom, and Francia and Neustriawere granted to Carloman of Aquitaine who also conquered Lower Burgundy. Carloman died in a hunting accidentin 884 after a tumultuous and ineffective reign, and his lands were inherited by Charles the Fat, effectively recreatingthe Empire of Charlemagne.

Charles, suffering what is believed to be epilepsy, could not secure the kingdom against Viking raiders, and afterbuying their withdrawal from Paris in 886 was perceived by the court as being cowardly and incompetent. Thefollowing year his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia, the illegitimate son of King Carloman of Bavaria, raised the standardof rebellion. Instead of fighting the insurrection, Charles fled to Neidingen and died the following year in 888,leaving a divided entity and a succession mess.

Divisions of the Empire in 887The Empire of the Carolingians was divided: Arnulf maintained Carinthia, Bavaria, Lorraine and modern Germany;Count Odo of Paris was elected King of Western Francia (France), Ranulf II became King of Aquitaine, Italy went toCount Berengar of Friuli, Upper Burgundy to Rudolph I, and Lower Burgundy to Louis the Blind, the son of Boso ofArles, King of Lower Burgundy.[6]

MilitaryIt has long been held that the dominance of the Carolingian military was based on a "cavalry revolution" led byCharles Martel in 730s. However, the stirrup, which made the 'shock cavalry' lance charge possible, was notintroduced to the Frankish kingdom until the late eighth century.[7] Instead, the Carolingian military success restedprimarily on novel siege technologies and excellent logistics.[8] However, large numbers of horses were used by theFrankish military during the age of Charlemagne. This was because horses provided a quick, long-distance methodof transporting troops, which was critical to building and maintaining such a large empire.[7]

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References[1] "Carolingian Empire" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1O48-Carolingianempire. html). A Dictionary of World History. . Retrieved

2008-04-07.[2] Rosamond McKitterick, Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity, Cambridge University Press, 2008 ISBN 978-0-521-88672-7[3] Joanna Story, Charlemagne: Empire and Society, Manchester University Press, 2005 ISBN 978-0-7190-7089-1[4] http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,,3840415,00. html[5] Eric Joseph Goldberg, Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817-876, Cornell University Press, 2006 ISBN

978-0-8014-3890-5[6] Simon MacLean, Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire, Cambridge

University Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0-521-81945-9[7] Hooper, Nicholas / Bennett, Matthew. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: the Middle Ages (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=Sf8UIynR0koC& pg=PA12) Cambridge University Press, 1996, pg. 12–13 ISBN 0-521-44049-1, ISBN 978-0-521-44049-3[8] Bowlus, Charles R. The Battle of Lechfeld and its Aftermath, August 955: The End of the Age of Migrations in the Latin West (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=0XBtVwukIogC& pg=PA49) Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006, pg. 49 ISBN 0-7546-5470-2, ISBN 978-0-7546-5470-4

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Carolingian dynasty

A Carolingian family tree, from the Chronicon Universale ofEkkehard of Aura, 12th century

Carolingian dynasty

Pippinids

• Pippin the Elder (c. 580–640)• Grimoald (616–656)• Childebert the Adopted (d. 662)

Arnulfings

• Arnulf of Metz (582–640)• Chlodulf of Metz (d. 696 or 697)• Ansegisel (c. 602–before 679)• Pippin the Middle (c. 635–714)• Grimoald II (d. 714)• Drogo of Champagne (670–708)• Theudoald (d. 741)

Carolingians

• Charles Martel (686–741)• Carloman (d. 754)• Pepin the Short (714–768)• Carloman I (751–771)• Charlemagne (d. 814)• Louis the Pious (778–840)

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After the Treaty of Verdun (843)

• Lothair I, Holy Roman Emperor(795–855)(Middle Francia)

• Charles the Bald (823–877)(Western Francia)

• Louis the German (804–876)(Eastern Francia)

The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noblefamily with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. The name "Carolingian", MedievalLatin karolingi, an altered form of an unattested Old High German *karling, kerling (meaning "descendant ofCharles", cf. MHG kerlinc),[1] derives from the Latinised name of Charles Martel: Carolus.[2] The familyconsolidated its power in the late 7th century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux etprinceps Francorum hereditary and becoming the de facto rulers of the Franks as the real powers behind the throne.By 751, the Merovingian dynasty which until then had ruled the Franks by right was deprived of this right with theconsent of the Papacy and the aristocracy and a Carolingian, Pepin the Short, was crowned King of the Franks.

HistoryTraditional historiography has seen the Carolingian assumption of kingship as the product of a long rise to power,punctuated even by a premature attempt to seize the throne through Childebert the Adopted. This picture, however,is not commonly accepted today. Rather, the coronation of 751 is seen typically as a product of the aspirations of oneman, Pepin, and of the Church, which was always looking for powerful secular protectors and for the extension of itsspiritual and temporal influence.The greatest Carolingian monarch was Charlemagne, who was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800.His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Roman Empire, is referred to historiographically as the CarolingianEmpire. The traditional Frankish (and Merovingian) practice of dividing inheritances among heirs was not given upby the Carolingian emperors, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. TheCarolingians had the practice of making their sons (sub-)kings in the various regions (regna) of the Empire, whichthey would inherit on the death of their father. Following the death of Louis the Pious, the surviving adultCarolingians fought a three-year civil war ending only in the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the empire into threeregna while according imperial status and a nominal lordship to Lothair I. The Carolingians differed markedly fromthe Merovingians in that they disallowed inheritance to illegitimate offspring, possibly in an effort to preventinfighting among heirs and assure a limit to the division of the realm. In the late ninth century, however, the lack ofsuitable adults among the Carolingians necessitated the rise of Arnulf of Carinthia, a bastard child of a legitimateCarolingian king.The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire in 888. They ruled on in East Francia until 911and they held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. Though they asserted their prerogative to rule, theirhereditary, God-given right, and their usual alliance with the Church, they were unable to stem the principle ofelectoral monarchy and their propagandism failed them in the long run. Carolingian cadet branches continued to rulein Vermandois and Lower Lorraine after the last king died in 987, but they never sought thrones of principalities andmade peace with the new ruling families. It is with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with hisfather, Hugh Capet, the first of the Capetian dynasty, that one chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule.[3]

The dynasty became extinct in the male line with the death of Odo, Count of Vermandois. His sister Adelaide, thelast Carolingian, died in 1122.

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List of CarolingiansThis is an incomplete listing of those of the male-line descent from Charles Martel:Charles Martel (676–741) had five sons;

1. Carloman, Mayor of the Palace (711–754) had two sons;A. Drogo, Mayor of the Palace (b. 735)

2. Pepin the Short (714–768) had two sons;A. Charlemagne (747–814) had eight sons;

I. Pepin the Hunchback (769–811) died without issueII. Charles the Younger (772–811) died without issueIII. Pepin of Italy (773–810) had one son (illegitimate);

a. Bernard of Italy (797–818) had one son;i. Pepin, Count of Vermandois (b. 815) had three sons;

1. Bernard, Count of Laon (844–893) had one son;A. Roger I of Laon (d. 927) had one son;

I. Roger II of Laon (d. 942) died without male issue2. Pepin, Count of Senlis and Valois (846–893) had one son;

A. Pepin II, Count of Senlis, (876–922) had one son;I. Bernard of Senlis (919–947) had one son;

a. Robert I of Senlis (d. 1004) had one son;i. Robert II of Senlis and Peroone (d. 1028) diedwithout male issue

3. Herbert I, Count of Vermandois (848–907) had two sons;A. Herbert II, Count of Vermandois (884–943) had five sons;

I. Odo of Vermandois (910–946) died without issueII. Herbert, Count of Meaux and of Troyes (b. 911–993)III. Robert of Vermandois (d. 968) had one son;

a. Herbert III, Count of Meaux (950–995) had one son;i. Stephen I, Count of Troyes (d. 1020) died withoutissue

IV. Adalbert I, Count of Vermandois (916–988) had four sons;a. Herbert III, Count of Vermandois (953–1015) had threesons;

i. Adalbert II of Vermandois (c.980–1015)ii. Landulf, Bishop of Noyoniii. Otto, Count of Vermandois (979–1045) had threesons;

1. Herbert IV, Count of Vermandois(1028–1080) had one son;

A. Odo the Insane, Count of Vermandois(d. after 1085)

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B. Adelaide, Countess of Vermandois (d.1122)

2.Eudes I, Count of Ham, (b. 1034)3.Peter, Count of Vermandois

b. Odo of Vermandois (c. 956-983)c. Liudolfe of Noyon (c. 957-986)d. Guy of Vermandois, Count of Soissons

V. Hugh of Vermandois, Archbishop of Rheims (920-962) diedwithout issue

IV. Louis the Pious (778–840) had 4 sons;a. Lothair I (795–855) had 4 sons;

i. Louis II of Italy (825–875) died without male issueii. Lothair II of Lotharingia (835–869) had 1 son (illegitimate);

1. Hugh, Duke of Alsace (855–895) died without issueiii. Charles of Provence (845–863) died without issueiv. Carloman (b. 853) died in infancy

b. Pepin I of Aquitaine (797–838) had 2 sons;i. Pepin II of Aquitaine (823–864) died without issueii. Charles, Archbishop of Mainz (828–863) died without issue

c. Louis the German (806–876) had 3 sons;i. Carloman of Bavaria (830–880) had 1 son (illegitimate);

1. Arnulf of Carinthia (850–899) had 3 sons;A. Louis the Child (893–911) died without issueB. Zwentibold (870–900) died without issueC. Ratold of Italy (889–929) died without issue

ii. Louis the Younger (835–882) had 1 son;1. Louis (877 - 879) died in infancy

iii. Charles the Fat (839–888) had 1 son (illegitimate);1. Bernard (son of Charles the Fat) (d. 892 young)

d. Charles the Bald (823–877) had 4 sons;i. Louis the Stammerer (846–879) had 3 sons;

1. Louis III of France (863–882) died without issue2. Carloman II of France (866–884) died without issue3. Charles the Simple (879–929) had one son;

A. Louis IV of France (920–954) had five sons;I. Lothair of France (941–986) had two sons;

a. Louis V of France (967–987) died without issueb. Arnulf, Archbishop of Reims (d. 1021) died without issue

II. Carloman (b. 945) died in infancyIII. Louis (b. 948) died in infancy

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IV. Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine (953–993) had 3 sons;a. Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine (970–1012) died withoutissueb. Louis of Lower Lorraine (980–1015) died without issue,the last legitimate Carolingianc. Charles (b. 989) died young

V. Henry (b. 953) died in infancyii. Charles the Child (847–866) died without issueiii. Lothar (848–865) died without issueiv. Carloman, son of Charles the Bald (849–874) died without issue

V. Lothair (778–780) died in infancyVI. Drogo of Metz (801–855) died without issueVII. Hugh, son of Charlemagne (802–844) died without male issueVIII. Dietrich (Theodricum) (807-818) died without male issue

B. Carloman I (751–771) had two sonsI. Pepin. (d after 771) died without issueII. Son, name not known. (d after 771) died without issue

3. Grifo (726–753) died without issue4. Bernard, son of Charles Martel (730–787) had two sons;

A. Adalard of Corbie (751–827) died without issueB. Wala of Corbie (755–836) died without issue

5. Remigius of Rouen (d. 771) died without issue

Sources• Hollister, Clive, and Bennett, Judith. Medieval Europe: A Short History.• Reuter, Timothy. Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056. New York: Longman, 1991.• MacLean, Simon. Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the end of the

Carolingian Empire. Cambridge University Press: 2003.• Lewis, Andrew W. (1981). Royal Succession in Capetian France: Studies on Familial Order and the State.

Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-77985-1.

• Leyser, Karl. Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries.London: 1994.

• Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages, 476-918. 6th ed. London: Rivingtons, 1914.• Painter, Sidney. A History of the Middle Ages, 284-1500. New York: Knopf, 1953.• "Astronomus", Vita Hludovici imperatoris [4], ed. G. Pertz, ch. 2, in Mon. Gen. Hist. Scriptores, II, 608.• Reuter, Timothy (trans.) The Annals of Fulda [5]. (Manchester Medieval series, Ninth-Century Histories, Volume

II.) Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992.• Einhard. Vita Karoli Magni [6]. Translated by Samuel Epes Turner. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1880.

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Notes[1] Babcock, Philip (ed). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA:

Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1993: 341.[2][2] Hollister and Bennett, 97.[3][3] Lewis, 17.[4] http:/ / www. intratext. com/ X/ LAT0459. HTM[5] http:/ / www. medievalsources. co. uk/ fulda. htm[6] http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ basis/ einhard. html

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Treaty of Verdun

Treaty of Verdun

The Carolingian Empire at its greatest extent, with the three main divisions of 843.Participants Lothair I, Louis the German, Charles the Bald

Location Verdun-sur-Meuse

Date August 843

Result Divided territories of the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms; Influenced inheritances and conflicts in Western Europe as lateas the 20th century.

Civilizations of Greater Europe before theCarolingian's Frankish Civil War (840-843):

Western Europe and outlier civilizations at thetime of the death of Charles the Great (or

Charlemagne-814) and Emperor Louis the Pious(d. 840).

The Treaty of Verdun (Verdun-sur-Meuse, August 843) was a treatybetween the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious, the son andsuccessor of Charlemagne, which divided the Carolingian Empire intothree kingdoms. It ended the three-year-long Carolingian Civil War.

Background

When Louis the Pious died in 840, his eldest son, Lothair I, claimedoverlordship over his brothers' kingdoms and supported the claim ofhis nephew Pepin II as king of Aquitaine, a large province in westernFrance. After his brother Louis the German and his half-brotherCharles the Bald defeated his forces at the Battle of Fontenay (841)and sealed their alliance with the Oaths of Strasbourg (842), Lothairbecame willing to negotiate instead of continuing the warfare.

ProvisionsEach of the three brothers was already established in one kingdom: Lothair in Italy, Louis the German in Bavaria,and Charles the Bald in Aquitaine. In the settlement, Lothair (who had been named co-emperor in 817) retained histitle as emperor and:• Lothair received the central portion of the empire which later became, from north to south: the Low Countries,

Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, Provence, and the Kingdom of Italy (which covered only the northern half of theItalian Peninsula), collectively called Middle Francia. He also received the two imperial cities, Aachen and Rome.In addition, he received the imperial title, but it conferred only nominal overlordship of his brothers' lands.[1]

• Louis the German received the eastern portion. Louis was guaranteed the kingship of all lands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which was called East Francia which was the precursor to the Medieval

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conglomeration of disparate states known as the Holy Roman Empire and thence to modern Germany.• Charles the Bald received the western portion, which later became France. Pepin II was granted the kingdom of

Aquitaine, but only under the authority of Charles. Charles received all lands west of the Rhône, which was calledWest Francia.

After the death of Lothair in 855, Upper and Lower Burgundy (Arles and Provence) passed to his third son Charlesof Provence, and the remaining territory north of the Alps to his second son Lothair II, after whom the hithertonameless territory was called Lotharingia, which name eventually evolved into the modern Lorraine. Lothair's eldestson, Louis II inherited Italy and his father's claim to the Imperial title.

LegacyThe division reflected an adherence to the old Frankish custom of partible or divisible inheritance amongst a ruler'ssons, rather than primogeniture, i.e., inheritance by the eldest son, which would soon be adopted by both Frankishkingdoms.The division of the Frankish realm by the Treaty of Verdun, carried out without any regard to linguistic and culturalcontinuities, induced conflicts in Western Europe until the 20th century. Since the Middle Frankish Kingdomcombined lengthy and vulnerable land borders with poor internal communications as it was severed by the Alps, itwas not a viable entity and soon fragmented. This made it difficult for a single ruler to reassemble Charlemagne'sempire. Only Charles the Fat achieved this briefly. In 855, the northern section became fragile Lotharingia, whichbecame disputed by the more powerful states that evolved out of West Francia and East Francia (i.e., France andvarious Germanic states that united as Germany in the 19th century). The collapse of the Middle Frankish Kingdomalso compounded the disunity of the Italian Peninsula, which persisted into the 19th century.Generations of kings of France and Germany were unable to establish a firm rule over Lothair’s kingdom.Throughout the Middle Ages, and for some even until today, the lands of Lothair (i.e., Old Lorraine) were made upof self-governing republics of farmers, independent counties controlled by burghers, or city republics. It has beenclaimed that capitalism originates from here, and that this region became very prosperous because of the high degreeof self-governance with little interference from greedy princes.[2] Lorraine ended up a French, rather than German,territory in 1945, more than a thousand years after the Treaty of Verdun.

Notes[1] Friedrich Heer, The Holy Roman Empire, pg. 20[2] The Brussels Journal (http:/ / www. brusselsjournal. com/ node/ 3216); Paul Belien; 30 April 2008; What’s Going Right in Europe – How

Localism Might Save the Continent.

External links• Story Maps (http:/ / www. lahistoriaconmapas. co. nr/ 2009/ 03/ el-tratado-de-verdun-el-reparto-del. html)

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Oaths of Strasbourg

Oaths of Strasbourg(multiple texts)

Also knownas

Sacramenta Argentariae (Latin), les serments de Strasbourg (Modern French), die Straßburger Eide (ModernGerman)

Language medieval Latin, Old French, Old High German

Manuscript(s) include BNF, Cod. Lat. 9768 (Nithard's De dissensionibus filiorum Ludovici pii)

Subject pledges of allegiance and cooperation between Louis the German and Charles the Bald, rulers of East and WestFrancia respectively

Text of the Oaths

The Oaths of Strasbourg are several historical documents whichinclude mutual pledges of allegiance between Louis the German (d.876), ruler of East Francia, and his (half-)brother Charles the Bald (d.877), ruler of West Francia. They are written in three differentlanguages: Medieval Latin, Langue d′oïl (Old French) and Old HighGerman. The Old French passages are generally considered to be theearliest texts in a language that is distinctly French.

Historical context

The several pledges were spoken at a strategic meeting in 842 atStrasbourg, with the brothers' assembled armies in attendance andparticipating in the ceremonies. In addition to their promised allegianceto the other, Louis and Charles pledged their solidarity to oppose theireldest brother Lothair, ruler of Middle Francia and, nominally, emperorof all the Carolingian Empire Frankish kingdoms as well as HolyRoman Emperor.

The historical nature of the meeting is made more remarkable by theadditional, separate pledges that were scripted for the monarchs' armies– in their respective vernaculars – to the effect that, for each "soldier":should their own lord-king unilaterally break the oath just pledged (tothe other king), then, each "soldier of the oath" promises not to help hismaster against the abused other monarch.

Sources and contentsA chief source for the meeting is Nithard's De dissensionibus filiorum Ludovici pii (On the Dissensions of the Sons ofLouis the Pious), which is preserved in a single manuscript from the 10th or 11th century (Cod. Lat. 9768 in theBibliothèque nationale in Paris). The text of the oaths is on folios 12b2-13b1.According to Nithard's version, both kings first made the same preamble speech, which was a detailed complaintagainst Lothair. Each king then swore his individual oath in front of their assembled armies, not in Latin nor in hisown language, but in the vernacular of the other's kingdom. Finally, the armies swore separate pledges in theirrespective languages.

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One version of the pledges was written in the Rhenish Franconian dialect of Old High German. The second versionis in a form of Proto-French. The preamble was also written in Latin, as were sections to report the ceremonies.

Historical and linguistic significanceThe text is significant to both linguists and historians. Linguistically, the text is the oldest document written in aRomance language, and specifically in a form of French. The documents also shed light on a significant period in thehistory of the Carolingian-Frankish empire. Historians have long used the coexistence of these bilingual documentsto illustrate their theory that, by 842, the empire had begun splitting into separate proto-countries and developingwith different languages and customs.However, others of late have come to favour a different hypothesis: that the Frankish Kingdom comprised severalregna (loosely translated as kingdoms) that since ancient times had maintained different customs and dialects.Supporting this theory they note that both Charlemagne and Louis the Pious sent their sons to be raised in therespective regna which they were designated to inherit, in order to better enlist the support of the local populus bybecoming familiar with them and their customs.

TextThe transcriptions are edited, with abbreviations written out and some punctuation and word boundaries inserted.[1]

The image to the right is a scan of the original text. In the transcription below, two asterisks mark the beginning andend of the text visible in this scan.

Original text English translation

[Latin:] Ergo xvi kal. marcii Lodhuvicus et Karolus in civitate que olimArgentaria vocabatur, nunc autem Strazburg vulgo dicitur, conveneruntet sacramenta que subter notata sunt, Lodhuvicus romana, Karolus veroteudisca lingua, juraverunt. Ac sic, ante sacramentum circumfusamplebem, alter teudisca, alter romana lingua, alloquuti sunt. Lodhuvicusautem, quia major natu, prior exorsus sic coepit:

“Quotiens Lodharius me et hunc fratrum meum, post obitum patrisnostri, insectando usque ad internecionem delere conatus sit nostis. Cumautem nec fraternitas nec christianitas nec quodlibet ingenium, salvajusticia, ut pax inter nos esset, adjuvare posset, tandem coacti rem adjuditium omnipotentis Dei detulimus, ut suo nutu quid cuique debereturcontenti essemus.

“In quo nos, sicut nostis, per misericordiam Dei victores extitimus, isautem victus una cum suis quo valuit secessit. Hinc vero, fraterno amorecorrepti nec non et super populum christianum conpassi, persequi atquedelere illos noluimus, sed hactenus, sicut et antea, ut saltem deindecuique sua justicia cederetur mandavimus.

So, Louis and Charles met on the 16th day before the calends of March(14 February) in the town that used to be called Argentaria but which isnow commonly known as Strasbourg, and they swore the oaths givenbelow, Louis in Romance and Charles in German. But before swearingthe oaths, they made speeches in German and Romance. Louis, being theelder, began as follows:

“Let it be known how many times Lothair has — since our father died —attempted to destroy me and this brother of mine, committing massacresin his pursuit of us. But since neither brotherhood nor Christianity norany natural inclination, save justice, has been able to bring peacebetween us, we have been forced to take the matter to the judgement ofalmighty God, so that we may accept whatever His will is.

“The result was, as you all know, that by the Grace of God we came outas victors, and that he, defeated, went back to his people where he wasstronger. But then, motivated by brotherly love and compassion forChristendom, we decided not to pursue and destroy them; instead, untilnow, we have asked him at least to submit to justice as in the past.

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“At ille post haec non contentus judicio divino, sed hostili manu iterumet me et hunc fratrem meum persequi non cessat, insuper et populumnostrum incendiis, rapinis cedibusque devastat. Quamobrem nunc,necessitate coacti, convenimus et, quoniam vos de nostra stabili fide acfirma fraternitate dubitare credimus, hoc sacramentum inter nos inconspectu vestro jurare decrevimus.

“Non qualibet iniqua cupiditate illecti hoc agimus, sed ut certiores, siDeus nobis vestro adjutorio quietem dederit, de communi profectusimus. Si autem, quod absit, sacramentum quod fratri meo juraveroviolare praesumpsero, a subditione mea necnon et a juramento quod mihijurastis *unumquemque vestrum absolvo”Cumque Karolus haec eadem verba romana lingua perorasset,Lodhuvicus, quoniam major natu erat, prior haec deinde se servaturumtestatus est:

“But he, despite this, not content with God's judgement, does not cease tocome after me and this brother of mine with his armies. Moreover, he isdevastating our people by burning, pillaging and murdering. That is whywe now, driven by necessity, are having this meeting, and, since webelieve that you doubt our firm faith and brotherhood, we shall swearthis oath between us before all of you.

“This act is not in bad faith, but simply so that, if God gives us peacethanks to your help, we may be certain that a common benefit will comeof it. Should I — God forbid — break the oath which I am about toswear to my brother, I release you from my sovereignty over you andfrom the oath that you have all sworn to me.”Once Charles had finished off the speech with the same words inRomance, Louis, since he was the elder, then swore allegiance first:

[Old French:] “Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro communsaluament, d'ist di in auant, in quant Deus sauir et podir me dunat, sisaluarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in adiudha et in cadhuna cosa sicum om per dreit son fradra saluar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet. Et abLudher nul plaid nunquam prindrai qui meon uol cist meon fradre Karlein damno sit.”

“For the love of God and for Christendom and our common salvation,from this day onwards, as God will give me the wisdom and power, Ishall protect this brother of mine Charles, with aid or anything else, asone ought to protect one's brother, so that he may do the same for me,and I shall never knowingly make any covenant with Lothair that wouldharm this brother of mine Charles.”

[Latin:] Quod cum Lodhuvicus explesset, Karolus teudisca lingua sichec eadem verba testatus est:

When Louis had finished, Charles swore with the very same words in theGerman vernacular:

[Old High German:]“In godes minna ind in thes christiānes folches indunsēr bēdhero gehaltnissī, fon thesemo dage frammordes, sō fram sō mirgot gewizci indi mahd furgibit, sō haldih thesan mīnan bruodher, sōsoman mit rehtu sīnan bruodher scal, in thiu thaz er mig sō sama duo, indimit Ludheren in nohheiniu thing ne gegango, the mīnan willon imo cescadhen werdhēn.”

“For the love of God and Christendom and the salvation of us both, fromthis day on, as God will give me the wisdom and power, I shall protectthis brother of mine, as one ought to protect one's brother, so that he maydo the same for me, and I shall never go along with Lothair in anythingthat, by my will, would harm him [Louis].”

[Latin:] Sacramentum autem quod utrorumque populus, quique proprialingua, testatus est, romana lingua sic se habet:

The oath that each of the two peoples (i.e. the assembled armies) thenswore in their respective languages is, in Romance, as follows:

[Old French:] “Si Lodhuuigs sagrament quæ son fradre Karlo iurat,conseruat, et Carlus meos sendra, de suo part, non lostanit, si io returnarnon l'int pois, ne io, ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla aiudhacontra Lodhuuuig nun li iu er.”

“If Louis keeps the oath that he has sworn to his brother Charles, andCharles, my lord, on the other hand breaks it, and if I cannot dissuadehim from it — neither I nor anyone that I can dissuade from it — then Ishall not help him in any way against Louis.”

[Latin:] Teudisca autem lingua:* And in the German vernacular:

[Old High German:] "Oba Karl then eid, then er sīnemo bruodherLudhuwīge gesuor, geleistit, indi Ludhuwīg mīn hērro then er imogesuor forbrihchit, ob ih inan es irwenden ne mag: noh ih noh theronohhein, then ih es irwenden mag, widhar Karlo imo ce follusti newirdhit."

“If Charles keeps the oath that he has sworn to his brother Louis, andLouis, my lord, on the other hand breaks the oath he has sworn, and if Icannot dissuade him from it — neither I nor anyone that I can dissuadefrom it — then I shall not follow him against Charles.”

[Latin:] Quibus peractis Lodhuwicus Reno tenus per Spiram et Karolusiuxta Vuasagum per Vuīzzūnburg Vuarmatiam iter direxit.

With this completed, Louis left for Worms along the Rhine via Speyer;and Charles, along the Vosges via Wissembourg.

The following is the Romance vernacular part in its original manuscript form and a close transcription (with minimalediting):

Scan of the text Close transcription

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Pro dõ amur & pχρ̄ian poblo & nrõcõmunſaluament. diſt di e/in auant. inquantd̃ſſauir & podir medunat. ſiſaluaraieo.ciſt meonfradre karlo. & in aḍ iudha.& in cad huna coſa. ſicũ om p dreit sonfradra ſaluar diſt. Ino quid il mialtreſi faz&. Et abludher nul plaid nũquãprindrai qui meon uol ciſt meon fradrekarle indamnoſit.

Notes[1] For a closer transcription, and a summary of proposed emendations for the passages in Romance, see Foerster and Koschwitz (1902, cols.

45–48 (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/ altfranzsische01foer#page/ n29/ mode/ 2up)).

References• Foerster, Werner; Koschwitz, Eduard (1902) (in German). Altfranzösisches Übungsbuch, zum Gebrauch bei

Vorlesungen und Seminarübungen. Erster Teil: die Ältesten Sprachdenkmäler (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ books/OL24605702M/ Altfranzösisches_Ã�bungsbuch_zum_Gebrauch_bei_Vorlesungen_und_Seminarübungen)(2nd ed.). Leipzig: O. R. Reisland.

Further reading• Cerquiglini, Bernard (1991) La naissance du français, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1991 (Que-sais-je

?) 3rd edition, 2007• Goldberg, Eric J. (2006). Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German, 817–876. Ithaca

and London: Cornell University Press.• Hall, Robert A. (1953). "The Oaths of Strassburg: Phonemics and Classification". Language 29 (3): 317–321.

doi:10.2307/410027.• Hartmann, Wilfried (2004). Ludwig der Deutsche und seine Zeit. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.• Hartmann, Wilfried (2002). Ludwig der Deutsche. Darmstadt: Primus.• Lowe, Lawrence F. H.; Edwards, Bateman (1927). "The Language of the Strassburg Oaths". Speculum 2 (3):

310–317. doi:10.2307/2847721.• Rea, John A. (1958). "Again the Oaths of Strassburg". Language 34 (3): 367–369. doi:10.2307/410928.• Thompson, James Westfall (1926). "The Romance Text of the Strassburg Oaths. Was it Written in the Ninth

Century?". Speculum 1 (4): 410–438. doi:10.2307/2847162.

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Languages Of Time

Langues d'oïl

OïlLangues d'oïl

Geographicdistribution:

Northern and central France, Belgium, Switzerland

Linguistic classification: Indo-European

•• Italic

•• Romance

•• Western

•• Gallo-Romance

•• Oïl

Proto-language: Old French

Subdivisions: see below

The geographical spread of the Oïl languages (other than French) can be seen in shades of green and yellow on this map

The langues d'oïl [lɑ̃ɡᵊdɔjl][1] or langues d'oui [lɑ̃ɡᵊdwi], in English the Oïl /ˈwiːl/ or Oui /ˈwiː/ languages, are adialect continuum that includes standard French and its closest autochthonous relatives spoken today in the northernhalf of France, southern Belgium, and the Channel Islands. They belong to the larger Gallo-Romance group oflanguages, which also covers most of southern France (Occitania), northern Italy and east Spain (Catalan Countries).Linguists divide the Romance languages of France, and especially of Medieval France, into three geographicalsubgroups: Langues d'oïl and Langues d'oc, named after their words for 'yes', with Franco-Provençal (Arpitan)considered transitional.

Meanings and disambiguationLangue d'oïl (in the singular), Oïl dialects and Oïl languages (in the plural) designate the ancient northernGallo-Romance languages as well as their modern-day descendants. They share many linguistic features, aprominent one being the word oïl for yes. (Oc was and still is the southern word for yes, hence the langues d'oc orOccitan languages). The most widely spoken modern Oïl language is French (oïl was pronounced [o.il] or [o.i],which has become [wi], in modern French oui).There are three uses of the term oïl:

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Langues d'oïl 19

1.1. Langue d'oïl2.2. Oïl dialects3.3. Oïl languages

Langue d'oïlIn the singular, Langue d'oïl refers to the reciprocally intelligible linguistic variants of romana lingua spoken sincethe 9th century in northern France and southern Belgium (Wallonia), since the 10th century in the Channel Islands,and between the 11th and 14th centuries in England, (the Anglo-Norman language). Langue d'oïl, the term itself, hasbeen used in the singular since the 12th century to denote this ancient linguistic grouping as a whole. With thesequalifiers, langue d'oïl sometimes is used to mean the same as Old French (see History below).

Oïl dialectsIn the plural, Oïl dialects refer to the varieties of the ancient langue d'oïl.

Oïl languagesIn the plural, Oïl languages refer to those modern-day descendants that evolved separately from the varieties of theancient langue d'oïl. Consequently langues d'oïl today may apply either: to all the modern-day languages of thisfamily except the French language; or to this family including French. "Oïl dialects" or "French dialects" are alsoused to refer to the Oïl languages except French—as some extant Oïl languages are very close to modern French.Because the term dialect is sometimes considered pejorative, there is a trend today among French linguists to refer tothese languages as langues d'oïl rather than dialects.

VarietiesFive zones of Oïl dialects have been proposed:[2]

• Frankish zone (zone francique)Picard, Walloon, Lorrain, Norman (north of the ligne Joret, incl. Anglo-Norman and Dgèrnésiais, Jèrriais ofthe Channel Islands), eastern Champenois

• Francien zone (zone francienne): French propervarieties of the Île-de-France: Orléanais, Tourangeau (Tourain), western Champenois, Berrichon, Bourbonnais

• Burgundian zone (zone burgonde)Bourguignon, Franc-Comtois

• Armorican zone (zone armoricaine)Gallo language (incl. Angevin) and Norman (south of the ligne Joret)

• Poitevin-Saintongeais zone (zone poitevine and zone saintongeaise, after the former provinces of Poitou andSaintonge)

Poitevin, SaintongeaisFor the history of phonology, orthography, syntax and morphology: see History of the French language and therelevant individual Oïl language articles.Each of the Oïl languages has developed in its own way from the common ancestor, and division of the developmentinto periods varies according to the individual histories. Modern linguistics uses the following terms:• Old French, Old Norman etc. for the ninth–thirteenth centuries.And then for French:• Middle French for the period fourteenth–fifteenth centuries.

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Langues d'oïl 20

• 16th century : français renaissance (Renaissance French).• 17th to 18th century: français classique (Classical French).

History

Romana linguaIn the 9th century romana lingua (the term used in the Oaths of Strasbourg of 842) was the first of the Romancelanguages to be recognized by its speakers as a distinct language, probably because it was the most different fromLatin compared with the other Romance languages (see History of the French language).A good number of the developments that we now consider typical of Walloon appeared between the 8th and 12thcenturies. Walloon "had a clearly defined identity from the beginning of the thirteenth century". In any case,linguistic texts from the time do not mention the language, even though they mention others in the Oïl family, suchas Picard and Lorrain. During the 15th century, scribes in the region called the language "Roman" when they neededto distinguish it. It is not until the beginning of the 16th century that we find the first occurrence of the word"Walloon" in the same linguistic sense that we use it today.

Langue d'oïlBy late- or post-Roman times Vulgar Latin had developed two distinctive terms for signifying assent (yes): hoc ille("this (is) it") and hoc ("this"), which became oïl and oc, respectively. Subsequent development changed "oïl" into"oui", as in modern French. The term langue d'oïl itself was first used in the 12th century, referring to the Old Frenchlinguistic grouping noted above. In the 14th century, the Italian poet Dante mentioned the yes distinctions in his Devulgari eloquentia. He wrote in Medieval Latin: "nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil" ("some say 'oc', others say'si', others say 'oïl'")—thereby distinguishing at least three classes of Romance languages: oc languages (in southernFrance); si languages (in Italy and Iberia) and oïl languages (in northern France).Other Romance languages derive their word for "yes" from the classical Latin sic, "thus", such as the Italian sì,Spanish and Catalan sí, Portuguese sim, and even French si (used when contradicting another's negative assertion).Sardinian is an exception in that its word for "yes", eja, is from neither origin.However, neither lingua romana nor langue d'oïl referred, at their respective time, to a single homogeneouslanguage but to mutually intelligible linguistic varieties. In those times, spoken languages in Western Europe werenot codified (except Latin and Medieval Latin), the region's population was considerably lower than today, andpopulation centers were more isolated from each other. As a result, mutually intelligible linguistic varieties werereferred to as one language.

French (Old French/Standardized Oïl) or lingua GallicanaIn the 13th century these varieties were recognized and referred to as dialects ("idioms") of a single language, thelangue d'oïl. However, since the previous centuries a common literary and juridical "interdialectary" langue d'oïl hademerged, a kind of koiné. In the late 13th century this common langue d'oïl was named French (françois in French,lingua gallica or gallicana in Medieval Latin). Both aspects of "dialects of a same language" and "French as thecommon langue d'oïl" appear in a text of Roger Bacon, Opus maius, who wrote in Medieval Latin but translatedthus: "Indeed, idioms of a same language vary amongst people, as it occurs in the French language which varies inan idiomatic manner amongst the French, Picards, Normans and Burgundians. And terms right to the Picardshorrify the Burgundians as much as their closer neighbours the French".It is from this period though that definitions of individual Oïl languages are first found. The Picard language is firstreferred to by name as "langage pikart" in 1283 in the Livre Roisin. The author of the Vie du bienheureux ThomasHélye de Biville refers to the Norman character of his writing. The Sermons poitevins of around 1250 show thePoitevin language developing as it straddled the line between oïl and oc.

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Langues d'oïl 21

As a result, in modern times the term langue d'oïl also refers to that Old French which was not as yet named Frenchbut was already—before the late 13th century—used as a literary and juridical interdialectary language.The term Francien is a linguistic neologism coined in the 19th century to name the hypothetical variant of OldFrench allegedly spoken by the late 14th century in the ancient province of Pays de France—the then Paris regionlater called Île-de-France. This Francien, it is claimed, became the Medieval French language. Current linguisticthinking mostly discounts the Francien theory, although it is still often quoted in popular textbooks. The termfrancien was never used by those people supposed to have spoken the variant; but today the term could be used todesignate that specific tenth-and-11th centuries variant of langue d'oïl spoken in the Paris region; both variantscontributed to the koine, as both were called French at that time.

Rise of French (Standardized Oïl) versus other Oïl languagesFor political reasons it was in Paris and Île-de-France that this koine developed from a written language to a spokenlanguage. Already in the 12th century Conon de Béthune reported about the French court who blamed him for usingwords of Artois.By the late 13th century the written koine had begun to turn into a spoken and written standard language, and wasnamed French. Since then French started to impose itself on the other Oïl dialects as well as on the territories oflangue d'oc.However, the Oïl dialects and langue d'oc continued contributing to the lexis of French.In the 16th century the French language imposed itself even more by the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts to replaceLatin in judgements and official acts and deeds (although the local Oïl languages had always been the languagerespectively spoken in justice courts). It is argued that the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts was not intended to makeFrench a national language, merely a chancery language for law and administration. Although there were competingliterary standards among the Oïl languages in the mediaeval period, the centralisation of the French kingdom and itsinfluence even outside its formal borders sent most of the Oïl languages into comparative obscurity for severalcenturies. The development of literature in this new language encouraged writers to use French rather than their ownregional languages. This led to the decline of vernacular literature.It was the French Revolution which imposed French on the people as the official language in all the territory. As theinfluence of French (and in the Channel Islands, English) spread among sectors of provincial populations, culturalmovements arose to study and standardise the vernacular languages. From the 18th century and into the 20th century,societies were founded (such as the "Société liégoise de Littérature wallonne" in 1856), dictionaries (such as GeorgeMétivier's Dictionnaire franco-normand of 1870) were published, groups were formed and literary movementsdeveloped to support and promote the Oïl languages faced with competition. Until the First World War, the regionallanguages of France were still the languages most used in the home and in the fields. This was also generally thecase in areas where Oïl languages were spoken.French is now the best-known of the Oïl languages.

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Langues d'oïl 22

Literature

The Oïl languages have literary traditions, as forexample seen in this nineteenth-century

collection of Jèrriais short stories

Besides the influence of French literature, small-scale literature hassurvived in the other Oïl languages. Theatrical writing is most notablein Picard (which maintains a genre of vernacular marionette theatre),Poitevin and Saintongeais. Oral performance (story-telling) is a featureof Gallo, for example, while Norman and Walloon literature, especiallyfrom the early 19th century tend to focus on written texts and poetry(see, for example, Wace and Jèrriais literature).

As the vernacular Oïl languages were displaced from towns, they havegenerally survived to a greater extent in rural areas - hence apreponderance of literature relating to rural and peasant themes. Theparticular circumstances of the self-governing Channel Islandsdeveloped a lively strain of political comment, and the earlyindustrialisation in Picardy led to survival of Picard in the mines andworkshops of the regions. The mining poets of Picardy may becompared with the tradition of rhyming weaver poets of Ulster Scots ina comparable industrial milieu.

There are some regional magazines, such as Ch'lanchron (Picard), LeViquet (Norman), Les Nouvelles Chroniques du Don Balleine [3](Jèrriais), and El Bourdon (Walloon), which are published eitherwholly in the respective Oïl language or bilingually with French. Theseprovide a platform for literary writing.

Status

Bilingual street sign for market square in Frenchand Walloon

Apart from French, an official language in many countries (see list),the Oïl languages have enjoyed little status.

Currently Walloon, Lorrain (under the local name of Gaumais) andChampenois have the status of regional languages of Wallonia.

The Norman languages of the Channel Islands enjoy a certain statusunder the governments of their Bailiwicks and within the regional andlesser-used language framework of the British-Irish Council.

The French government recognises the Oïl languages as Languages ofFrance but has been constitutionally barred from ratifying theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. [4]

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Langues d'oïl 23

Influence

Signage in Gallo in the metro of Rennes

The English language was heavily influenced by contact with Normanfollowing the Norman Conquest and much of the adopted vocabularyshows typically Norman features.

Further information: Anglo-Norman languageThe French spoken in Belgium shows some influence from Walloon.The langues d'oïl were more or less influenced by the native languagesof the conquering Germanic tribes, notably the Franks. This wasapparent not so much in the vocabulary (which remainedoverwhelmingly of Latin origin) as in the phonology and syntax; theinvading Franks, Burgundians and Normans became the rulers andtheir accents were imposed as standard on the rest of the population.This accounts in large part for the relative distinctiveness of Frenchcompared to other Romance languages.

The development of French in North America was influenced by thespeech of settlers originating from north-western France, many ofwhom introduced features of their Oïl varieties into the French theyspoke. (See also French language in the United States, Frenchlanguage in Canada)

Creoles derived from French

Creole languages and pidgins developed from a basis of French aresometimes included among the Oïl languages (see French-based creolelanguages).

Languages/dialects with significant Oïl influence

• English (Oïl influences on vocabulary, transmitted via the Anglo-Norman language spoken by the upper classes inEngland in the centuries following the Norman Conquest)

• Limburgish languages (Oïl influences varies per variant, with large influence in Maastricht)• Maastrichtian dialect (significant vocabulary influence)

•• Luxembourgish language

References[1] Le Petit Robert 1, 1990[2] Manuel pratique de philologie romane, Pierre Bec, 1970-1971[3] http:/ / www. societe-jersiaise. org/ langsec/ chroniques. html[4] Constitutional Council Decision 99-412 DC, European Charter for regional or minority languages (http:/ / www. conseil-constitutionnel. fr/

conseil-constitutionnel/ root/ bank_mm/ anglais/ a99412dc. pdf)

• Paroles d'Oïl, Défense et promotion des Langues d'Oïl, Mougon 1994, ISBN 2-905061-95-2• Les langues régionales, Jean Sibille, 2000, ISBN 2-08-035731-X

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Langues d'oïl 24

External links• Songs in oïl languages (http:/ / projetbabel. org/ oil/ index. html)

Occitan language

Occitanoccitan, lenga d'òc

Spoken natively in France, Spain, Italy, Monaco

Native speakers 2,000,000  (1999)[1]

Language family Indo-European

•• Italic

•• Romance

•• Western

•• Gallo-Iberian

•• Gallo-Romance

•• Occitano-Romance

•• Occitan

Dialects Auvergnat

Gascon

Languedocien

Limousin

Provençal

Vivaro-Alpine

Official status

Official language in  Spain (Aran Valley)  Italy (Piedmont)

Regulated by Conselh de la Lenga Occitana/CLO (Occitan Language Council);[2] also: Congrès Permanent de la Lenga Occitana[3]

Language codes

ISO 639-1 oc

ISO 639-2 oci

ISO 639-3 oci

Linguasphere 51-AAA-g & 51-AAA-f

Occitan (English pronunciation: /ˈɒksɪˌtæn/;[4] French pronunciation: [ɔk.si'tɑ̃]; Occitan: [uksiˈta] or Occitan

pronunciation: [utsiˈta]),[5] known also as Lenga d'òc by its native speakers (Occitan: [ˈleŋɡɔ ˈðɔ(k)]; French: Langue

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Occitan language 25

d'oc), is a Romance language spoken in southern France, Italy's Occitan Valleys, Monaco, and Catalonia's Vald'Aran: the regions sometimes known unofficially as Occitania. It is also spoken in the linguistic enclave of GuardiaPiemontese (Calabria, Italy). Occitan is a descendant of the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire, as arelanguages such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian and Sardinian. It is an official language in Catalonia,(known as Aranese in Val d'Aran).[6] Occitan's closest relative is Catalan.[7] Since September 2010, the Parliament ofCatalonia has considered Aranese Occitan to be the officially preferred language for use in the Val d'Aran.The term Provençal (Occitan: provençal, provençau or prouvençau, IPA: [pruβenˈsal, pʀuveⁿˈsaw]) may be used as atraditional synonym for Occitan but, nowadays, “Provençal” is mainly understood as an Occitan dialect spoken inProvence.[8]

The long-term survival of Occitan is in question. According to the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages,[9]

four of the six major dialects of Occitan (Provençal, Auvergnat, Limousin and Languedocien) are considered"severely endangered", while the remaining two (Gascon and Vivaro-Alpine) are considered "definitely endangered"("severely endangered" essentially means that only elderly people still speak the language fluently, while "definitelyendangered" means that adults speak the language but are not passing it on to their children).

Name

History of the modern termThe name Occitan comes from lenga d'òc (i.e., òc language), which comes from òc, the Occitan word for yes. TheItalian medieval poet Dante was the first to have recorded the term lingua d'oc. In his De vulgari eloquentia he wrotein Latin: "nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil" ("for some say òc, others sì, yet others oïl"), thereby highlightingthree major Romance literary languages that were well known in Italy, based on each language's word for "yes", theòc language (Occitan), the oïl language (French), and the sì language (Italian). This was not, of course, the onlydefining character of each group.The word òc came from Vulgar Latin hoc ("this"), while oïl originated from Latin hoc illud ("this [is] it"). OldCatalan and nowadays the Catalan of Northern Catalonia (France, Catalunya Nord) also have hoc (òc). OtherRomance languages derive their word for yes from the Latin sic, "thus [it is], [it was done], etc.", such as Spanish sí,Eastern Lombard sé, Italian sì, or Portuguese sim. In Modern Catalan, as in modern Spanish, sí is usually used as aresponse, although the language retains the word oi, akin to òc, which is sometimes used at the end of yes-noquestions and in higher register also as a positive response.[10] French uses si in response to questions where anegative answer is expected: e.g., "Vous n'avez pas de frères?" "Si, j'en ai sept." ("You have no brothers?" "Yes [Ido], I have seven.").

Other names for OccitanFor many centuries, the Occitan dialects (together with Catalan)[11] were referred to as Limousin or Provençal, thenames of two regions lying within modern "Occitania". After Mistral's Félibrige movement in the 19th century,Provençal achieved the greatest literary recognition and so became the most popular term for the Occitan language.According to Joseph Anglade, a philologist and specialist of medieval literature who helped impose the then archaicterm Occitan as the sole correct name,[12][13] the word Lemosin was first used to designate the language at thebeginning of the 13th century by Catalan troubadour Raimon Vidal de Besalú in his Razós de trobar[14]

La parladura Francesca val mais et [es] plus avinenz a far romanz e pasturellas; mas cella de Lemozin valmais per far vers et cansons et serventés; et per totas las terras de nostre lengage son de major autoritat licantar de la lenga Lemosina que de negun'autra parladura, per qu'ieu vos en parlarai primeramen.

(The French language is worthier and better suited for romances and pastourelles; but the language from Limousin is of greater value for writing poems and cançons and sirventés; and across the whole of the lands

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where our tongue is spoken, the literature in the Limousin language has more authority than any other dialect,wherefore I shall use this name in priority.)

As for the word Provençal, it should not be taken as strictly meaning the language of Provence but of Occitania as awhole, as, "in the eleventh, the twelfth, and sometimes also the thirteenth centuries, one would understand under thename of Provence the whole territory of the old Provincia Romana and even Aquitaine".[15] The term first came intofashion in Italy.[16]

Nowadays, linguists use the terms Provençal and Limousin strictly to refer to specific varieties within Occitania,keeping the name Occitan for the language as a whole. Many non-specialists, however, continue to refer to thelanguage as Provençal, causing some confusion.

HistoryOne of the oldest written fragments of the language ever found dates back to the year 960, in an official text that wasmixed with Latin:[17]

De ista hora in antea non DECEBRÀ Ermengaus filius Eldiarda Froterio episcopo filio Girberga NERaimundo filio Bernardo vicecomite de castello de Cornone... NO·L LI TOLRÀ NO·L LI DEVEDARÀ NI NOL'EN DECEBRÀ... nec societatem non AURÀ, si per castellum recuperare NON O FA, et si recuperarepotuerit in potestate Froterio et Raimundo LO TORNARÀ, per ipsas horas quæ Froterius et Raimundus L'ENCOMONRÀ. [...]

It is interesting to note that Carolinian litanies (ca 780), both written and sung in Latin, were answered to in OldOccitan by the audience (Ora pro nos; Tu lo juva).[18]

Other famous pieces include the Boecis, a 258-line-long poem written entirely in the Limousin dialect of Occitanbetween the year 1000 and 1030 and inspired by Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; the Waldensian La NoblaLeyczon (dated 1100[19]), la Cançó de Santa Fe (ca 1054–1076), the Romance of Flamenca (13th c.), the Song of theAlbigensian Crusade (1213–1219?), Daurel et Beton (12th or 13th c.), Las, qu'i non sun sparvir, astur (11th c.) andTomida femina (9th or 10th c.).Occitan was the vehicle for the influential poetry of the medieval troubadours and trobairises: At that time, thelanguage was understood and celebrated throughout most of educated Europe.[20] With the gradual imposition ofFrench royal power over its territory, Occitan declined in status from the 14th century on. By the Edict ofVillers-Cotterets (1539) it was decreed that the langue d'oïl (Northern French) should be used for all Frenchadministration. Occitan's greatest decline was during the French Revolution, during which diversity of language wasconsidered a threat. The literary renaissance of the late 19th century (which included a Nobel Prize for FrédéricMistral) was attenuated by the First World War, when Occitan speakers spent extended periods of time alongsideFrench-speaking comrades.

OriginsBecause the geographical territory in which Occitan is spoken is surrounded by regions in which other Romancelanguages are used, external influences could have influenced its origin and development. Many factors favoured itsdevelopment as a language of its own.• Mountains and seas: The range of Occitan is bounded naturally by the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the

Massif Central, the Pyrenees, and the Alps.• Buffer zones: Arid land, marshes, and areas otherwise impractical for farming and resistant of colonization

provide further separation (territory between Loire and Garonne, the Aragon desert plateau).•• Constant populations: Some Occitan-speaking peoples are descended from people living in the region since

prehistory (Bec, 1963).• Little Celtic influence (Bec, 1963)

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• Ancient and long-term Roman influence: Julius Caesar once said that the people of Aquitaine could teach theRomans themselves to speak Latin more correctly. According to Müller, "France's linguistic separation beganwith Roman influence" (Bec, 1963, pp. 20, 21)

• A separate lexicon: Although Occitan is midway the between Gallo-Romance and Ibero-Romance languagegroups, it has "around 550 words inherited from Latin that do not exist in the langue d'oïl or in Franco-provençal"(Bec, 1963, 20, 21).

• Little Germanization: "The Frankish lexicon and its phonetic influence often end above the oc/oïl line" (Bec,1963, 20, 21)

Occitan in SpainOccitan is closely related to Catalan, with which it shares many linguistic features and even a common origin (seeOccitano-Romance languages). The language was one of the first to gain prestige as a medium for literature amongRomance languages in the Middle Ages. Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Catalan troubadours such as Gueraude Cabrera, Guilhem de Bergadan, Guilhem de Cabestany, Huguet de Mataplana, Raimon Vidal de Besalú, Cerveríde Girona, Formit de Perpinhan, and Jofre de Foixà wrote in Occitan.At the end of the 11th century, the Franks, as they were called at the time, started to penetrate the Iberian Peninsulathrough the Ways of St. James via Somport and Roncesvalles, settling on various spots of the Kingdoms of Navarreand Aragon enticed by the privileges granted them by the Navarrese kings. They established themselves in ethnicboroughs where Occitan was used for everyday life, e.g. Pamplona, Sangüesa, Estella, etc.[21] The language in turnbecame the status language chosen by the Navarrese kings, nobility and upper classes for official and trade purposesin the period stretching from the early 13th century to late 14th century.[22] These boroughs in Navarre may havebeen close-knit communities with little mingling, in a context where the natural milieu was predominantlyBasque-speaking. The variant chosen for written administrative records was a koiné based on Languedocien fromToulouse with fairly archaic linguistic features. Evidence of a written account in Occitan from Pamplona revolvingaround the burning of borough San Nicolas has reached up to our days (1258), while the History of the War ofNavarre by Guilhem Anelier (1276) albeit written in Pamplona shows a linguistic variant from Toulouse.[23]

Things turned out slightly otherwise in Aragon, where the sociolinguistic situation was different, with a clearerBasque-Romance bilingual situation (cf. Basques from the Val d'Aran cited circa 1000),[24] but a receding Basquelanguage (Basque banned in the marketplace of Huesca, 1349).[25][26] While the language was chosen as a mediumof prestige in records and official statements along with Latin in the early 13th century, Occitan faced competitionfrom the rising local Romance vernacular, the Navarro-Aragonese, both orally and in writing, especially afterAragon's territorial conquests south to Saragossa, Huesca and Tudela between 1118 and 1134. It resulted that asecond Occitan immigration of this period was assimilated by the similar Navarro-Aragonese language, which at thesame time was fostered and chosen by the kings of Aragon. The language fell into decay in the 14th century acrossthe whole southern Pyrenean area and became largely absorbed into Navarro-Aragonese first and Castilian later inthe 15th century, after their exclusive boroughs broke up (1423, Pamplona's boroughs unified).[27]

Gascon-speaking communities were called in for trading purposes by Navarrese kings in the early 12th century to thecoastal fringe extending from Donostia to the Bidasoa, where they settled down. The language variant used wasdifferent from the ones used in Navarre, i.e. a Béarnese Gascon,[28] with Gascon being in use far longer than inNavarre and Aragon till the 19th century, thanks mainly to the close ties held by Donostia and Pasaia with Bayonne.

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Geographic distribution

Usage in France

"Speak French, Be Clean" written across the wall of a SouthernFrench school

This bilingual street sign in Toulouse, like many such signs found inhistorical parts of the city, is maintained primarily for its antique

charm; it is typical of what little remains of the lenga d'òc insouthern French cities.

Though it was still an everyday language for most ofthe rural population of southern France well into the20th century, it has been all but replaced by thesystematic imposition of the French language.According to the 1999 census, there are 610,000 nativespeakers (almost all of whom are also native Frenchspeakers) and perhaps another million persons withsome exposure to the language. Following the patternof language shift, most of this remainder is to be foundamong the eldest populations. Occitan activists (calledOccitanists) have attempted, in particular with theadvent of Occitan-language preschools (theCalandretas), to reintroduce the language to the young.

Nonetheless, the number of proficient speakers ofOccitan is dropping precipitously. A tourist in the citiesin southern France is unlikely to hear a single Occitanword spoken on the street (or, for that matter, in ahome), and is likely to only find the occasional vestige,such as street signs (and, of those, most will haveFrench equivalents more prominently displayed), toremind them of the traditional language of the area.Occitans, as a result of more than 200 years ofconditioned suppression and humiliation (seeVergonha), seldom speak their own language in thepresence of foreigners, whether they're from abroad orfrom outside Occitania (in this case, often merely andabusively referred to as Parisiens or Nordistes, whichmeans northerners). Occitan is still spoken by manyelderly people in rural areas, but they generally switchto French when dealing with outsiders.

Occitan's decline is somewhat less pronounced inBearn because of the province's history (a late additionto the Kingdom of France), though even there thelanguage is little spoken outside the homes of the rural elderly. The village of Artix is notable for having elected topost street signs in the local language.

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Usage outside France

Aranese signage in Bossòst, Val d'Aran, Spain

• In Val d'Aran, in the north-west corner of Catalonia, Spain, Aranese(a variety of Gascon, in turn a variety of Occitan) is spoken. It is anofficial language of Catalonia together with Catalan and Spanish.

• In Italy, Occitan is also spoken in the Occitan Valleys (Alps) inPiedmont and Liguria. An Occitan-speaking enclave also hasexisted at Guardia Piemontese (Calabria) since the 14th century.Italy adopted in 1999 a Linguistic Minorities Protection Law, or"Law 482", which includes Occitan; however, Italian is thedominant language. It should be noted that the Piedmontese dialectis extremely close to Occitan.

• In Monaco, some Occitan speakers coexist with remaining nativeMonegasque (Ligurian) speakers. French is the dominant language.

•• Scattered Occitan-speaking communities exist in different countries:• There were Occitan-speaking colonies in Württemberg

(Germany) since the 18th century, the latter as a consequence ofthe Camisard war. The last Occitan speakers were heard in the1930s.

• In the Spanish Basque country, Gascon was spoken in the centre of Donostia-San Sebastián, perhaps until thebeginning of the 20th century.[29]

•• In the Americas, Occitan speakers exist:• in the United States, in Valdese, North Carolina[30]

• in Canada, in Quebec where there are Occitan associations such as Association Occitane du Québec andAssociation des Occitans.[31]

• Pigüé, Argentina – Community settled by 165 Occitans from the Rodez-Aveyron area of Cantal in the late19th century.

• Guanajuato, Mexico – A sparse number of Occitan settlers are known to have settled in that state in the19th century.[32]

Traditionally Occitan-speaking areas• Aquitaine — excluding the Basque-speaking part of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques in the western part of the

department and a small part of Gironde where Saintongeais is spoken. The towns of Biarritz, Anglet, andBayonne are originally Occitan-speaking, with Basque-speaking groups, but their Basque populations grewsharply during the industrial revolution.

• Midi-Pyrénées — including one of France's largest cities, Toulouse. There are a few street signs in Toulouse inOccitan, and since late 2009 the Metro announcements are bilingual French-Occitan,[33] but otherwise thelanguage is almost never heard spoken on the street.

• Languedoc-Roussillon (from "Lenga d'òc") — including the areas around the medieval city of Carcassonne,excluding the large part of the Pyrénées-Orientales where Catalan is spoken (Fenolhedés is the onlyOccitan-speaking area of the Pyrénées-Orientales).

• Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur — except for the Roya and Bévéra valleys, where there is a transitional dialectbetween Ligurian and Occitan, (Roiasc, including Brigasc). There were former and now extinct isolated townsthat spoke Ligurian in the department of Alpes-Maritimes. Mentonasque, that is spoken in Menton, is an Occitantransition dialect with a strong Ligurian influence.

• In Monaco, Occitan coexists with Ligurian Monegasque. French is the dominant (and imposed) language.

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• Poitou-Charentes — Use of Occitan has declined here in the few parts it used to be spoken, replaced by French.Only Charente limousine, the eastern part of the region, has resisted. But moreover the natural & historicallanguages of most of the region are the Poitevin and Saintongeais.

• Limousin — A rural region (about 710,000 inhabitants) where Occitan (Limousin dialect, Noth Occitan family) isstill spoken among the oldest residents.

• Auvergne — The language's use has declined in some urban areas. The department of Allier is divided between asouthern Occitan-speaking area and a northern French-speaking area.

• Centre region — Some villages, in the extreme South, speak Occitan.• Rhône-Alpes — While the south of the region is clearly Occitan-speaking, the central and northern Lyonnais,

Forez and Dauphiné parts belong to the Franco-Provençal language area.• Occitan Valleys (Piedmont, Liguria) — Italian regions where Occitan is spoken only in the southern and central

Alpine valleys.• Val d'Aran — part of Catalonia that speaks a mountain dialect of Gascon Occitan.

Number of speakersThe area where Occitan was historically dominant is home to some 15 million inhabitants. It may be spoken as a firstlanguage by as many as 1 million people[1] in France, Italy, Spain and Monaco. In Monaco, Occitan coexists withMonégasque Ligurian, which is the other native language.[34][35] Some researchers state that up to seven millionpeople in France understand the language,[36][37][38] while twelve to fourteen million fully spoke it in 1921.[39] In1860, Occitan speakers represented more than 39%[40] of the whole French population (52% for francophonesproper); they were still 26% to 36% in the 1920s[41] and less than 7% in 1993.

Dialects

Occitan dialects according to Pierre Bec

Occitan is fundamentally defined by itsdialects, rather than being a unitarylanguage. Like other languages thatfundamentally exist at a spoken, rather thanwritten, level (e.g. Rhaeto-Romance,Franco-Provençal, Astur-Leonese, andAragonese), every settlement technically hasits own dialect, with the whole of Occitaniaforming a classic dialect continuum thatchanges gradually along any path from oneside to the other. Nonetheless, specialistscommonly divide Occitan into six maindialects:

• Gascon: includes the Béarnese (sub-)dialect and Aranese (spoken in Spain).• Languedocien (lengadocian)• Limousin (lemosin)• Auvergnat (auvernhat)• Provençal (provençau or prouvençau), including the Niçard subdialect.

•• Shuadit language

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Supradialectal classification of Occitan according to P. Bec

Supradialectal classification of Occitan according to D. Sumien

• Vivaro-Alpine (vivaroaupenc), alsoknown as "Alpine" or "AlpineProvençal", and sometimes considered asubdialect of Provençal

Gascon is generally considered the mostdivergent, and descriptions of the mainfeatures of Occitan often consider Gasconseparately. Max Wheeler notes that"probably only its copresence within theFrench cultural sphere has kept [Gascon]from being regarded as a separatelanguage", and compares it toFranco-Provençal, which is considered aseparate language from Occitan but is"probably not more divergent from Occitanoverall than Gascon is."[42]

There is no general agreement about largergroupings of these dialects.Max Wheeler[42] divides the dialects intotwo groups:

•• Southwestern (Gascon andLanguedocien), more conservative

•• Northeastern (Limousin, Auvergnat,Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine), moreinnovative

Pierre Bec[43] divides the dialects into threegroups:

•• Gascon, standing alone• Southern Occitan (Languedocien and

Provençal)• Northern Occitan (Limousin, Auvergnat,

Vivaro-Alpine)

Bec also notes that some linguists prefer a"supradialectal" classification that groupsOccitan with Catalan as a part of a widerOccitano-Romanic diasystem. One suchclassification posits three groups:

• "Arverno-Mediterranean"(arvèrnomediterranèu), same asWheeler's northeastern group, i.e.Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal andVivaro-Alpine

• "Central Occitan" (occitan centrau), Languedocien, excepting the Southern Languedocien subdialect• "Aquitano-Pyrenean" (aquitanopirenenc), Southern Languedocien, Gascon and Catalan

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According to this view, Catalan is an ausbau language that became independent from Occitan during the 13thcentury, but originates from the Aquitano-Pyrenean group.Domergue Sumien[44] proposes a slightly different supradialectal grouping.• Arverno-Mediterranean (arvèrnomediterranèu), same as in Bec and Wheeler, divided further:

• Niçard-Alpine (niçardoaupenc), Vivaro-Alpine along with the Niçard subdialect of Provençal• Trans-Occitan (transoccitan), the remainder of Provençal along with Limousin and Auvergnat

• Pre-Iberian (preïberic)• Central Occitan (occitan centrau), same as in Bec• Aquitano-Pyrenean (aquitanopirenenc), same as in Bec

Codification

StandardisationAll these regional varieties of the Occitan language are written and valid. Standard Occitan, also called occitan larg(i.e., 'wide Occitan') is a synthesis that respects and admits soft regional adaptations (which are based on theconvergence of previous regional koines). So Occitan can be considered as a pluricentric language.[45] Thestandardisation process began during the 1970s with the works of Pèire Bèc, Robèrt Lafont, Rogièr Teulat, JacmeTaupiac, and Patric Sauzet. But it has not been achieved yet. It is mostly supported by users of the classical norm.Due to the strong situation of diglossia, some users still reject the standardisation process and do not conceiveOccitan as a language that could work just as other standardised languages.

Writing systemThere are two main linguistic norms currently used for Occitan, one (known as "classical"), which is based on that ofMediaeval Occitan, and one (sometimes known as "Mistralian", due to its use by Frédéric Mistral), which is basedon modern French orthography. Sometimes, there is some conflict between some users of each system.• The classical norm (or less exactly classical orthography) has the advantage of maintaining a link with earlier

stages of the language, and reflects the fact that Occitan is not a variety of French. It is used in all Occitandialects. It also allows speakers of one dialect of Occitan to write intelligibly for speakers of other dialects (e.g.,the Occitan for day is written jorn in the classical norm, but could be jour, joun or journ, depending on thewriter's origin, in Mistralian orthography). The Occitan classical orthography and the Catalan orthography arequite similar: They show the very close ties of both languages. The digraphs lh and nh, used in the classicalorthography, were adopted by the orthography of Portuguese, it is presumed after Friar Gerald, a monk fromMoissac, became bishop of Braga in Portugal in 1047 and played a major role in modernizing written Portugueseusing classical Occitan norms.[46]

• The Mistralian norm (or less exactly Mistralian orthography) has the advantage of not forcing Occitan speakersalready literate in French (as is usually the case) to learn an entirely new system. Nowadays, it is mostly used inthe Provençal/Niçard dialect, besides the classical norm. It has also been used by a number of eminent writers, inparticular in Provençal. However, it is somewhat impractical, since it is based mainly on the Provençal dialect andalso uses many digraphs for simple sounds, the most notable one being ou for the [u] sound, written as o under theclassical orthography.

There are also two other norms but they have a lesser audience. The Escòla dau Pò norm (or Escolo dóu Po norm) isa simplified version of the Mistralian norm and is used only in the Occitan Valleys (Italy), besides the classicalnorm. The Bonnaudian norm (or écriture auvergnate unifiée, EAU) was created by Pierre Bonnaud and is used onlyin the Auvergnat dialect, besides the classical norm.

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Comparison between the four existing norms in Occitan: extract from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Classical norm Mistralian norm Bonnaudian norm Escòla dau Pò norm

ProvençalTotei lei personas naisson liurase egalas en dignitat e en drech.

Son dotadas de rason e deconsciéncia e li cau (/fau) agir

entre elei amb un esperit defrairesa.

ProvençalTóuti li persouno naisson

liéuro e egalo en dignita e endre. Soun doutado de rasoun e

de counsciènci e li fau agientre éli em' un esperit de

freiresso.

Niçard ProvençalToti li personas naisson liuri e

egali en dignitat e en drech. Sondotadi de rason e de consciéncia

e li cau agir entre eli emb unesperit de frairesa.

Niçard ProvençalTouti li persouna naisson

liéuri e egali en dignità e endrech. Soun doutadi de rasoune de counsciència e li cau agì

entre eli em' un esperit defrairessa.

AuvergnatTotas las personas naisson

liuras e egalas en dignitat e endreit. Son dotadas de rason e de

consciéncia e lor chau (/fau)agir entre elas amb un esperit de

frairesa.

AuvergnatTa la proussouna neisson lieura moé parira pàdïnessà mai dret. Son charjada de razou moéde cousiensà mai lhu fau arjî entremeî lha bei

n'eime de freiressà. (Touta la persouna naissonlieura e egala en dïnetàt e en dreit. Soun

doutada de razou e de cousiensà e lour chau ajîentre ela am en esprî de freiressà.)

Vivaro-AlpineTotas las personas naisson

liuras e egalas en dignitat e endrech. Son dotaas de rason e deconsciéncia e lor chal agir entre

elas amb un esperit defraternitat.

Vivaro-AlpineToutes les persounes naisounliures e egales en dignità e endrech. Soun douta de razoun ede counsiensio e lour chal agirentre eels amb (/bou) un esperit

de freireso.

GasconTotas las personas que naishenliuras e egaus en dignitat e en

dreit. Que son dotadas de rasone de consciéncia e que'us cau

agir enter eras dab un esperit dehrairessa.

Gascon (Febusian writing)Toutes las persounes quenachen libres e egaus en

dinnitat e en dreyt. Que soundoutades de rasoû e de

counscienci e qu'ous cau ayientre eres dap û esperit de

hrayresse.

LimousinTotas las personas naisson

liuras e egalas en dignitat e endrech. Son dotadas de rason e

de consciéncia e lor chau (/fau)agir entre elas emb un esperit de

frairesa.

LanguedocienTotas las personas naisson

liuras e egalas en dignitat e endrech. Son dotadas de rason ede consciéncia e lor cal agirentre elas amb un esperit de

frairesa.

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Occitan language 34

The same extract in five neighboring Romance languages and English for comparison

FrenchTous les êtres humains

naissent libres etégaux en dignité et endroits. Ils sont doués

de raison et deconscience et doiventagir les uns envers lesautres dans un esprit

de fraternité.[47]

ArpetanTôs los étres homansnêssont libros et ègalsen dignitât et en drêts.

Ils ant rêson etconscience et dêvont

fâre los uns envèrs losôtros dedens un èsprit

de fraternitât.[47]

CatalanTots els éssers

humans neixen/naixenlliures i iguals endignitat i en drets.

Són dotats de raó i deconsciència, i han de

comportar-sefraternalment els unsamb els altres.[47]

SpanishTodos los seres

humanos nacen libres eiguales en dignidad yderechos y, dotados

como están de razón yconciencia, deben

comportarsefraternalmente los

unos con los otros.[47]

ItalianTutti gli esseri umani

nascono liberi eduguali in dignità e indiritti. Sono dotati di

ragione e dicoscienza e devono

comportarsifraternamente l'uno

con l'altro.[47]

EnglishAll human beings areborn free and equal in

dignity and rights. Theyare endowed with reason

and conscience andshould act towards one

another in a spirit ofbrotherhood.[48]

Debates concerning linguistic classification and orthographyThe majority of scholars believe that Occitan constitutes a single language.[49] Some authors,[50] constituting aminority,[51] reject this opinion and even the name Occitan: they think that there is a family of distinct languages(called langues d'oc / lengas d'oc in plural) rather than dialects.Many Occitan linguists and writers,[52] particularly those involved with the pan-Occitan movement centred on theInstitut d'Estudis Occitans, disagree with the view that Occitan is a family of languages and think that Limousin,Auvergnat, Languedocien, Gascon, Provençal and Alpine Provençal are dialects of a single language. Though thereare some noticeable differences between these varieties, there is a very high degree of mutual intelligibility betweenthem;[53] they also share a common literary history, and in academic and literary circles, have been identified as acollective linguistic entity—the langue d'oc—for centuries.Some Provençal authors[54] continue to support the view that Provençal is a separate language. Nevertheless, the vastmajority of Provençal authors and associations think that Provençal is a part of Occitan.[55]

This debate about the status of Provençal should not be confused with the debate concerning the spelling ofProvençal.• The classical orthography is phonemic and diasystemic, and so more pan-Occitan. It is used in (and adapted to)

all Occitan dialects and regions, including Provençal. Its supporters think that Provençal is a part of Occitan.• The Mistralian orthography of Provençal is more-or-less phonemic but not diasystemic and is closer to the

French spelling, and therefore more specific to Provençal; its users are divided between the ones that think thatProvençal is a part of Occitan and the ones that think that Provençal is a separate language.

For example, the classical (pan-Occitan) spelling writes Polonha where the Mistralian spelling system hasPoulougno, for [puˈluɲo], 'Poland'.The question of Gascon is similar. Gascon presents a number of significant differences from the rest of the language;but, despite these differences, Gascon and other Occitan dialects have very important common lexical andgrammatical features, so authors such as Pierre Bec argue that they could never be considered as different as, forexample, Spanish and Italian.[56] In addition, the fact that Gascon is included within Occitan despite its particulardifferences, can be also justified[57] because there is a common elaboration (Ausbau) process between Gascon andthe rest of Occitan. The vast majority of the Gascon cultural movement[58][59][60] considers itself as a part of theOccitan cultural movement. And the official status of Val d'Aran (Catalonia, Spain), adopted in 1990, says thatAranese is a part of Gascon and Occitan. A grammar of Aranese by Aitor Carrera, published in 2007 in Lleida,presents the same view.The exclusion of Catalan from the Occitan sphere, although Catalan is a language closely related to Occitan, is justified because there has been a consciousness of its being different from Occitan since the later Middle Ages and the elaboration (Ausbau) processes of Catalan and Occitan (including Gascon) have been quite distinct since the 20th century. Nevertheless, some other scholars[61] point that the process that lead to the affirmation of Catalan as a

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distinct language from Occitan was started during the period when the pressure to include Catalan-speaking areas toa mainstream Spanish culture was at its most.

Linguistic characterisationJules Ronjat has sought to characterize Occitan by 19 principal criteria, as generalized as possible. Of those, 11 arephonetic, five morphologic, one syntactic, and two lexical. Close rounded vowels (French: rose, yeux) are rare orabsent in Occitan. This characteristic often carries through to an Occitan speaker's French, leading to a distinctiveméridional accent. Unlike French, it is a pro-drop language, allowing the omission of the subject (canti: I sing;cantas you sing). Among these 19 discriminating criteria, 7 are different from Spanish, 8 from Italian, 12 fromFranco-Provençal, and 16 from French.

Features of OccitanMost features of Occitan are shared with either French or Catalan, or both.

Features of Occitan as a whole

Examples of pan-Occitan features shared with French, but not Catalan:• Latin ū (Vulgar Latin /uː/) changed to /y/, as in French (Lat. dūrvm > Oc. dur).• Vulgar Latin /o/ changed to /u/, first in unstressed syllables, as in Catalan (Lat. romānvs > Oc. roman), then in

stressed syllables (Lat. flōrem > Oc. flor).Examples of pan-Occitan features shared with Catalan, but not French:• Stressed Latin a was preserved (Lat. mare > Oc. mar, Fr. mer).• Intervocalic -t- was lenited to /d/ rather than lost (Lat. vitam > Oc. vida, Fr. vie).Examples of pan-Occitan features not shared with Catalan or French:•• Original /aw/ preserved.• Final /a/ becomes /ɔ/ (note in Valencian (Catalan), /ɔ/ may appear in word-final unstressed position, in a process

of vowel harmony).• Low-mid /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ diphthongized before velars. /ɛ/ generally becomes /jɛ/; /ɔ/ originally became /wɔ/ or /wɛ/,

but has since usually undergone further fronting (e.g. to [wœ], [œ], [ɛ], etc.). Diphthongization also occurredbefore palatals, as in French and Catalan.

• Various assimilations in consonant clusters (e.g. ⟨cc⟩ in Occitan, pronounced /utsiˈta/ in conservativeLanguedocien).

Features of some Occitan dialects

Examples of dialect-specific features of the northerly dialects shared with French, but not Catalan:• Palatalization of ca-, ga- to /tʃa, dʒa/.•• Vocalization of syllable-final /l/ to /w/.•• Loss of final consonants.• Vocalization of syllable-final nasals to nasal vowels.• Uvularization of some or all ⟨r⟩ sounds.Examples of dialect-specific features of the southerly dialects (or some of them) shared with Catalan, but not French:•• Latin -mb-,-nd- become /m, n/.• Betacism: /b/ and /v/ merge (feature shared with some Catalan dialects; except for Balearic, Valencian and

Alguerese Catalan, where /v/ is preserved).• Intervocalic voiced stops /b d ɡ/ (from Latin -p-, -t, -c-) become voiced fricatives [β ð ɣ].• Loss of word-final single /n/ (but not /nn/, e.g. an "year" < ānnvm).

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Examples of Gascon-specific features not shared with French or Catalan:• Latin initial /f/ changed into /h/ (Lat. filivm > Gasc. hilh). This also happened in medieval Spanish, although the

/h/ was eventually lost, or reverted back to /f/ (before a consonant). The Gascon ⟨h⟩ has retained its aspiration.• Loss of /n/ between vowels. This also happened in Portuguese and Galician (and moreover also in Basque).• Change of -ll- to ⟨r⟩ /ɾ/, or ⟨th⟩ word-finally (originally the voiceless palatal stop /c/, but now generally either /t/

or /tʃ/, depending on the word). This is a unique characteristic of Gascon.Examples of other dialect-specific features not shared with French or Catalan:•• Merging of syllable-final nasals to /ŋ/. This appears to represent a transitional stage before nasalization, and

occurs especially in the southerly dialects other than Gascon (which still maintains different final nasals, as inCatalan).

•• Former intervocalic /ð/ (from Latin -d-) becomes /z/ (most dialects, but not Gascon). This appears to havehappened in primitive Catalan as well, but Catalan later deleted this sound or converted it to /w/.

• Palatalization of /jt/ (from Latin ct) to /tʃ/ in most dialects or /(j)t/: lach vs lait (Gascon lèit) 'milk', lucha vs luta(Gascon luta) 'fight'.

•• Weakening of /l/ to /r/ in the Vivaro-Alpine dialect.

Comparison with other Romance languages

Latin(allnouns intheablativecase)

Occitan(includingmainregionalvarieties)

Catalan French Ladin(Nones)

Lombard Italian Spanish Portuguese Sardinian Romanian English

cantare cantar(chantar)

cantar chanter ciantar cantà cantare cantar cantar cantare cânta '(to)sing'

capra cabra(chabra,craba)

cabra chèvre ciaura cavra capra cabra cabra craba capră 'goat'

clave clau clau clé clau ciav chiave llave chave crae cheie 'key'

ecclesia,basilica

glèisa església église glesia giesa chiesa iglesia igreja gresia biserică 'church'

formatico(VulgarLatin),caseo

formatge(hormatge)

formatge fromage formai furmai/furmagg formaggio/cacio queso queijo casu caş 'cheese'

lingva lenga(lengua)

llengua langue lenga lengua lingua lengua língua limba limbă 'tongue,language'

nocte nuèch(nuèit)

nit nuit not nocc notte noche noite nothe noapte 'night'

platea plaça plaça place plaza piasa piazza/platea plaza praça pratza piaţă[62] 'square,plaza'

ponte pont(pònt)

pont pont pònt punt ponte puente ponte ponte punte 'bridge'

|+ Common words in Romance languages, with English (a Germanic language) for reference

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Rich lexiconA comparison of terms and word counts between languages is not easy, as it is impossible to count all the number ofwords in a language. (See Lexicon, Lexeme, Lexicography for more information.)Some have claimed around 450,000 words exist in the Occitan language,[63] a number comparable to English (theWebster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged with 1993 addenda reaches 470,000 words, as does theOxford English Dictionary, Second edition). The Merriam-Webster Web site estimates that the number issomewhere between 250,000 and 1 million words.The magazine Géo (2004, p. 79) claims that American English literature can be more easily translated into Occitanthan French, excluding modern technological terms that both languages have integrated.A comparison of the lexical content can find more subtle differences between the languages. For example, Occitanhas 128 synonyms related to cultivated land, 62 for wetlands, and 75 for sunshine (Géo). The language went throughan eclipse during the Industrial Revolution, as the vocabulary of the countryside became less important. At the sametime, it was disparaged as a patois. Nevertheless, Occitan has also incorporated new words into its lexicon todescribe the modern world. The Occitan word for web is oèb, for example.One interesting and useful feature of the Occitan language is its virtually infinite ability to create new words througha number of interchangeable and imbeddable suffixes, giving the original terms a whole array of semantic nuances.Take as an example this excerpt from La covisada (1923) by Henri Gilbert:[64]

Diablassas, diablàs, diablassonassas, diablassonàs, diablassons, diablassonetas, diablassonetassons,diablassonets, diablassonetons, diables, diablonassas, diablonàs, diablonassonas, diablonassons,diablonassonets, diabletassas, diabletàs, diabletassonas, diabletassons, diabletassonets, diablons, diablets,diablonetassas, diablonetàs, diabletonassas, diabletonàs, diablonetassons, diabletonassons,diablonetassonets, diabletonassonets, diabletons, diablonets e diabletonets, totes correguèron darrèr la pòrtae se i ranquèron.

Big she-devils, big devils, big little big she-devils, big little big devils, little big devils, tiny little bigshe-devils, little big tiny little devils, tiny little big devils, little tiny little big devils, devils, big little she-devils,big little devils, little big little she-devils, little big little devils, tiny little big little devils, big she-devils, bigdevils, little big she-devils, little big devils, tiny little big devils, little devils, tiny devils, big tiny littleshe-devils, big tiny little devils, big little tiny she-devils, big little tiny devils, little big tiny little devils, littlebig little tiny devils, tiny little big tiny little devils, tiny little big little tiny devils, little tiny devils, tiny littledevils and tiny little tiny devils, all ran to the back of the door and kept it shut.

The 120 words that are needed for a correct English translation of all types of devils, Occitan expresses with just 34.But this is not the only way to determine the size of things or people. The feminine form is also of great avail. Also,suffixes slightly or greatly affect how things or people are perceived. See, for instance, the word prat for meadow:• pradèl, pradet, pradòt and pradon all refer to a small meadow;• prada, pradàs and pradal mean a large one (note that the feminine makes it bigger);• pradariá and pradièra are even larger ones (both are feminine);• pradeta, pradèla and pradèra are smaller than a prat but larger than a pradet (this small meadow is quite large: its

being small is not seen as a problem in itself);• pradelàs is larger than a pradèl but smaller than a prat (this meadow is rather large for a small one: it is not so

small in fact);• pradelet, pradelon, praderon and praderòt are quite smaller than a small meadow;• pradesca is a meadow near a river or a pond;• pradal is a natural meadow;• pradatge, pradariá and pratlin refer to a group of meadows or all meadows in general;• pradeta, the diminutive and feminine form of prat, also means a nice little meadow;

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• pradelet, with two diminutive suffixes, is a nice little meadow as well;• pradèla, though similar to pradeta in theory, is actually the opposite: a bad little meadow (note that -èl is more

negative that -et);• pradàs, pradinàs and pradelàs imply that the meadow and the smaller meadows, respectively, are not so good.Of course, all the aforementioned words may in turn be made more precise by other suffixes. These suffixes can beadded to nouns (peis → peisson → peissonet), adjectives (brave → bravilh → bravilhon), verbs (petar → petejar →petonejar) and adverbs (doçament → docetament = doçamenet). Even proper nouns would be altered in a familiarcontext. In most cases, they're family names: the wife of Mr Mistral (sénher Mistral, monsur Mistral or lo Mistral)will accordingly be called la Mistrala (madama Mistral); their son will be lo Mistralet and their daughter laMistraleta. Their younger son's nickname will be lo Mistraleton and so forth, without running the risk of beingmisunderstood. If Mr Mistral is tall, old, fat or disliked, he will as easily become lo Mistralàs (lo Mistralon in theopposite case).

Differences between Occitan and CatalanThe separation of Catalan from Occitan is seen by some as largely politically (rather than linguistically) motivated.However, the variety that has become standard Catalan does differ from that which has become standard Occitan in anumber of ways. The following are just a few examples:•• Phonology

• Standard Catalan (based on Central Eastern Catalan) is unique in that Latin short e developed into a closevowel /e/ (é) and Latin long e developed into an open vowel /ɛ/ (è); this is precisely the reverse of thedevelopment that took place in Western Catalan dialects, and the rest of the Romance languages, includingOccitan. Thus Standard Catalan ésser [ˈesə] corresponds to Occitan èsser/èstre [ˈɛse/ˈɛstre] 'to be;' Catalancarrer [kəˈre] corresponds to Occitan carrièra Occitan pronunciation: [karˈjɛɾo̞] 'street.'

• The distinctly Occitan development of word-final -a, pronounced [o̞] in standard Occitan (e.g. chifra 'figure'[ˈtʃifro̞]), did not occur in general Catalan (which has xifra [ˈʃifrə]). However, some Occitan varieties also lackthis feature and some Catalan (Valencian) varieties have the [ɔ] pronunciation mostly happening during avowel harmony process.

• When in Catalan word stress falls in the antepenultimate syllable, in Occitan the stress is moved to thepenultimate syllable: for example, Occitan pagina [paˈdʒino̞] vs. Catalan pàgina [ˈpaʒinə], "page". However,some varieties of Occitan (e.g., around Nice) keep the stress on the antepenultimate syllable (pàgina) whilesome varieties of Catalan (in Northern Catalonia) put the stress on the penultimate syllable (pagina).

• Diphthongisation has evolved in different ways, e.g. Occitan paire vs. Catalan pare 'father;' Occitan carrièra(carrèra, carrèira) vs. Catalan carrera.

• Some Occitan dialects lack the voiceless postalveolar fricative phoneme /ʃ/ but south-western Occitan presentsit, e.g. general Occitan caissa [ˈkajso̞] vs. Catalan caixa [ˈkaʃə] and south-western Occitan caissa, caisha[ˈka(j)ʃo̞], 'box.' Nevertheless, some Valencian dialects like Northern Valencian lack that phoneme too,generally substituted for /jsʲ/; e.g. caixa [ˈkajʃa] (Standard Valencian) → [ˈkajsʲa] (Northern Valencian).

• Occitan has developed the close front rounded vowel /y/ as a phoneme, often (but not always) corresponding toCatalan /u/, e.g. Occitan musica [myˈziko̞] vs. Catalan música [ˈmuzikə].

• The distribution of palatal consonants /ʎ/ and /ɲ/ differs in Catalan and a part of Occitan: while Catalanpermits these sounds in word-final position, in central Occitan they are neutralised to [l] and [n] (e.g. centralOccitan filh [fil] vs. Catalan fill [fiʎ], 'son'). Non-central varieties of Occitan, however, can have a palatalrealization (e.g. filh, hilh [fiʎ, fij, hiʎ]). However, Alguerese Catalan neutralizes those palatal consonants inword-final position as well.

• Also, many words that start with /l/ in Occitan start with /ʎ/ in Catalan, e.g. Occitan libre [ˈliβɾe] vs. Catalan llibre [ˈʎiβɾə], 'book.' This is perhaps one of the most distinctive characteristics of Catalan amongst the

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Romance languages, only shared with Asturian, Leonese and Mirandese. However, some transitional varietiesof Occitan, near to the Catalan area, also have initial /ʎ/.

• While /l/ is always clear in Occitan, in Catalan it tends to be velarized [ɫ] ("dark l"). In coda position, /l/ hastended to be vocalized to [w] in Occitan, while remained dark in Catalan.

• Standard Eastern Catalan has a neutral vowel [ə] whenever a or e occur in unstressed position (e.g. passar[pəˈsa], 'to happen,' but passa [ˈpasə], 'it happens'), and also [u] whenever o or u occur in unstressed position,e.g. obrir [uˈβɾi], 'to open', but obre [ˈɔβɾə], 'you open'. However, this does not apply to Western Catalandialects, whose vowel system usually retains the a/e distinction in unstressed position, nor to Northern Catalandialects, whose vowel system does not retain the o/u distinction in stressed position, much like Occitan.

•• Morphology• Verb conjugation is slightly different, although there is a great variety amongst dialects. Medieval conjugations

were much closer.• Occitan tends to add an analogical -a to the feminine forms of adjectives that are invariable in standard

Catalan: for example, Occitan legal / legala vs. Catalan legal / legal.• Catalan has a distinctive past tense formation, known as the 'periphrastic preterite,' formed from a variant of

the verb 'to go' plus the infinitive of the verb: donar 'to give,' va donar 'he gave.' This has the same value as the'normal' preterite shared by most Romance languages, deriving from the Latin perfect tense: in Catalan, donà'he gave.' The periphrastic preterite only exists in Occitan as an archaic or as a very local tense.

•• Orthography• The writing systems of the two languages differ slightly. The modern Occitan spelling recommended by the

Institut d'Estudis Occitans and the Conselh de la Lenga Occitana is designed to be a pan-Occitan system,whereas the Catalan system recommended by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans and Acadèmia Valenciana de laLlengua is specific to Catalan and Valencian. For example, in Catalan, word-final -n is omitted, as this is notpronounced in any dialect of Catalan (so we have Català, Occità); central Occitan also drops word-final -n, butit is retained in the spelling, as some eastern and western dialects of Occitan do retain the final consonant (sowe have Catalan, Occitan). Some digraphs are also written in a different way such as the sound /ʎ/, which is–ll– in Catalan (similar to Spanish) and –lh– in Occitan (similar to Portuguese) or the sound /ɲ/ written –ny–in Catalan and –nh– in Occitan.

Occitano-Romance linguistic groupDespite these differences, Occitan and Catalan remain more or less mutually comprehensible, especially whenwritten — more so than either is with Spanish or French, for example. Occitan and Catalan form a commondiasystem (or a common Abstandsprache), which is called Occitano-Romance, according to the linguist PèireBèc.[65] Speakers of both languages share early historical and cultural heritage.The combined Occitano-Romance area is 259,000 km2 and represents 23 million speakers. However, the regions arenot equal in terms of language speakers. According to Bec 1969 (pp. 120–121), in France, no more than a quarter ofthe population in counted regions speak Occitan well, though around half can understand it; it is thought that thenumber of Occitan users has decreased dramatically since then. By contrast, in the Spanish Catalonia, nearly threequarters of the population speak Catalan and 95% understand it.[66]

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Occitan quotes

According to the testimony of Bernadette Soubirous, the Virgin Maryspoke to her (Lourdes, 25 March 1858) in Gascon saying: Que sòi

era Immaculada Concepcion ("I am the Immaculate Conception", thephrase is reproduced under this statue in the Lourdes grotto with a

non-standard spelling), confirming the proclamation of this Catholicdogma four years earlier.

One of the most notable passages of Occitan inWestern literature occurs in the 26th canto of Dante'sPurgatorio in which the troubadour Arnaut Danielresponds to the narrator:

"Tan m'abellís vostre cortés deman, / qu'ieu nome puesc ni voill a vos cobrire. / Ieu sui Arnaut,que plor e vau cantan; / consirós vei la passadafolor, / e vei jausen lo joi qu'esper, denan. / Aravos prec, per aquella valor / que vos guida alsom de l'escalina, / sovenha vos a temps de madolor"

Modern Occitan: Tan m'abelís vòstra cortesademanda, / que ieu non pòdi ni vòli m'amagar devos. / Ieu soi Arnaut, que plori e vau cantant; /consirós vesi la foliá passada, / e vesi joiós lojorn qu'espèri, davant. / Ara vos prègui, peraquela valor / que vos guida al som de l'escalièr,/ sovenhatz-vos tot còp de ma dolor.

The above strophe translates to:So pleases me your courteous demand, / I cannotand I will not hide me from you. / I am Arnaut,who weep and singing go;/ Contrite I see thefolly of the past, / And joyous see the hoped-forday before me. / Therefore do I implore you, bythat power/ Which guides you to the summit ofthe stairs, / Be mindful to assuage my suffering!

Another notable Occitan quotation, this time from Arnaut Daniel's own 10th Canto:"Ieu sui Arnaut qu'amas l'aura

e chatz le lebre ab lo bou

e nadi contra suberna"

Modern Occitan:"Ieu soi Arnaut qu'aimi l'aura

e caci [chaci] la lèbre amb lo buòu

e nadi contra subèrna.

Translation:"I am Arnaut who loves the wind,and chases the hare with the ox,and swims against the torrent."

French writer Victor Hugo's classic Les Misérables also contains some Occitan. In Part One, First Book, Chapter IV,"Les œuvres semblables aux paroles", one can read about Monseigneur Bienvenu:

"Né provençal, il s'était facilement familiarisé avec tous les patois du midi. Il disait: — E ben, monsur, sètz saget? comme dans le bas Languedoc. — Ont anaratz passar? comme dans les basses Alpes. — Pòrti un bon

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moton amb un bon formatge gras, comme dans le haut Dauphiné. [...] Parlant toutes les langues, il entrait danstoutes les âmes."

Translation:"Born a Provençal, he easily familiarized himself with the dialect of the south. He would say, E ben, monsur,sètz saget? as in lower Languedoc; Ont anaratz passar? as in the Basses-Alpes; Pòrti un bon moton amb unbon formatge gras as in upper Dauphiné. [...] As he spoke all tongues, he entered into all hearts."E ben, monsur, sètz saget?: So, Mister, everything's fine?Ont anaratz passar?: Which way will you go?Pòrti un bon moton amb un bon formatge gras: I brought some fine mutton with a fine fat cheese

The Spanish playwright Lope de Rueda included a Gascon servant for comical effect in one of his short pieces, Lagenerosa paliza.[67]

John Barnes's Thousand Cultures science fiction series (A Million Open Doors, 1992; Earth Made of Glass, 1998;The Merchants of Souls, 2001; and The Armies of Memory, 2006), features Occitan. So does the 2005 best-sellingnovel Labyrinth by English author Kate Mosse. It is set in Carcassonne, where she owns a house and spends half ofthe year.The French composer Joseph Canteloube created five sets of folk songs entitled Songs of the Auvergne, in which thelyrics are in the Auvergne dialect of Occitan. The orchestration strives to conjure vivid pastoral scenes of yesteryear.Michael Crichton features Occitan in his Timeline novel.

Notes[1] « De fait, le nombre des locuteurs de l’occitan a pu être estimé par l’INED dans un premier temps à 526 000 personnes, puis à 789 000, » ("In

fact, the number of occitan speakers was estimated by the French Demographics Institute at 526,000 people, then 789,000") Philippe Martel,"Qui parle occitan ?" in Langues et cité (http:/ / www. dglf. culture. gouv. fr/ Langues_et_cite/ langues_cite10. pdf) n°10, December 2007.

[2] CLO's statements in Lingüistica Occitana (online review of Occitan linguistics). (http:/ / www. revistadoc. org/ file/ Linguistica occitana 6CLO. pdf)

[3] Congrès permanent de la langue occitane / Congrès permanent de la lenga occitana - Un nouvel organisme de régulation de l’occitan auservice des usagers et des locuteurs (http:/ / aquitaine. fr/ salle-de-presse/ communiques-de-presse/ congres-permanent-de-la-langue-occitane/congres-permanent-de-la-lenga-occitana-un-nouvel-organisme-de-regulation-de-l-occitan-au-service-des-usagers-et-des-locuteurs. html)

[4] Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 7th edition, 2005.[5] Regional pronunciations: occitan = [u(k)siˈtaⁿ, u(k)siˈtɔ, ukʃiˈtɔ].[6] As stated in its Statute of Autonomy approved. See Article 6.5 in the Parlament-cat.net (http:/ / www. parlament-cat. net/ porteso/ estatut/

estatut_angles_100506. pdf), text of the 2006 Statute of Catalonia (PDF)[7] Smith and Bergin. Old Provençal Primer, p. 9.[8] Dalby, Andrew (1998). "Occitan" (http:/ / www. bloomsbury. com/ ). Dictionary of Languages (1st ed.). Bloomsbury Publishing plc. p. 468.

ISBN 0-7475-3117-X. . Retrieved 8 November 2006.[9] Languages Atlas, [[UNESCO (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ culture/ languages-atlas/ index. php)]][10] Badia i Margarit, Antoni M. (1995). Gramàtica de la llengua catalana: Descriptiva, normativa, diatòpica, diastràtica. Barcelona: Proa.,

253.1 (Catalan)[11] Lapobladelduc.org (http:/ / www. lapobladelduc. org/ valencia/ nom. htm), "El nom de la llengua". The name of the language, in Catalan[12] Joseph Anglade, Histoire sommaire de la littérature méridionale au Moyen-Âge, 1921.[13] Joseph Anglade, Grammaire de l'ancien provençal ou ancienne langue d'oc, 1921, Part I, Chapter 1, p. 10: Sur Occitania ont été formés les

adjectifs latins occitanus, occitanicus et les adjectifs français occitanique, occitanien, occitan (ce dernier terme plus récent), qui seraientexcellents et qui ne prêteraient pas à la même confusion que provençal.

[14] Joseph Anglade, Grammaire de l'ancien provençal ou ancienne langue d'oc, 1921, Part I, Chapter 1, p. 7.[15] Camille Chabaneau et al, Histoire générale de Languedoc, 1872, p. 170: Au onzième, douzième et encore parfois au XIIIe siècle, on

comprenait sous le nom de Provence tout le territoire de l'ancienne Provincia Romana et même de l'Aquitaine.[16] Joseph Anglade, Grammaire de l'ancien provençal ou ancienne langue d'oc, 1921, Part I, Chapter 1, p. 7: Ce terme fut surtout employé en

Italie.[17] François Juste Marie Raynouard, Choix des poésies originales des troubadours, Tome II, 1817, p. 40[18] François Juste Marie Raynouard, Choix des poésies originales des troubadours, Tome I, 1816, p. vij

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[19] François Juste Marie Raynouard, Choix des poésies originales des troubadours, Tome II, 1817, p. cxxxvij: "Ben ha mil e cent (1100) ancscomplí entierament / Que fo scripta l'ora car sen al derier temps."

[20] Charles Knight, Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Vol. XXV, 1843, p. 308: "At one time thelanguage and poetry of the troubadours were in fashion in most of the courts of Europe."

[21] Cierbide Martinena, Ricardo (1996). "Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra" (http:/ / dialnet. unirioja. es/ servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080). Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología (València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana;Abadia de Montserrat) (20): 247. ISSN 0214-8188. .

[22] Cierbide Martinena, Ricardo (1998). "Notas gráfico-fonéticas sobre la documentación medieval navarra" (http:/ / dialnet. unirioja. es/servlet/ articulo?codigo=16134). Príncipe de Viana (214): 524. ISSN 0032-8472. .

[23] Cierbide Martinena, Ricardo (1996). "Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra" (http:/ / dialnet. unirioja. es/ servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080). Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología (València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana;Abadia de Montserrat) (20): 247–249. ISSN 0214-8188. .

[24][24] Morvan, Michel (1997). Les origines linguistiques du Basque. Bordeaux: Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux (PUB). p. 26.ISBN 978-2-86781-182-1.

[25] Jurio, Jimeno (1997). Navarra: Historia del Euskera. Tafalla: Txalaparta. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-84-8136-062-2.[26] "Licenciado Andrés de Poza y Yarza" (http:/ / www. euskomedia. org/ aunamendi/ 118353). EuskoMedia Fundazioa. . Retrieved 17

February 2010. Poza quotes the Basques inhabiting lands as far east as the River Gallego in the 16th century[27] Cierbide Martinena, Ricardo (1996). "Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra" (http:/ / dialnet. unirioja. es/ servlet/

articulo?codigo=2274080). Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología (València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana;Abadia de Montserrat) (20): 249. ISSN 0214-8188. .

[28] Cierbide Martinena, Ricardo (1996). "Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra" (http:/ / dialnet. unirioja. es/ servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080). Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología (València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana;Abadia de Montserrat) (20): 248. ISSN 0214-8188. .

[29] Desparicion del Euskara por el norte y el este (http:/ / www. osoa. net/ Articles/ Desaparicion_del_Euskara_por_el_este_y_norte. pdf) (inSpanish): En San Sebastián [...] se habla gascón desde el siglo XIV hasta el 1919

[30] Ghigo F. (1980) The Provençal speech of the Waldensian colonists of Valdese, North Carolina, Valdese: Historic Valdese Foundation;Holmes U. T. (1934) "Waldensian speech in North Carolina", Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 54: 500–513

[31] Expatries-france.com (http:/ / www. expatries-france. com/ resultVille. php?co=0& mots=24& mot2=14), Selection Villes[32] http:/ / www. mexicofrancia. org/ articulos/ p17. pdf[33] LaDepeche.fr (http:/ / www. ladepeche. fr/ article/ 2009/ 08/ 03/ 648785-On-va-parler-occitan-dans-le-metro-des-la-rentree. html)[34] Pierre, Bec. (1995) La langue occitane, coll. Que sais-je? n° 1059, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.[35] Arveiller, Raymond. (1967) Étude sur le parler de Monaco, Monaco: Comité National des Traditions Monégasques, p. ix.[36] Klinkenberg, Jean-Marie. Des langues romanes, Duculot, 1994, 1999, p. 228: "The amount of speakers is an estimated 10 to 12 millions... in

any case never less than 6 millions."[37] Baker, Colin; and Sylvia Prys Jones. Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education, 1997, p. 402: "Of the 13 million inhabitants of

the area where Occitan is spoken (comprising 31 départements) it is estimated that about half have a knowledge of one of the Occitanvarieties."

[38] Barbour, Stephen and Cathie Carmichael. Language and nationalism in Europe, 2000, p. 62: "Occitan is spoken in 31 départements, buteven the EBLUL (1993: 15-16) is wary of statistics: 'There are no official data on the number of speakers. Of some 12 to 13 millioninhabitants in the area, it is estimated 48 per cent understand Occitan, 28 per cent can speak it, about 9 per cent of the population use it on adaily basis, 13 per cent can read and 6 per cent can write the language.'"

[39] Anglade, Joseph. Grammaire de l'ancien provençal ou ancienne langue d'oc, 1921: La Langue d'Oc est parlée actuellement par douze ouquatorze millions de Français ("Occitan is now spoken by twelve or fourteen million French citizens").

[40] parlée dans le Midi de la France par quatorze millions d'habitants ("spoken in the South of France by fourteen million inhabitants"). Louisde Baecker (1860). "Grammaire comparée des langues de la France, par Louis de Baecker. Flamand, allemand, celto-breton, basque,provençal, espagnol, italien, français, comparés au sanscrit" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k5846989r. f61. pagination. langEN. hl).p. 52. . Retrieved 3 September 2010. and "Grammaire comparée des langues de la France, par Louis de Baecker. Flamand, allemand,celto-breton, basque, provençal, espagnol, italien, français, comparés au sanscrit" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k5846989r. f63.langEN). pp. 54. . Retrieved 3 September 2010. 54

[41] Yann Gaussen, Du fédéralisme de Proudhon au Félibrige de Mistral, 1927, p. 4: [...] défendre une langue, qui est aujourd'hui la mère de lanôtre, parlée encore par plus de dix millions d'individus [...] ("protect a language, which is today the mother of ours, still spoken by more thanten million individuals"); Yvan Gaussen. "Du fédéralisme de Proudhon au Félibrige de Mistral" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/bpt6k57104841. image. langEN. f6. pagination). . Retrieved 3 September 2010.

[42] Wheeler, Max (1988), "Occitan", in Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel, The Romance Languages, New York: Oxford University Press,pp. 246–278

[43] Bec, Pierre (1973), Manuel pratique d'occitan moderne, Paris:Picard.[44] Domergue SUMIEN (2006), La standardisation pluricentrique de l'occitan: nouvel enjeu sociolinguistique, développement du lexique et de

la morphologie, coll. Publications de l'Association Internationale d'Études Occitanes, Turnhout: Brepols

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[45] Domergue Sumien (2006) La standardisation pluricentrique de l'occitan: nouvel enjeu sociolinguistique, développement du lexique et de lamorphologie, Turnhout: Brepols.

[46] Jean-Pierre Juge (2001) Petit précis – Chronologie occitane – Histoire & civilisation, p. 25[47] "Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)" (http:/ / www. omniglot. com/ udhr/ italic. htm). Omniglot.com. . Retrieved 15 October

2009.[48] "Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)" (http:/ / www. omniglot. com/ udhr/ germanic. htm). Omniglot.com. . Retrieved 15

October 2009.[49] Kremnitz, Georg. "Une approche sociolinguistique", in Kirsch, F. Peter; Kremnitz, Georg & Schlieben-Lange, Brigitte. (2002). Petite

histoire sociale de la langue occitane: usages, images, littérature, grammaires et dictionnaires, coll. Cap al Sud, F-66140 Canet: Trabucaire,p. 109-111 [updated version and partial translation from: Holtus, Günter; Metzeltin, Michael & Schmitt, Christian. (1991) (dir.) Lexikon derRomanistischen Linguistik. Vol. V-2: Okzitanisch, Katalanisch, Tübingen: Niemeyer]

[50][50] Philippe Blanchet, Louis Bayle, Pierre Bonnaud and Jean Lafitte[51] As indicated by: Kremnitz, Georg. "Une approche sociolinguistique", in Kirsch, F. Peter; Kremnitz, Georg & Schlieben-Lange, Brigitte.

(2002). Petite histoire sociale de la langue occitane: usages, images, littérature, grammaires et dictionnaires, coll. Cap al Sud, F-66140Canet: Trabucaire, pp. 109–111 [updated version and partial translation from: Holtus, Günter; Metzeltin, Michael & Schmitt, Christian (1991)(dir.) Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik. Vol. V-2: Okzitanisch, Katalanisch, Tübingen: Niemeyer]

[52] Kremnitz, Georg (2003) "Un regard sociolinguistique sur les changements de la situation de l’occitan depuis 1968" in: Castano R., Guida, S.,& Latella, F. (2003) (dir.) Scènes, évolutions, sort de la langue et de la littérature d’oc. Actes du VIIe congrès de l’Association Internationaled’Études Occitanes, Reggio di Calabria/Messina, 7-13 juillet 2002, Rome: Viella

[53][53] See especially:

• From traditional Romance philology: Jules Ronjat (1930–1941), Grammaire istorique des parlers provençaux modernes, 1930 & Essai desyntaxe des parlers provençaux modernes, p. 12: Mais les différences de phonétique, de morphologie, de syntaxe et de vocabulaire ne sontpas telles qu'une personne connaissant pratiquement à fond un de nos dialectes ne puisse converser dans ce dialecte avec une autrepersonne parlant un autre dialecte qu'elle possède pratiquement à fond. "Essai de syntaxe des parlers provençaux modernes" (http:/ /www. archive. org/ stream/ essaidesyntaxede00ronjuoft#page/ 12/ mode/ 2up). p. 12. . Retrieved 3 September 2010. (But phonetical,morphological, syntactical and lexical differences are not such that a person quite perfectly fluent in one of our dialects would not be ableto have a conversation with another person speaking another dialect with an equally perfect fluency) [see esp. "Introduction" inGrammaire... (vol. 1, p. 1–32)].

• About the unity of the Occitan diasystem in structural linguistics: Pierre Bec (1973), Manuel pratique d’occitan moderne, coll.Connaissance des langues, Paris: Picard, p. 24–25

[54][54] Philippe Blanchet, Louis Bayle[55] The most emblematic and productive ones, Frédéric Mistral, Robert Lafont, and their followers (Théodore Aubanel, René Merle (http:/ /

www. rene-merle. com/ ), Claude Barsotti, Philippe Gardy, Florian Vernet, Bernard Giély, Pierre Pessemesse...), and also the most importantand historic Provençal cultural associations as CREO Provença (http:/ / c-oc. org/ oc/ provenca/ article. php3?id_article=10), Felibrige (http:/ /www. felibrige. org/ spip. php?article3) and Parlaren (Assiso de la Lengo Nostro en Prouvènço, 2003) (http:/ / www. prouvenco-aro. com/archieu/ outobre. htm)

[56] The close ties between Gascon and others Occitan dialects have been demonstrated through a common diasystem: Bec, Pierre (1963). LaLangue Occitane. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. p. 46.

[57] Kremnitz, Georg. "Une approche sociolinguistique", in Kirsch, F. Peter; Kremnitz, Georg & Schlieben-Lange, Brigitte. (2002). Petitehistoire sociale de la langue occitane: usages, images, littérature, grammaires et dictionnaires, coll. Cap al Sud, F-66140 Canet: Trabucaire,p. 109–111 [updated version and partial translation from: Holtus, Günter; Metzeltin, Michael & Schmitt, Christian (1991). (dir.) Lexikon derRomanistischen Linguistik. Vol. V-2: Okzitanisch, Katalanisch, Tübingen: Niemeyer]

[58] PerNoste.com (http:/ / www. pernoste. com/ )[59] Reclams.no-ip.org (http:/ / reclams. no-ip. org/ site/ reclams. html), Reclams/Escòla Gaston Fèbus[60] Perso.orange.fr (http:/ / perso. orange. fr/ anaram/ ), Aranaram Au Patac[61] Lluis Fornés, see his thesis El Pensament Panoccitanista (http:/ / www. oc-valencia. org/ files/ autors/ El_Pensament_Ultima. pdf) on the

Oc-València site (http:/ / www. oc-valencia. org/ ).[62][62] Modern loanword from Italian or Greek (Iordan, Dift., 145)[63] Avner Gerard Levy & Jacques Ajenstat: The Kodaxil Semantic Manifesto (http:/ / www. kodaxil. org/ kManifesto. pdf) (2006), Section 10 –

Modified Base64 / Kodaxil word length, representation, p. 9: "the English language, as claimed by Merriam-Webster, as well as the Occitanlanguage – are estimated to comprise over 450,000 words in their basic form."

[64] "La covisada; en dialecte brivadois, avec une traduction française et des notes" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/lacovisadaendial00gilbuoft#page/ 166/ mode/ 2up). . Retrieved 3 September 2010.

[65] Bec, Pierre. (1995). La langue occitane, coll. Que sais-je? nr. 1059. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France [1st ed. 1963][66] Gencat.net (http:/ / www6. gencat. net/ llengcat/ socio/ coneix. htm)[67] Registro de Representantes (http:/ / www. cervantesvirtual. com/ servlet/ SirveObras/ 01159741097810429650035/ p0000001. htm) by Lope

de Rueda, in Spanish. Peirutón speaks a mix of Gascon and Catalan.

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Bibliography• Smith, Nathaniel B.; Bergin, Thomas Goddard (1984). An Old Provençal Primer. Garland. ISBN 0-8240-9030-6.• Carrera, Aitor (2007) (in Aranese). Gramatica Aranesa. Lleida: Pagès Editors. ISBN 978-84-9779-484-8.

External links• Orbilat.com (http:/ / www. orbilat. com/ Languages/ Occitan/ index. html), Overview and grammar of Occitan• Occitanet.free.fr (http:/ / occitanet. free. fr/ en/ index. html), a guide to the language• Globegate.UTM.edu (http:/ / globegate. utm. edu/ french/ globegate_mirror/ occit. html), Troubadour & Early

Occitan Literature• Ostaldoccitania.net (http:/ / www. ostaldoccitania. net) The house of occitan associations of Toulouse• Eonet.ne (http:/ / www. eonet. ne. jp/ ~ogurisu/ 2french/ LexiqueRoman/ LexiqueRoman. html), "LexRomEdic",

Electronic version of Lexique Roman of Rainouard (A provisional version is available).

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Old Occitan

Old OccitanOld Provençal

Region Provence

Era 8th–14th centuries

Language family Indo-European

•• Italic

•• Romance

•• Western

•• Gallo-Romance

•• Occitano-Romance

•• Old Occitan

Language codes

ISO 639-3 pro

Old Occitan (Modern Occitan: occitan ancian, Catalan: occità antic), also called Old Provençal, was the earliestform of the Occitano-Romance languages, as attested in writings dating from the eighth through the fourteenthcenturies.[1][2] Old Occitan generally includes Early and Old Occitan. Middle Occitan is sometimes included in OldOccitan, sometimes in Modern Occitan.[3] As the term occitanus appeared around the year 1300,[4] Old Occitan isreferred to as "Romance" (Occitan: romans) or "Provençal" (Occitan: proensals) in medieval texts.

HistoryAmong the earliest records of Occitan are the Tomida femina, the Boecis, and the Cançó de Santa Fe. The Catalanlanguage diverged from Old Occitan between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries.[5] Early texts in the Catalandialect are the Homilies d'Organyà and the Greuges de Guitard Isarn. Old Occitan, the language used by thetroubadours, was the first Romance language with a literary corpus and had an enormous influence on thedevelopment of lyric poetry in other European languages. The interpunct was a feature of the language, and survivestoday in Catalan and Gascon.

PhonologyOld Occitan changed and evolved somewhat during its history, but the basic sound system can be summarised asfollows:[6]

Consonants

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Old Occitan consonants

Bilabial Labio-dental

Dental/alveolar

Postalveolar/palatal

Velar

Nasal m n ɲ

Plosive p   b t   d k   ɡ

Fricative f   v s   z

Affricate ts   dz tʃ   dʒ

Lateral l ʎ

Trill r

Tap ɾ

Notes:• Written <ch> is believed to have represented the affricate [tʃ]; but, since the spelling often alternates with <c>, it

may also have represented [k].• Word-final <g> may sometimes represent [tʃ], as in gaug "joy" (also spelled gauch).• Intervocalic <z> could represent either [z] or [dz].• Written <j> could represent either [dʒ] or [j].

Vowels

Monophthongs

Old Occitan vowels

Front Back

Close i   y u

Close-mid e (o)

Open-mid ɛ ɔ

Open a ɑ

Notes:• [o] apparently raised to [u] during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; but the spelling was unaffected, hence flor

/fluɾ/ "flower".[7]

• The open-mid vowels [ɛ] and [ɔ] appear as allophones of /e/ and /u/ respectively under certain circumstances instressed syllables.

Diphthongs and triphthongs

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Old Occitan diphthongs and triphthongs

IPA Example Meaning

falling

/aj/ paire father

/aw/ autre other

/uj/ conoiser to know

/uw/ dous sweet

/ɔj/ pois then

/ɔw/ mou it moves

/ej/ vei I see

/ew/ beure to drink

/ɛj/ seis six

/ɛw/ breu short

/yj/ cuid I believe

/iw/ estiu summer

rising

/jɛ/ miels better

/wɛ/ cuelh he receives

/wɔ/ cuolh he receives

triphthongsstress always falls on middle vowel

/jɛj/ lieis her

/jɛw/ ieu I

/wɔj/ nuoit night

/wɛj/ pueis then

/wɔw/ uou egg

/wɛw/ bueu ox

Extracts

Gallo-Romance (Occitan precursor)• From the Oaths of Strasbourg (842):

Pro Deo amur et pro Christian poblo et nostro commun salvament,d'ist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvaraieo cist meon fradre Karlo et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cumom per dreit son fradre salvar dist, in o quid il me altresi fazet, etab Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui, meon vol, cist meonfradre Karle in damno sit.

For the love of God and for the Christian people and our common salvation,from this day onwards, so much as God gives me wisdom and power, I shallaccordingly protect this brother of mine Charles, both in aid and in anythingelse, as one ought to protect one's brother, so that he may do the same for me,and I shall never willingly agree to a covenant from Lothar that would harmthis brother of mine Charles.

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Old Occitan• From Bertran de Born's Ab joi mou lo vers e·l comens (ca. 1200, translated by James H. Donalson):

Bela Domna·l vostre cors gensE·lh vostre bel olh m'an conquis,E·l doutz esgartz e lo clars vis,E·l vostre bels essenhamens,Que, can be m'en pren esmansa,De beutat no·us trob egansa:La genser etz c'om posc'e·l mon chauzir,O no·i vei clar dels olhs ab que·us remir.

O pretty lady, all your graceand eyes of beauty conquered me,sweet glance and brightness of your faceand all your nature has to tellso if I make an appraisalI find no one like in beauty:most pleasing to be found in all the worldor else the eyes I see you with have dimmed.

Further reading• Nathaniel B. Smith, Thomas Goddard Bergin, An Old Provençal primer, Garland, 1984, ISBN 0-8240-9030-6• Paden, William D. 1998. An Introduction to Old Occitan. Modern Language Association of America. ISBN

0-87352-293-1.• Povl Skårup, Morphologie élémentaire de l'ancien occitan, Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, ISBN

87-7289-428-8• Romieu, Maurice; Bianchi, André (2002) (in Occitan and French). Iniciacion a l'occitan ancian / Initiation à

l'ancien occitan. Pessac: Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux. ISBN 2-86781-275-5.

References[1] Rebecca Posner, The Romance Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-28139-3[2] Frank M. Chambers, An Introduction to Old Provençal Versification. Diane, 1985 ISBN 0-87169-167-1[3] "The Early Occitan period is generally considered to extend from ca. 800 to 1000, Old Occitan from 1000 to 1350, and Middle Occitan from

1350 to 1550" in William W. Kibler, Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-8240-4444-4[4] Smith and Bergin, Old Provençal Primer, p. 2[5] Riquer, Martí de, Història de la Literatura Catalana, vol. 1. Barcelona: Edicions Ariel, 1964[6] The charts are based on phonologies given in Paden, William D., An Introduction to Old Occitan, New York 1998[7][7] See Paden 1998, p. 101

External links• A site with a presentation of Old Occitan (http:/ / www. lingweenie. org/ occitan/ )

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Occitan literatureOccitan literature — still sometimes called Provençal literature — is a body of texts written in Occitan in thesouth of France. It originated in the poetry of the 11th- and 12th-century troubadours, and inspired the rise ofvernacular literature throughout medieval Europe.

IntroductionOccitan literature started in the 11th and 12th centuries in several centres. It gradually spread out thence, first overthe greater portion, though not the whole of southern France, and then into Catalonia, Galicia, Castile, Portugal andinto what is now the north of Italy. At the time of its highest development (12th century) the art of composing in thevulgar tongue did not exist, or was only beginning to exist, to the south of the Alps and the Pyrenees. In the north, inthe country of French speech, vernacular poetry was in full bloom; but between the districts in which it haddeveloped, Champagne, Île-de-France, Picardy and Normandy and the region in which Occitan literature had sprungup, there seems to have been an intermediate zone formed by Burgundy, Bourbonnais, Berry, Touraine and Anjouwhich, far on in the Middle Ages, appears to have remained almost barren of vernacular literature.In its rise Occitan literature stands completely by itself, and in its development it long continued to be highlyoriginal. It presents at several points genuine analogies with French literature; but these analogies are due principallyto certain primary elements common to both and only in a slight degree to mutual reaction.

OriginOccitan poetry first appeared in the 11th century. The oldest surviving text is the Provençal burden (Fr. "refrain")attached to a 10th-century Latin poem.[1] The text has not yet been satisfactorily interpreted. The quality of theearliest remaining works suggest earlier work was lost.The earliest Occitan poem is a 10th-century, seventeen-line charm Tomida femina probably for dispersing the pain ofchildbirth. Much longer is an 11th century fragment of two hundred and fifty-seven decasyllabic verses preserved inan Orléans manuscript, first printed by Raynouard.[2] It is believed to have come from Limousin or Marche in thenorth of the Occitan region. The unknown author takes Boethius's treatise De consolatione philosophiae as thegroundwork of his composition. The poem is a didactic piece composed by a clerk. The Cançó de Santa Fe datesfrom 1054–76, but probably represents a Catalan dialect that evolved into a distinct language from Occitan. From thesame century there is Las, qu'i non sun sparvir, astur, a secular love poem.From the next century are the poems of William (Guilhem) IX, the grandfather of Eleanor of Aquitaine. They consistof eleven diverse strophic pieces, and were consequently meant to be sung. Several are love songs. The only onewhich can be approximately dated was composed around 1119, when William was setting out for Spain to fight theSaracens. It expresses the writer's regret for the frivolity of his past life and his apprehensions as he bade farewell tohis country and his young son. We also know from Ordericus Vitalis that William had composed various poems onthe incidents of his ill-fated Crusade of 1101. In one of his pieces[3] he makes an allusion to the partimen.The origins of this poetry are uncertain. It bears no relation to Latin poetry, nor to folklore. Vernacular compositionsseem to have been at first produced for the amusement, or in the case of religious poetry, for the edification, of thatpart of lay society which had leisure and lands, and reckoned intellectual pastime among the good things of life.In the 11th century, vernacular poetry served mainly the amusement and edification of the upper class. By the 12thand 13th centuries, historical works and popular treatises on contemporary science were composed in the vernacular.Occitan poetry may have originated amongst the jesters. Some, leaving buffoonery to the ruder and less intelligent members of the profession, devoted themselves to the composition of pieces intended for singing. In the north, the jesters produced chansons de geste full of tales of battle and combat. In the courts of the southern nobles they

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produced love songs.

Poetry of the troubadoursThough he was certainly not the creator of the Occitan lyric poetry, William, count of Poitiers, by personallycultivating it gave it a position of honor, and indirectly contributed in a very powerful degree to ensure itsdevelopment and preservation. Shortly after him centres of poetic activity made their appearance in various places,first in Limousin and Gascony. In the former province lived Ebolus cantator (a singer named Eble), who during thesecond part of William of Poitiers' life seems to have been brought into relation with him, and according to acontemporary historian, Geoffroy, prior of Vigeois, erat valde gratiosus in cantilenis ("gave a great deal of pleasureby his songs"). None of his compositions survive; but under his influence Bernart of Ventadour was trained topoetry, who, though only the son of one of the serving-men of the castle, managed to gain the love of the lady ofVentadour, and when on the discovery of their amour he had to depart elsewhere, received a gracious welcome fromEleanor of Aquitaine, consort (from 1152) of Henry II of England. Of Bernart's compositions we possess about fiftysongs of elegant simplicity, some of which may be taken as the most perfect specimens of love poetry Occitanliterature has ever produced. Bernart must therefore have been in repute before the middle of the 12th century; andhis poetic career extended well on towards its close.At the same period, or probably a little earlier, flourished Cercamon, a poet certainly inferior to Bernart, to judge bythe few pieces he has left us, but nevertheless of genuine importance among the troubadours both because of hisearly date and because definite information regarding him has been preserved. He was a Gascon, and composed, sayshis old biographer, pastorals according to the ancient custom (pastorelas a la uzansa antiga). This is the record ofthe appearance in the south of France of a poetic form which ultimately acquired large development. The period atwhich Cercamon lived is determined by a piece where he alludes very clearly to the approaching marriage of theking of France, Louis VII, with Eleanor of Aquitaine (1137). Among the earliest troubadours may also be reckonedMarcabru, a pupil of Cercamon, from whose pen we have about forty pieces, those which can be approximatelydated ranging from 1135 to 1148 or thereabout. This poet has great originality of thought and style. His songs,several of which are historical, are free from the commonplaces of their class, and contain curious strictures on thecorruptions of the time.We cannot here do more than enumerate the leading troubadours and briefly indicate in what conditions their poetrywas developed and through what circumstances it fell into decay and finally disappeared: Peire d'Alvernha, who incertain respects must be classed with Marcabru; Arnaut Daniel, remarkable for his complicated versification, theinventor of the sestina, a poetic form for which Dante and Petrarch express an admiration difficult for us tounderstand; Arnaut de Mareuil, who, while less famous than Arnaut Daniel, certainly surpasses him in elegantsimplicity of form and delicacy of sentiment; Bertran de Born, now the most generally known of all the troubadourson account of the part he is said to have played both by his sword and his sirveniescs in the struggle between HenryII of England and his rebel sons, though the importance of his part in the events of the time seems to have beengreatly exaggerated; Peire Vidal of Toulouse, a poet of varied inspiration who grew rich with gifts bestowed on himby the greatest nobles of his time; Guiraut de Borneil, lo macsire dels trobadors, and at any rate master in the art ofthe so-called close style (trebar clus), though he has also left us some songs of charming simplicity; Gaucelm Faidit,from whom we have a touching lament (plaint) on the death of Richard Cœur de Lion; Folquet of Marseille, the mostpowerful thinker among the poets of the south, who from being a merchant and troubadour became an abbot, andfinally bishop of Toulouse (d. 1231).It is not without interest to discover to what social classes the troubadours belonged. Many of them, there is no doubt, had a very humble origin. Bernart of Ventadour's father was a servant, Peire Vidal's a maker of furred garments, Perdigon's a fisher. Others belonged to the bourgeoisie, Peire d'Alvernha, for example, Peire Raimon of Toulouse, and Elias Fonsalada. Likewise we see merchants' sons as troubadours; this was the case with Folquet of Marseille and Aimeric de Peguilhan. A great many were clerics, or at least studied for the Church, for instance,

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Arnaut de Mareuil, Uc de Saint Circ, Aimeric de Belenoi, Hugh Brunet, Peire Cardenal; some had even taken orders:the monk of Montaudon and Gaubert de Puicibot. Ecclesiastical authority did not always tolerate this breach ofdiscipline. Gui d'Ussel, canon and troubadour, was obliged by the injunction of the pontifical legate to give up hissong-making; Folquet, too, renounced it when he took orders. One point is particularly striking, the number ofmonarchs and nobles who were troubadours: Raimon de Miraval, Pons de Capdoill, Guilhem Ademar, Cadenet,Peirol, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, and many more. Some of this group were poor knights whose incomes wereinsufficient to support their rank, and took up poetry not merely for their own pleasure, but for the sake of the gifts tobe obtained from the rich whose courts they frequented. A very different position was occupied by such wealthy andpowerful people as William of Poitiers, Raimbaut d'Aurenga, the viscount of Saint Antonin, Guillem de Berguedàand Blacatz.The profession was entirely dependent on the existence and prosperity of the feudal courts. The troubadours couldhardly expect to obtain a livelihood from any other quarter than the generosity of the great. It will consequently bewell to mention the more important at least of those princes who are known to have been patrons and some of thempractisers of the poetic art. They are arranged approximately in geographical order, and after each are inserted thenames of those troubadours with whom they were connected.

PatronageWhile the troubadours find protectors in Catalonia, Castile and Italy, they do not seem to have been welcomed inFrench-speaking countries. This, however, must not be taken too absolutely. Occitan poetry was appreciated in thenorth of France. There is reason to believe that when Constance, daughter of one of the counts of Arles, was marriedin 1001 to Robert, king of France, she brought along with her Provençal jongleurs. Poems by troubadours are quotedin the French romances of the beginning of the 13th century; some of them are transcribed in the old collections ofFrench songs, and the preacher Robert de Sorbon informs us in a curious passage that one day a jongleur sang apoem by Folquet of Marseilles at the court of the king of France. Since the countries of the langue d'oil had a fulldeveloped literature of their own, the troubadours generally preferred to go to regions where they had lesscompetition.The decline and fall of troubadour poetry was mainly due to political causes. When about the beginning of the 13thcentury the Albigensian Crusade led by the French king had decimated and ruined the nobility and reduced to lastingpoverty a part of the Occitan territories, the profession of troubadour ceased to be lucrative. It was then that many ofthose poets went to spend their last days in the north of Spain and Italy, where Occitan poetry had for more than onegeneration been highly esteemed. Following their example, other poets who were not natives of the south of Francebegan to compose in Occitan, and this fashion continued till, about the middle of the 13th century, they graduallyabandoned the foreign tongue in northern Italy, and somewhat later in Catalonia, and took to singing the same airs inthe local dialects. About the same time in the Provençal region the flame of poetry had died out save in a few places,Narbonne, Rodez, Foix and Astarac where it kept burning feebly for a little longer. In the 14th century, compositionin the language of the country was still practised; but the productions of this period are mainly works for instructionand edification, translations from Latin or sometimes even from French, with an occasional romance. As for thepoetry of the troubadours, it was dead for ever.

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Occitania• Henry the Young King, son of Henry II of England: Bertran de Born (?)• Richard Coeur de Lion: Arnaut Daniel, Peire Vidal, Folquet de Marselha, Gaucelm Faidit• Ermengarde of Narbonne (1143–1192): Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, Peire d'Alvernha• Raimon V, count of Toulouse (1143–1194): Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, Peire Raimon, Hugh Brunet,

Peire Vidal, Folquet de Marselha, Bernart de Durfort• Raimon VI, count of Toulouse (1194–1222): Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de Peguihan, Aimeric de Belenoi,

Ademar le Negre, Savaric de Malleo• Alfonso II, count of Provence (1185–1209): Elias de Barjols• Raimon Berenguer IV, count of Provence (1209–1245): Sordello• Raymond Geoffrey II of Marseille (d. 1192): Peire Vidal, Folquet de Marselha• Maria de Ventadorn (d. 1222), Gaucelm Faidit, Gui d'Ussel• William VIII of Montpellier (1172–1204): Peire Raimon, Arnaut de Mareuil, Folquet de Marselha, Guiraut de

Calanson, Aimeric de Sarlat• Dalfi d'Alvernha (1169–1234): Peirol, Perdigon, Peire de Maensac, Gaucelm Faidit, Uc de Saint Circ• Guillaume des Baux, prince of Orange (1182–1218): Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Perdigon• Savaric de Malleo (1200–1230): Jausbert de Puycibot, Uc de Saint Circ• Blacatz, a Provençal noble (1200–1236): Cadenet, Jean d'Aubusson, Sordello, Guillem Figueira• Hugh II, count of Rodez (1156–1208): Uc Brunet, Bernart de Venzac• Henry I, count of Rodez (1208–c.1222): Uc de Saint Circ• Hugh IV (1222–1274) and Henry II (1274–1302), counts of Rodez: Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lunel, Serveri de

Girone, Bertran Carbonel• Nuño Sánchez, count of Roussillon (d. 1241): Aimeric de Belenoi• Bernard IV of Astarac (1249–1291): Guiraut Riquier, Amanieu de Sescas

Aragon• Alfonso II of Aragon (1162–1196): Peire Rogier, Peire Raimon, Peire Vidal, Cadenet, Guiraut de Cabreira, Elias

de Barjols, the Monk of Montaudon, Hugh Brunet• Peter II of Aragon (1196–1213): Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Perdigon, Ademar lo Negre, Hugh of

Saint Circq• James I of Aragon (1213–1276): Peire Cardinal, Bernart Sicart de Maruejols, Guiraut Riquier, At de Mons• Peter III of Aragon (1276–1285): Paulet of Marseilles, Guiraut Riquier, Serveri de Girone

Castile and Leon• Alfonso IX of León (1138–1214): Elias Cairel, Peire Rogier, Guiraut de Borneil, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Hugh de

Saint Circq• Alfonso VIII of Castile (1158–1214): Uc de Lescura• Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284): Bertran de Lamanon, Bonifaci Calvo, Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lund,

Arnaut Plages, Bertran Carbonel

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Italy• Boniface II of Montferrat (1192–1207): Peire Vidal, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Elias Cairel, Gaucelm Faidit (?)• Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, emperor (1215–1250): Jean d'Aubusson, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Guillem

Figueira• Azzo VI, marquis of Este (1196–1212): Airneric de Pegulhan, Rambertin de Buvalelli• Azzo VII, marquis of Este (1215–1264): Aimeric de Pegulhan

FormOriginally the poems of the troubadours were intended to be sung. The poet usually composed the music as well asthe words; and in several cases he owed his fame more to his musical than to his literary ability. Two manuscriptspreserve specimens of the music of the troubadours, but, though the subject has been recently investigated, we arehardly able to form a clear opinion of the originality and of the merits of these musical compositions. The followingare the principal poetic forms which the troubadours employed. The oldest and most usual generic term is vers, bywhich is understood any composition intended to be sung, no matter what the subject. At the close of the 12thcentury, it became customary to call all verse treating of love canso the name vers being then more generallyreserved for poems on other themes. The sirventesc differs from the vers and the canso only by its subject, being forthe most part devoted to moral and political topics.Peire Cardinal is celebrated for the sirventescs he composed against the clergy of his time. The political poems ofBertran de Born are sirventescs. There is reason to believe that originally this word meant simply a poem composedby a sirvent (Latin serviens) or man-at-arms. The sirventesc is very frequently composed in the form, sometimeseven with rhymes, of a love song having acquired some popularity, so that it might be sung to the same air.The tenson is a debate between two interlocutors, each of whom has a stanza or more generally a group of lines(each group having the same structure) in turn.The partimen (French jeu parti) is also a poetic debate, but it differs from the tenson insofar that the range of debateis limited. In the first stanza one of the partners proposes two alternatives; the other partner chooses one of them anddefends it, the opposite side remaining to be defended by the original propounder. Often in a final couplet a judge orarbiter is appointed to decide between the parties. This poetic game is mentioned by William, count of Poitiers, at theend of the 11th century. The pastoreta, afterwards pastorela, is in general an account of the love adventures of aknight with a shepherdess. All these classes have one form capable of endless variations: five or more stanzas andone or two envois. The dansa and balada, intended to mark the time in dancing, are pieces with a refrain. Theaubade, which has also a refrain, is, as the name indicates, a waking or morning song at the dawning of the day. Allthose classes are in stanzas. The descort is not thus divided, and consequently it must be set to music right through.Its name is derived from the fact that, its component parts not being equal, there is a kind of discord between them. Itis generally reserved for themes of love. Other kinds of lyric poems, sometimes with nothing new about them exceptthe name, were developed in the Occitan regions; but those here mentioned are the more important.

Narrative poetryAlthough the strictly lyric poetry of the troubadours forms the most original part of Occitan literature, it must not besupposed that the remainder is of trifling importance. Narrative poetry, especially, received in Occitania a greatdevelopment, and, thanks to recent discoveries, a considerable body of it has already become known. Several classesmust be distinguished: the chanson de geste, legendary or apparently historical, the romance of adventure and thenovel. France remains emphatically the native country of the chanson de geste; but, although in the south differentsocial conditions, a more delicate taste, and a higher state of civilization prevented a similar profusion of tales of warand heroic deeds, Occitan literature has some highly important specimens of this class.

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The first place belongs to Girart de Roussillon, a poem of ten thousand verses, which relates the struggles of CharlesMartel with his powerful vassal the Burgundian Gerard of Roussillon. It is a literary production of rare excellenceand of exceptional interest for the history of civilization in the 11th and 12th centuries. Girart de Roussillon belongsonly within certain limits to the Occitan literature. The recension which we possess appears to have been made onthe borders of Limousin and Poitou; but it is clearly no more than a recast of an older poem no longer extant,probably either of French or at least Burgundian origin.To Limousin also seems to belong the poem of Aigar and Maurin (end of the 12th century), of which we haveunfortunately only a fragment so short that the subject cannot be clearly made out. Of less heroic character is thepoem of Daurel and Beton (first half of the 13th century), connected with the cycle of Charlemagne, but by theromantic character of the events more like a regular romance of adventure. We cannot, however, form a completejudgment in regard to it, as the only manuscript in which it has been preserved is defective at the close, and that to anamount there is no means of ascertaining. Midway between legend and history may be classified the Occitan Cansód'Antioca, a mere fragment of which, 700 verses - in extent, has been recovered in Madrid and published in Archivesde l'Orient latin, vol. ii. This poem, which seems to have been composed by a certain Gregoire Bechada, mentionedin a 12th-century chronicle and written in Limousin (see G. Paris, in Romania, xxii. 358), is one of the sources of theSpanish compilation La gran conquista de Ultramar. To history proper belongs the Song of the AlbigensianCrusade, which, in its present state, is composed of two poems one tacked to the other: the first, containing theevents from the beginning of the crusade till 1213, is the work of a cleric named William of Tudela, a moderatesupporter of the crusaders; the second, from 1213 to 1218, is by a vehement opponent of the enterprise. Thelanguage and style of the two parts are no less different than the opinions. Finally, about 1280, Guillaume Anelier, anative of Toulouse, composed, in the chanson de geste form, a poem on the war carried on in Navarre by the Frenchin 1276 and 1277. It is an historical work of little literary merit. All these poems are in the form of chansons degeste, viz, in stanzas of indefinite length, with a single rhyme.Gerard of Roussillon, Aigar and Maurin and Daurel and Beton are in verses of ten, the others in verses of twelvesyllables. The peculiarity of the versification in Gerard is that the pause in the line occurs after the sixth syllable, andnot, as is usual, after the fourth.Like the chanson de geste, the romance of adventure is but slightly represented in the south; but it is to be borne inmind that many works of this class must have perished, as is rendered evident by the mere fact that, with fewexceptions, the narrative poems which have come down to us are each known by a single manuscript only. Wepossess but three Provençal romances of adventure:Jaufri (composed in the middle of the 13th century and dedicated to a king of Aragon, possibly James I), Blandin ofCornwall and Guillem de La Barra. The first two are connected with the Arthurian cycle: Jaufri is an elegant andingenious work; Blandin of Cornwall the dullest and most insipid one can well imagine. The romance of Guillem deLa Barra tells a strange story also found in Boccaccio's Decameron (2nd Day, viii.). It is rather a poor poem; but as acontribution to literary history it has the advantage of being dated. It was finished in 1318, and is dedicated to anoble of Languedoc called Sicart de Montaut.Connected with the romance of adventure is the novel (in Occitan novas, always in the plural), which is originally an account of an event newly happened. The novel must have been at first in the south what, as we see by the Decameron, it was in Italy, a society pastime with the wits in turn relating anecdotes, true or imaginary, which they think likely to amuse their auditors. But before long this kind of production was treated in verse, the form adopted being that of the romances of adventure octosyllabic verses rhyming in pairs. Some of those novels which have come down to us may be ranked with the most graceful works in Provençal literature; two are from the pen of the Catalan author Raimon Vidal de Besalu. One, the Castia-gilos (the Chastisement of the Jealous Man), is a treatment, not easily matched for elegance, of a frequently-handled theme the story of the husband who, in order to entrap his wife, takes the disguise of the lover whom she is expecting and receives with satisfaction blows intended, as he thinks, for him whose part he is playing; the other, The Judgment of Love, is the recital of a question of the law of love,

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departing considerably from the subjects usually treated in the novels. Mention may also be made of the novel of TheParrot by Arnaut de Carcassonne, in which the principal character is a parrot of great eloquence and ability, whosucceeds marvellously in securing the success of the amorous enterprises of his master.Novels came to be extended to the proportions of a long romance. Flamenca, which belongs to the novel type, hasstill over eight thousand verses, though the only MS. of it has lost some leaves both at the beginning and at the end.This poem, composed in all probability in 1234, is the story of a lady who by very ingenious devices, not unlikethose employed in the Miles gloriosus of Plautus, succeeds in eluding the vigilance of her jealous husband. Noanalysis can be given here of a work the action of which is highly complicated; suffice it to remark that there is nobook in medieval literature which betokens so much quickness of intellect and is so instructive in regard to themanners and usages of polite society in the 13th century. We know that novels were in great favor in the south ofFrance, although the specimens preserved are not very numerous. Statements made by Francesco da Barberino (earlypart of 14th century), and recently brought to light, give us a glimpse of several works of this class which have beenlost. From the Occitan territories the novel spread into Catalonia, where we find in the 14th century a number ofnovels in verse very similar to the Provençal ones, and into Italy, where in general the prose form has been adopted.

Didactic and religious poetryCompositions intended for instruction, correction and edification were very numerous in the south of France as wellas elsewhere, and, in spite of the enormous losses sustained by Provençal literature, much of this kind still remains.But it is seldom that such works have much originality or literary value. Originality was naturally absent, as the aimof the writers was mainly to bring the teachings contained in Latin works within the reach of lay hearers or readers.Literary value was not of course excluded by the lack of originality, but by an unfortunate chance the greater part ofthose who sought to instruct or edify, and attempted to substitute moral works for secular productions in favor withthe people, were, with a few exceptions, persons of limited ability. It would be out of question to enumerate here allthe didactic treatises, all the lives of saints, all the treatises of popular theology and morals, all the books of devotion,all the pious canticles, composed in Occitan verse during the Middle Ages; still some of these poems may be singledout.Daude de Pradas (early 13th century), a canon of Maguelone, and at the same time a troubadour, has left a poem, theAuzels cassadors, which is one of the best sources for the study of falconry. Raimon d'Avignon, otherwise unknown,translated in verses, about the year 1200, Rogier of Parme's Surgery (Romania, x. 63 and 496). We may mention alsoa poem on astrology by a certain C. (Guilhem?), and another, anonymous, on geomancy, both written about the endof the 13th century (Romania, xxvi. 825).As to moral compositions, we have to recall the Boethius poem (unfortunately a mere fragment) already mentionedas one of the oldest documents of the language, and really a remarkable work; and to notice an early (12th century?)metrical translation of the famous Disticha de moribus of Dionysius Cato (Romania, xxv. 98, and xxix. 445). Moreoriginal are some compositions of an educational character known under the name of ensenhamenz, and, in somerespects, comparable to the English nurture-books.The most interesting are those of Garin le Brun (12th century), Arnaut de Mareuil, Arnaut Guilhem de Marsan,Amanieu de Sescas. Their general object is the education of ladies of rank. Of metrical lives of saints we possessabout a dozen (see Histoire littéraire de la France, vol. xxxii.), among which two or three deserve a particularattention: the Life of Sancta Fides, recently discovered and printed Romania, xxxi.), written early in the 12th century;the Life of St Enimia (13th century), by Bertran of Marseilles, and that of St Honorat of Lerins by Raimon Feraud(about 1300), which is distinguished by variety and elegance of versification, but it is almost entirely a translationfrom Latin. Lives of saints (St Andrew, St Thomas the Apostle, St John the Evangelist) form a part of a poem,strictly didactic, which stands out by reason of its great extent (nearly thirty-five thousand verses) and the somewhatoriginal conception of its scheme - the Breviars damor, a vast encyclopedia, on a theological basis, composed by theMinorite friar Matfre Ermengaut of Bezers between 1288 and 1300 or thereabout.

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DramaDramatic literature in Occitan consists of mysteries and miracle plays seldom exceeding two or three thousand lines,which never developed into the enormous dramas of northern France, whose acting required several consecutivedays. Comic plays, so plentiful in medieval French literature (farces, sotties), do not seem to have found favor in thesouth. Specimens which we possess of Occitan drama are, comparatively few; but researches in local archives,especially in old account books, have brought to light a considerable number of entries concerning the acting, atpublic expense, of religious plays, called, in Latin documents, historia or moralitas, most of which seem to beirretrievably lost. The Sponsus, in both Latin and Occitan, is preserved from the mid-11th century and may havenon-liturgical roots. It shows originality in both the treatment of its biblical theme and its musical accompaniment,since it was sung in its entirety. As all the Occitan plays, sometimes mere fragments, which have escapeddestruction, are preserved in about a dozen manuscripts, unearthed within the last forty or fifty years. Generallythose plays belong to the 15th century or to the sixteenth. Still, a few are more ancient and may be ascribed to the14th century or even to the end of the thirteenth. The oldest appears to be the Mystery of St Agnes (edited by Bartsch,1869), written in Arles. Somewhat more recent, but not later than the beginning of the 14th century, is a Passion ofChrist (not yet printed) and a mystery of the Marriage of the Virgin, which is partly adapted from a French poem ofthe 13th century, (see Romania xvi. 71). A manuscript, discovered in private archives (printed by Alfred Jeanroy andHenri Teulié, 1893), contains not less than sixteen short mysteries, three founded on the Old Testament, thirteen onthe New. They were, written in Rouergue and are partly imitated from French mysteries.At Manosque (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence) was found a fragment of a Ludus sancts Jacobi inserted in a register ofnotarial deeds (printed by C. Arnaud) of some kind. In 1513 French poems were first admitted in the competitions,and under Louis XIV (from 1679) these were alone held eligible. This unfair arrangement, by which some of theleading poets of northern France profited, held good till 1893, when the town very properly transferred its patronageto a new Escolo moundino, but very soon restored its support to the older institution, on learning that Occitan poetrywas again to be encouraged.In the two centuries that followed the glorious medieval period we have a succession of works, chiefly of a didacticand edifying character, which scarcely belong to the realm of literature proper, but at least served to keep alive somekind of literary tradition. This dreary interval was relieved by a number of religious mystery plays, which, thoughdull to us, probably gave keen enjoyment to the people, and represent a more popular genre; the latest that havecome down to us may be placed between the years 1450-1515. Not only did the literature deteriorate during thisperiod, but dialects took the place of the uniform literary language employed by the troubadours, while the spokentongue yielded more and more to French. In 1539 François I, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts, forbade the useof Occitan in official documents a fact that is worthy of note only as being significant in itself, not as an importantfactor in the decadence of Provençal letters.On the contrary, just about this time, there are signs of a revival. In 1565 the Gascon, Pey de Garros, translated thePsalms into his dialect, and two years later published a volume of poems. His love for his native tongue is genuine,and his command over it considerable; he deplores its neglect, and urges others to follow his example. AugerGaillard (c. 1530-1595) does infinitely less credit to his province: the popularity of his light pieces was probably dueto their obscenity. More in the spirit of Garros is the charming trilingual Salut composed by the famous du Bartas inhonor of a visit of Marguerite de Valois to Nérac (1579): three nymphs dispute as to whether she should bewelcomed in Latin, French, or Gascon, and the last, of course, wins the day.Provence proper gave birth to a poet of considerable importance in Louis Bellaud de la Bellaudire (1532–1588), of Grasse, who, after studying at Aix, enlisted in the royal armies, and was made a prisoner at Moulins in 1572. During his captivity he wrote poems inspired by real love of liberty and of his native country (Don-Don internal, 1584 or 1585). At Aix Bellaud subsequently became the centre of a literary circle which included most of the local celebrities; all of these paid their tribute to the poets memory in the edition of his works published by his uncle, Pierre Paul, himself the author of pieces of small value, included in the same volume (Lous Passatens, obros et

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rimos, &c., Marseilles, 159~). Even when Bellaud is wholly frivolous, and intent on worldly pleasures only, his workhas interest as reflecting the merry, careless life of the time.A writer very popular in Provence for the light-hearted productions of his youth was Claude Brueys (1570–1650),remarkable chiefly for comedies that deal largely with duped husbands (Jardin deys musos provensalos, notpublished till 1628). There is a certain charm, too, in the comedies of Claude's disciple, Gaspard Zerbin (La Perlodeys niusos et coumedies prouvensalos, 1655); and those critics who have read the plays of Jean de Cabanes(1653–1712) and of Seguin (of Tarascon, c. 1640), still in MS., speak highly of them.The most consistently popular form of poetry in the south of France was always the novel. There has been no limit tothe production of these; but very rarely does the author deserve special mention. An exception must be made in thecase of Nicholas Saboly (1614–1675), who produced the best pieces of this class, both as regards beauty of languageand the devotion they breathe. They have deservedly maintained their popularity to the present day. In Languedocfour poets have been cited as the best of the age Goudelin, Michel, LeSage and Bonnet.This is certainly so in the case of Pierre Goudelin (province Goudouli, 1579–1649), of Toulouse, the mostdistinguished name in Occitan literature between the period of the troubadours and that of Jasmin. He had a goodclassical education, traces of which appear in all his poetry, his language and his manner being always admirable,even where his matter is lacking in depth. He is often called the Malherbe of the South, but resembles that writeronly in form: his poetry, taken as a whole, has far more sap. Goudelin essayed and was successful in almost everyshort genre (Lou Ramelet Moundi, 1617, republished with additions till 1678), the piece of his which is mostgenerally admired being the stanzas to Henry IV of France, though others will prefer him in his gayer moods. Heenjoyed enormous popularity (extending to Spain and Italy), but never prostituted his art to cheap effects. Hisinfluence, especially but not exclusively in the Occitan area, has been deep and lasting. The fame of Jean Michel, ofNîmes, rests on the Embarras de la foire de Beaucaire, a poem of astonishing vigour, but deficient in taste. DanielSage, of Montpellier (Las Foulies, 1650), was a man of loose morals, which are reflected in nearly all his works: hismoments of genuine inspiration from other causes are rare. More worthy of being bracketed with Goudelin is theavocat Bonnet, author of the best among the open air plays that were annually performed at Béziers on AscensionDay: a number of these (dated 1616-1657) were subsequently collected, but none can compare with the opening one,Bonnet's Jugement de Paris.Another very charming poet is Nicolas Fizes, of Frontignan, whose vaudeville, the Opéra de Frontignan (1670),dealing with a slight love intrigue, and an idyllic poem on the fountain of Frontignan, show a real poetic gift. Anumber of Toulouse poets, mostly laureats of the Academy, may be termed followers of Goudelin: of these FrançoisBoudet deserves mention, who composed an ode, Le Trinfe del Moundi (1678), in honor of his native dialect.The classical revival that may be noted about this time is also generally ascribed to Goudelin's influence. Its mostdistinguished representative was Jean de Vales, of Montech, who made excellent translations from Virgil andPersius, and wrote a brilliant burlesque of the former in the manner of Scarron (Virgile deguisat, 1648; only fourbooks published). He also composed a pastoral idyll, which, though too long and inclined to obscenity, containsmuch tender description. The greatest of the pastoral poets was Frariois de Cortete (1571–1655), of Prades, whosecomedies, Ramounet and Mircimoundo (published, unfortunately with alterations, by his son in 1684), are writtenwith such true feeling and in so pure a style that they can be read with real pleasure. A comedy of his dealing withSancho Panza in the palace of the Duke has been edited.It is difficult to understand the enormous popularity of Daubasse (1664–1727), of Quercy, who belonged to theworking classes; he was patronized by the nobility in exchange for panegyrics. Gascony produced two typical worksin the 17th century: Aders Genthomme gascoun (1610) and Dastross Trinfe de la langue gascoune (1642). Theformer depicts a regular boasting Gascon who distinguishes himself in everything; while the latter is a plea in favorof the Gascon tongue, inspired by a genuine love of country. Gabriel Bedout (Parterre gascoun, 1642) is chieflynoted for his amorous solitari, called forth by the sufferings he endured from a hardhearted mistress. Louis Baron (b.1612), living peacefully in his native village of Pouyloubrin, celebrated it with great tenderness.

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In the 18th century the number of authors is much larger, but the bulk of good work produced is not equally great inproportion. The priests are mainly responsible for the literary output of Languedoc. Claude Peyrot (1709–1795) oneof them, celebrates his county with true rural spirit in the Printenzps rouergat and Quartre sosous. But the chief ofthe band is the Abbe Favre (1727–1783), the prior of Celleneuve, whose Sermoun de moussu sistre, delivered by adrunken priest against intemperance, is a masterpiece. He also wrote a successful mock-heroic poem (Siege deCaderousse) travesties of Homer and Virgil, a prose novel depicting the country manners of the time (Histoire deJean lont pris), and two comedies, which likewise give a vivid picture of the village life he knew so well.Two genuine poets are the brothers Rigaud of Montpellier: Augustes (1760–1835) description of a vintage isdeservedly famous; and Cyrille (1750-182~) produced an equally delightful poem in the Amours de Mounpei. PierreHellies of Toulouse (d. 1724) a poet of the people, whose vicious life finds an echo in his works, has a certain rudecharm, at times distantly recalling Villon. In the Province Toussaint Gros (1698–1748), of Lyon, holds undisputedsway. His style and language are admirable, but unfortunately he wasted his gifts largely on trivial pieces d'occasion.Coyes (1711-17~7) comedy, the Franc pare, is bright and still popular, while Germain's description of a visit paid bythe ancient gods to Marseille (La Bourrido del Dious, 1760) has considerable humour. In Gascony the greatest poetis Cyrien Despourrins (1698–1755), whose pastoral idylls and mournful chansons, which he himself set to music, areimbued with tenderness and charm (most of them were collected at Pau in 1828).The French Revolution produced a large body of literature, but nothing of lasting interest. However, it gave animpetus to thought in the Occitan area, as elsewhere; and there, as elsewhere, it called forth a spirit of independencethat was all in favor of a literary revival. Scholars of the stamp of Raynouard (1761–1863), of Aix, occupiedthemselves with the brilliant literary traditions of the Middle Ages; newspapers sprang up (the ProvençalBouil-Abaisso, started by Désanat, and the bilingual Lou Tambourin et le ménestrel, edited by Bellot, both in 1842);poets banded together and collected their pieces in volume form (thus, the nine iroubaire who published Lou Bouquetprouvençaou in 1823).

Félibrige

Meeting of the Félibres in 1854

Much has been written about the precurseurs de Félibrige, and criticsare sorely at variance as to the writers that most deserve thisappellation. We shall not go far wrong if we include in the listHyacinthe Morel (1756–1829), of Avignon, whose collection ofpoems, Lou Saboulet, has been republished by Frédéric Mistral; LouisAubanel (178~-1842), of Nîmes, the successful translator ofAnacreon's Odes; Auguste Tandon, the troubadour of Montpellier, whowrote Fables, contes et autres pièces en vers (1800); Fabre d'Olivet,the versatile littérateur who in 1803 published Le Troubadour: Poésiesoccitaniques, which, in order to secure their success, he gave out as thework of some medieval poet Diou-loufet (1771–1840), who wrote adidactic poem, in the manner of Virgil, relating to silkworm-breeding(Leis magnans); Jacques Azais (1778–1856), author of satires, fables,&c.; d'Astros (1780–1863), a writer of fables in La Fontaine's manner; Castil-Blaze, who found time, amidst hismusical pursuits, to compose Provençal poems, intended to be set to music; the Marquis de Fare-Alais (1791–1846),author of some light satirical tales (Las Castagnados).

While these writers were all more or less academic, and appealed to the cultured few, four poets of the people addressed a far wider public: Verdi (1779–1820), of Bordeaux, who wrote comic and satirical pieces; Jean Reboul (1796–1864), the baker of Nîmes, who never surpassed his first effort, L'Ange à l'enfant (1828); Victor Gelu (1806-188~), relentless and brutal, but undeniably powerful of his kind (Fenian ci Grouman; dix chansons provençales, 1840); and, greatest of them all, the true and acknowledged forerunner of the felibres, Jacques Jasmin,

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whose poems, both lyrical and narrative, continue to find favour with men of the highest culture and literaryattainments, as with the villagers for whom they were primarily intended.While much of this literature was still in the making, an event took place which was destined to eclipse inimportance any that had gone before. In 1845 Joseph Roumanille of Saint-Rémy (Bouches-du-Rhône), became usherin a small school at Avignon, which was attended by Frédéric Mistral, a native of the same district, then fifteen yearsof age. The former, feeling the germs of poetry within him, had composed some pieces in French; but, finding thathis old mother could not understand them, he was greatly distressed. One of his chief titles to fame is that, togetherwith Alphonse Daudet, he drew the attention of Lamartine to Mistral's Mireio. Roumanille and Mistral showed theirgratitude by republishing the best pieces of these two precurseurs, together with those of Castil-Blaze and others, inUn Liame de Rasin (1865) and determined thenceforth to write in his native dialect only. These poems revealed anew world to young Mistral, and spurred him on to the resolve that became the one purpose of his life "de remettreen lumière et conscience de sa gloire cette noble race que Mirabeau nomme encore la nation provençale".Mistral's personality and works are certainly better known than his fellows'. Still, in studying the Provençalrenaissance, Roumanille's great claims should not be overlooked, and they have never been put forward with moreforce than by Mistral himself (in the preface to his Isclos doro). Roumanille's secular verse cannot fail to appeal toevery lover of pure and sincere poetry (Li Mar gariiedo, 1836–1847; Li Sounjarello, 1852; Li Flour de Sauvi, 1850,1859, &c.), his novels are second only to those of Saboly, his prose works (such as Lou mege de Cucugnan, 1863)sparkling with delightful humour. He it was who in 1852 collected and published Li Prouvençalo, an anthology inwhich all the names yet to become famous, and most of those famous already (such as Jasmin), are represented. In1853 he was one of the enthusiastic circle that had gathered round J.B. Gaut at Aix, and whose literary output iscontained in the Roumavagi dci Troubaire and in the short lived journal Lou gay saber (1854).At the same time the first attempt at regulating the orthography of Provençal was made by him (in the introduction tohis play, La Part dou bon Dieu, 1853). And in 1854 he was one of the seven poets who, on May 21, foregathered atthe castle of Fontsgugne, near Avignon, and founded the Félibrige. The etymology of this word has given rise tomuch speculation: the one thing certain about the word is that Mistral came across it in an old Provençal poem,which tells how the Virgin meets Jesus in the Temple, among the seven felibres of the law. The outlines of theconstitution, as finally settled in 1876, are as follows. The region of the Felibrige is divided into four mantenenço(Provence, Languedoc, Aquitaine and Catalonia 2). At the head of all is a consistori of fifty (called majourau),presided over by the Capoulié, who is chief of the entire Felibrige. The head of each mantenenço is called sendi(who is at the same time a majourau); and at the head of each school (as the subdivisions of the mantenenço arecalled) is a cabiscòu. The ordinary members, unlimited in number, are mantenire. Annual meetings and fetes areorganized. The most widely read of the Felibrige publications is the Armana prouvençau, which has appearedannually since, maintaining all the while its original scope and purpose; and though unpretentious in form, it containsmuch of the best work of the school. The other six were Mistral, Théodore Aubanel, Anselme Mathieu (a schoolfellow of Mistral's at Avignon), E. Garcin, Alphonse Tavan and Paul Giéra (owner of the castle). Of these, ThéodoreAubanel has alone proved himself worthy to rank with Mistral and Roumanille.Zani, the girl of his youthful and passionate love, took the veil; and this event cast a shadow over his whole life, anddetermined the character of all his poetry (La miougrano entre-duberto, 1860; Li Fiho d'Avignoun, 1883). His is,without a doubt, the deepest nature and temperament among the felibres, and his lyrics are the most poignant. He hasa keen sense of physical beauty in woman, and his verse is replete with suppressed passion, but he never sinks tosensuality. His powerful love drama Lou pau dou peccat was received with enthusiasm at Montpellier in 1878, andsuccessfully produced (some years later in Arnes version) by Antoine at his Thetre Libreno mean criterion. It is theonly play of real consequence that the school has yet produced. We need not do more than glance at the work of thefourth of the group of poets who alone, amidst the numerous writers of lyrics and other works that attain a high levelof excellence.

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One of the most pleasing features of the movement is the spirit of fraternity maintained by the félibres with the poetsand literary men of northern France, Catalonia, Italy, Romania, Germany and other countries. In common with somany other productions of the Felibrige, this Almanac is published by the firm J. Roumanille, Libraire-Editeur,Avignon.Felix Gras settled at Avignon in his youth. His rustic epic, Li Carbouni (1876) is full of elemental passion andabounds in fine descriptions of scenery, but it lacks proportion. The heroic geste of Toloza (1882), in which Simonde Montfort's invasion of the south is depicted with unbounded vigour and intensity, shows a great advance in art. LiRouinancero provençal (1887) is a collection of poems instinct with Provençal lore, and in Li Papalino (1891) wehave some charming prose tales that bring to life again the Avignon of the popes. Finally, the poet gave us three talesdealing with the period of the Revolution (Li Rouge dóu miejour, &c.); their realism and literary art called forthgeneral admiration.

Félibrige Latin

While Mistral and many of the best felibres employ the dialect of theBouches-du-Rhône, others, who have since seceded as the FélibrigeLatin (headed by Roque-Ferrier), prefer to use the dialect ofMontpellier, owing to its central position. A third class favors thedialect of Limousin, considering it has been used by the troubadours.Nearly all the leaders of the Felibrige are Legitimists and Catholics.

There are exceptions, however, chief among them the Protestant Gras,whose Toloza clearly reflects his sympathy with the Albigenses. Yetthis did not stand in the way of his election as Capoulia proof, if proofwere needed, that literary merit outweighs all other considerations inthis artistic body of men. Finally, it may be noted that the felibres haveoften been accused of lack of patriotism towards northern France, ofschemes of decentralization, and other heresies; but none of thesecharges holds good. The spirit of the movement, as represented by itsleaders, has never been expressed with greater terseness, force andtruth than in the three verses set by Felix Gras at the head of hisCarbouni: "I love my village more than thy village; I love my Provencemore than my province; I love France more than all".

Late twentieth and twenty-first centuryDespite two hundred years of suppression by successive French centralist governments and the official prohibition ofthe language at school, in the administration and in the media, Occitan and Occitania have never ceased to inspirepoets and authors. To the day, Article II of the French Constitution denies the existence and legitimacy of culturallyrich and elaborate idioms such as Catalan, Breton, Basque and Occitan, among others. And though the use of thelatter has been greatly affected by what is known as la Vergonha — which is the physical, legal, artistic and moralrepression of the tongue in all areas of society aiming at making children feel ashamed of their parents' language tothe benefit of French, — every region of the country of Òc gave birth to literary geniuses: Joan Bodon in Guyenne,Marcela Delpastre in Limousin, Robèrt Lafont in Provence, Bernat Manciet in Gascony and Max Roqueta inLanguedoc.[4]

All genres of modern international literature are present in Occitan, especially since the second half of the 20thcentury, although some avant-garde Occitan literature already existed from the late 19th century.

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Notes and references[1] Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, 1881, p. 335[2] Choix des poesies originales des troubadours, 1817[3][3] Ben voil que sapchon ii plusor[4] Olivier Burckhardt Modern-Day Troubadours: Contemporary Literature in the Occitan Languages (http:/ / www. obfuchai. com/ pages/

troubadours. html) Contemporary Review, January 1999, Vol. 274, Issue 1596, pp. 33-37

Sources• Las Joyas del gay saber, edited by Jean-Baptiste Noulet (vol. iv. of Gatien-Arnoult's Monuments de la littérature

romane, &c., Toulouse, 1849)• Noulet, Essai sur l'histoire littéraire des patois du midi de La France aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Paris, 1859) and

... au XVIII siècle (Paris, 1877)• Jean-Baptiste Gaut, Étude sur la littérature et la poésie provençales (Memoires de l'académie des sciences d'Aix,

tome ix. pp. 247344, Aix, 1867)• Jean Bernard Mary-Lafon, Histoire littéraire du midi de la France (Paris, 1882)• Antonio Restori, Letteratura provenzale, pp. 200214 (Milano, 1891)• Mariton's articles on Provençal and the Félibrige in the Grande Encyclopédie• Frédéric Donnadieu, Les Précurseurs des félibres 1800-1855; (Paris, 1888)• G. Jourdanne, Histoire du Félibrige, 1854-1896 (Avignon, 1897)• Hennion, Les Fleurs félibresques (Paris, 1883)• Portal, La letteratura provenzale moderna (Palermo, 1893)• Eduard Koschwitz, Ueber die provenzalischen Feliber und ihre Vorgaenger (Berlin, 1894)• Mariton, La Terre provençale (Paris, 1894). (H. 0.)This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "ProvencalLiterature" (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Provencal_Literature). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).Cambridge University Press.

External links• http:/ / www. occitanpoetry. eu/

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Medieval Latin

Medieval Latin

Carmina Cantabrigiensia, Medieval Latin manuscriptSpoken natively in Numerous small states

Region Most of western Europe

Era replaced by Renaissance Latin

Language family Indo-European

•• Italic

•• Latino-Faliscan

•• Latin

•• Medieval Latin

Writing system Latin alphabet

Official status

Official language in Most states

Language codes

ISO 639-3 –

Linguist List lat-med [1]

Europe, 1000 AD

Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and asthe liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church, but also as a language of science, literature, law, andadministration. Despite the clerical origin of many of its authors, medieval Latin should not be confused withEcclesiastical Latin. There is no real consensus on the exact boundary where Late Latin ends and medieval Latinbegins. Some scholarly surveys begin with the rise of early Ecclesiastical Latin in the middle of the 4th century,others around AD 500,[2] and still others with the replacement of written Late Latin by written Romance languagesstarting around the year 900 (see under Late Latin).

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Influences

Influence of Christian LatinMedieval Latin had an enlarged vocabulary, which freely borrowed from other sources. It was heavily influenced bythe language of the Vulgate, which contained many peculiarities alien to Classical Latin that resulted from a more orless direct translation from Greek and Hebrew; these peculiarities mirrored the original not only in its vocabulary,but also in its grammar and syntax. Greek provided much of the technical vocabulary of Christianity. The variousGermanic languages spoken by the Germanic tribes, who invaded western Europe, were also major sources of newwords. Germanic leaders became the rulers of western Europe, and words from their languages were freely importedinto the vocabulary of law. Other more ordinary words were replaced by coinages from Vulgar Latin or Germanicsources because the classical words had fallen into disuse.Latin was also spread to areas such as Ireland and Germany, where Romance languages were not spoken and whichhad never known Roman rule. Works written in these lands where Latin was a learned language with no relation tothe local vernacular also influenced the vocabulary and syntax of medieval Latin.Since abstract subjects like science and philosophy were communicated in Latin, the Latin vocabulary developed forthem is the source of a great many technical words in modern languages. English words like abstract, subject,communicate, matter, probable and their cognates in other European languages generally have the meanings given tothem in medieval Latin.[3]

An illuminated manuscript of a Book of Hours contains prayers inmedieval Latin.

Influence of Vulgar Latin

The influence of Vulgar Latin was also apparent in thesyntax of some medieval Latin writers, althoughClassical Latin continued to be held in high esteem andstudied as models for literary compositions. The highpoint of the development of medieval Latin as a literarylanguage came with the Carolingian renaissance, arebirth of learning kindled under the patronage ofCharlemagne, king of the Franks. Alcuin wasCharlemagne's Latin secretary and an important writerin his own right; his influence led to a rebirth of Latinliterature and learning after the depressed periodfollowing the final disintegration of Roman authority inWestern Europe.

Although it was simultaneously developing into theRomance languages, Latin itself remained very conservative, as it was no longer a native language and there weremany ancient and medieval grammar books to give one standard form. On the other hand, strictly speaking there wasno single form of "medieval Latin". Every Latin author in the medieval period spoke Latin as a second language,with varying degrees of fluency, and syntax, grammar, and vocabulary were often influenced by an author's nativelanguage. This was especially true beginning around the 12th century, after which the language became increasinglyadulterated: late medieval Latin documents written by French speakers tend to show similarities to medieval Frenchgrammar and vocabulary; those written by Germans tend to show similarities to German, etc. For instance, ratherthan following the classical Latin practice of generally placing the verb at the end, medieval writers would oftenfollow the conventions of their own native language instead. Whereas Latin had no definite or indefinite articles,medieval writers sometimes used forms of unus as an indefinite article, and forms of ille (reflecting usage in the

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Romance languages) as a definite article or even quidam (meaning "a certain one/thing" in Classical Latin) assomething like an article. Unlike classical Latin, where esse ("to be") was the only auxiliary verb, medieval Latinwriters might use habere ("to have") as an auxiliary, similar to constructions in Germanic and Romance languages.The accusative and infinitive construction in classical Latin was often replaced by a subordinate clause introduced byquod or quia. This is almost identical, for example, to the use of que in similar constructions in French.In every age from the late 8th century onwards, there were learned writers (especially within the Church) who werefamiliar enough with classical syntax to be aware that these forms and usages were "wrong" and resisted their use.Thus the Latin of a theologian like St Thomas Aquinas or of an erudite clerical historian such as William of Tyretends to avoid most of the characteristics described above, showing its period in vocabulary and spelling alone; thefeatures listed are much more prominent in the language of lawyers (e.g. the 11th century English Domesday Book),physicians, technical writers and secular chroniclers. However the use of quod to introduce subordinate clauses wasespecially pervasive and is found at all levels.

Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammarMedieval Latin had ceased to be a living language, and was instead a scholarly language of the minority of educatedmen in medieval Europe, used in official documents more than for everyday communication. This resulted in twomajor features of Medieval Latin compared with Classical Latin. First, many authors attempted to "show off" theirknowledge of Classical Latin by using rare or archaic constructions, sometimes anachronistically (i.e. haphazardlymixing constructions from Republican and Imperial Latin, which in reality existed centuries apart). Second,education was so poorly developed in the Middle Ages that many lesser scholars had a limited grasp of "proper"Latin, or were increasingly influenced by Vulgar Latin which was mutating into the Romance languages.

General•• Word order usually tended towards that of the vernacular language of the author, and not the artificial and

polished word order of Classical Latin. Conversely, an erudite scholar might attempt to "show off" byintentionally constructing a very complicated sentence. Because Latin is an inflected language, it is technicallypossible to place related words at opposite ends of a paragraph-long sentence, and owing to the complexity ofachieving this it was seen by some as a sign of great skill.

• Typically, prepositions are used much more frequently (as in modern Romance languages) for greater clarity,instead of using the ablative case alone. For example, while amico and cum amico both mean "with a friend" inClassical and Medieval Latin, for the sake of clarity Medieval Latin would tend to include the preposition cum.Further, in Classical Latin the subject of a verb was often left implied, unless it was being stressed: videt = "hesees". For clarity, Medieval Latin more frequently includes an explicit subject: is videt = "he sees", withoutnecessarily stressing the subject.

• Various changes occurred in vocabulary, and certain words were mixed into different declensions or conjugations.Many new compound verbs were formed. Some words retained their original structure but drastically changed inmeaning, e.g. animositas specifically means "wrath" in Medieval Latin, while in Classical Latin it generallyreferred to "high spirits, excited spirits" of any kind.

•• Owing to heavy use of biblical terms, there was a large influx of new words borrowed from Greek and Hebrew,and even some grammatical influences. This obviously largely occurred among priests and scholars, not the laity.In general, it is difficult to express abstract concepts in Latin, and many scholars admitted as much. For example,Plato's abstract concept of "the Truth" could only be expressed in Latin as literally "that which is always true".Medieval scholars and theologians, translating both the Bible and Greek philosophers into Latin out of the Koineand Classical Greek, cobbled together many new abstract concept words in Latin.

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Syntax• Indirect Discourse, which in Classical Latin was achieved by using a subject accusative and infinitive, was now

often simply replaced by new words for "that" such as quod, quia, or quoniam. This anticipates the use of "que" inRomance languages such as French. There was a high level of overlap between the old and new constructions,even within the same author's work, and it was often a matter of preference. A particularly famous and often citedexample is from the Venerable Bede, using both constructions within the same sentence: "Dico me scire et quodsum ignobilis" = "I say that I know (accusative and infinitive) and that I am unknown (new construction)". Theresulting subordinate clause often used the subjunctive voice instead of the indicative. This new syntax forIndirect Discourse is among the most prominent features of Medieval Latin, and the largest syntactical change.

•• Several substitutions were often used instead of subjunctive clause constructions. These did not break the rules ofClassical Latin outright, but were an alternate way to express the same meaning, avoiding the use of a subjunctiveclause.• The present participle was frequently used adverbially in place of qui or cum clauses, such as clauses of time,

cause, concession, and purpose. This was loosely similar to the use of the present participle in an ablativeabsolute phrase, but the participle did not need to be in the ablative case.

• Habeo (I have [to]) and "Debeo" (I must) would be used to express obligation more often than the gerundive.• Instead of a clause introduced by ut or ne, an infinitive was often used with a verb of hoping, fearing,

promising, etc.•• Conversely, some authors might haphazardly switch between the subjunctive and indicative forms of verbs, with

no intended difference in meaning.• A gerundive in the subsidiary clause was often used where Classical Latin might have preferred to use a present

participle in the main clause. "Petro erat desiderium Pauli videndi" (There was a desire on Peter of Paul to beseen) might be preferred over "Petro desiderans videre Paulum" (Peter is desiring to see Paul). This was not agrammatical change but a matter of preference, and the first of these two constructions resembles the constructionused in Celtic languages such as Irish.

• The usage of sum changed significantly: it was frequently omitted or implied. Further, many medieval authors didnot feel that it made sense for the perfect passive construction "laudatus sum" to use the present tense of esse in apast tense construction, so they began using fui, the past perfect of sum, interchangeably with sum.

• Chaos in the usage of demonstrative pronouns. Hic, ille, iste, and even the intensive ipse are often used virtuallyinterchangeably. In anticipation of Romance languages, hic and ille were also frequently used simply to expressthe definite article "the", which Classical Latin did not possess. Unus was also used for the indirect article "a, an".

• Use of reflexives became much more loose. A reflexive pronoun in a subordinate clause might refer to the subjectof the main clause. The reflexive possessive suus might be used in place of a possessive genitive, such as eius.

• Comparison of adjectives changed somewhat. The comparative form was sometimes used with positive orsuperlative meaning. Also the adverb "magis" was often used with a positive adjective to indicate a comparativemeaning; and multum and nimis could be used with a positive form of adjective to give a superlative meaning.

•• Classical Latin used the ablative absolute, but as stated above, in Medieval Latin examples of nominative absoluteor accusative absolute may be found. This was a point of difference between the ecclesiastical Latin of the clergyand the "Vulgar Latin" of the laity, which existed alongside it. The educated clergy mostly knew that traditionalLatin did not use the nominative or accusative case in such constructions, but only the ablative case. Theseconstructions are observed in the medieval era, but they are changes that developed among the uneducatedcommoners.

• Classical Latin does not distinguish progressive action in the present tense, thus laudo can mean either "I praise"or "I am praising". In imitation of Greek, Medieval Latin could use a present participle with sum to form aperiphrastic tense equivalent to the English progressive. This "Greek Periphrastic Tense" formation could also bedone in the past and future tenses: laudans sum ("I am praising"), laudans eram ("I was praising"), laudans ero ("Iwill be praising").

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• Classical Latin verbs had at most two voices, active and passive, but Greek (the original language of the NewTestament) had an additional "middle voice" (or reflexive voice) which was used (inter alia) to express when thesubject is acting upon itself, for example "Achilles put the armor onto himself" or "Jesus clothed himself in therobe" would use the middle voice. Because Latin had no middle voice, Medieval Latin expresses such sentencesby putting the verb in the passive voice, in a similar way to Latin deponent verbs. For example, the MedievalLatin translation of Genesis states literally that "God was moved over the waters" ("spiritus Dei ferebatur superaquas", Genesis 1:2), but it is just expressing a Greek middle-voice verb: "God moved [himself] over the waters".

Changes in orthography

The Prüfening dedicatory inscription of 1119, composed inmedieval Latin.

Many striking differences between classical and medievalLatin are found in orthography. Perhaps the most strikingdifference is that medieval manuscripts used a wide rangeof abbreviations by means of superscripts, specialcharacters etc.: for instance the letters "n" and "s" wereoften omitted and replaced by a diacritical mark above thepreceding or following letter. Apart from this, some of themost frequently occurring differences are as follows.Clearly many of these would have been influenced by thespelling, and indeed pronunciation, of the vernacularlanguage, and thus varied between different Europeancountries.

• Following the Carolingian reforms of the 9th century,Carolingian minuscule was widely adopted, leading to aclear differentiation between capital and lowercaseletters.

• A partial or full differentiation between v and u, andbetween j and i.

• The diphthong ae is usually collapsed and simplywritten as e (or e caudata, ę); for example, puellaemight be written puelle (or puellę). The same happenswith the diphthong oe, for example in pena, Edipus,from poena, Oedipus. This feature is already found oncoin inscriptions of the 4th century (e.g. reipublice forreipublicae). Conversely an original "e" in ClassicalLatin was often represented by "ae" or "oe" (e.g. "aecclesia" and "coena" )

• Because of a severe decline in the knowledge of Greek, in loanwords and foreign names from or transmittedthrough Greek, y and i might be used more or less interchangeably: Ysidorus, Egiptus, from Isidorus, Aegyptus.This is also found in pure Latin words: ocius ('more swiftly') appears as ocyus and silva as sylva, this last being aform which survived into the 18th century and so became embedded in modern botanical Latin (cf"Pennsylvania").

• h might be lost, so that habere becomes abere, or mihi becomes mi (the latter also occurred in Classical Latin); ormihi may be written michi, indicating that the h had come to be pronounced as k or perhaps kh. This pronunciationis not found in Classical Latin.

• The loss of h in pronunciation also led to the addition of h in writing where it did not previously belong,especially in the vicinity of r, such as chorona for corona, a tendency also sometimes seen in Classical Latin.

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• -ti- before a vowel is often written as -ci- [tsi], so that divitiae becomes diviciae (or divicie), tertius becomestercius, vitium vicium.

• The combination mn might have another plosive inserted, so that alumnus becomes alumpnus, somnus sompnus.• Single consonants were often doubled, or vice versa, so that tranquillitas becomes tranquilitas and Africa

becomes Affrica.• vi, especially in verbs in the perfect tense, might be lost, so that novisse becomes nosse (this occurred in Classical

Latin as well but was more frequent in medieval Latin).These orthographical differences were often due to changes in pronunciation or, as in the previous example,morphology, which authors reflected in their writing. By the 16th century, Erasmus complained that speakers fromdifferent countries were unable to understand each other's form of Latin.[4]

The gradual changes in Latin did not escape the notice of contemporaries. Petrarch, writing in the 14th century,complained about this linguistic "decline", which helped fuel his general dissatisfaction with his own era.

Medieval Latin literatureThe corpus of medieval Latin literature encompasses a wide range of texts, including such diverse works as sermons,hymns, hagiographical texts, travel literature, histories, epics, and lyric poetry.The first half of the 5th century saw the literary activities of the great Christian authors Jerome (c. 347–420) andAugustine of Hippo (354–430), whose texts had an enormous influence on theological thought of the Middle Ages,and of the latter's disciple Prosper of Aquitaine (c. 390-455). Of the later 5th century and early 6th century, SidoniusApollinaris (c. 430 – after 489) and Ennodius (474–521), both from Gaul, are well known for their poems, as isVenantius Fortunatus (c. 530–600). This was also a period of transmission: the Roman patrician Boethius (c.480–524) translated part of Aristotle's logical corpus, thus preserving it for the Latin West, and wrote the influentialliterary and philosophical treatise De consolatione Philosophiae; Cassiodorus (c. 485–585) founded an importantlibrary at the monastery of Vivarium near Squillace where many texts from Antiquity were to be preserved. Isidoreof Seville (c. 560-636) collected all scientific knowledge still available in his time into what might be called the firstencyclopedia, the Etymologiae.Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594) wrote a lengthy history of the Frankish kings. Gregory came from a Gallo-Romanaristocratic family, and his Latin, which shows many aberrations from the classical forms, testifies to the decliningsignificance of classical education in Gaul. At the same time, good knowledge of Latin and even of Greek was beingpreserved in monastic culture in Ireland and was brought to England and the European mainland by missionaries inthe course of the 6th and 7th centuries, such as Columbanus (543–615), who founded the monastery of Bobbio inNorthern Italy. Ireland was also the birthplace of a strange poetic style known as Hisperic Latin. Other importantInsular authors include the historian Gildas (c. 500–570) and the poet Aldhelm (c. 640–709). Benedict Biscop (c.628–690) founded the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow and furnished it with books which he had taken home from ajourney to Rome and which were later used by Bede (c. 672–735) to write his Ecclesiastical History of the EnglishPeople.Many medieval Latin works have been published in the series Patrologia Latina, Corpus ScriptorumEcclesiasticorum Latinorum and Corpus Christianorum.

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Important medieval Latin authors

4th–5th centuries• Aetheria (fl. 385)• Jerome (c. 347–420)• Augustine (354-430)

6th–8th centuries• Boethius (c. 480 – 525)• Gildas (d. c. 570)• Venantius Fortunatus (c. 530 – c. 600)• Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594)• Pope Gregory I (c. 540 – 604)• Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636)• Bede (c. 672–735)• St. Boniface (c. 672 - 754)• Chrodegang of Metz (d. 766)• Paul the Deacon (720s - c.799)• Peter of Pisa (d. 799)• Paulinus of Aquileia (730s - 802)• Alcuin (c. 735–804)

9th century• Einhard (775-840)• Rabanus Maurus (780-856)• Paschasius Radbertus (790-865)• Rudolf of Fulda (d. 865)•• Dhuoda• Lupus of Ferrieres (805-862)• Andreas Agnellus (Agnellus of Ravenna) (c. 805-846?)• Hincmar (806-882)• Walafrid Strabo (808-849)• Florus of Lyon (d. 860?)• Gottschalk (theologian) (808-867)• Sedulius Scottus (fl. 840-860)• Anastasius Bibliothecarius (810-878)• Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815-877)• Notker Balbulus (840-912)

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10th century• Ratherius (890–974)• Thietmar of Merseburg (975–1018)

11th century• Marianus Scotus (1028–1082)• Adam of Bremen (fl. 1060–1080)• Marbodius of Rennes (c. 1035-1123)

12th century• Pierre Abélard (1079–1142)• Suger of St Denis (c. 1081–1151)• Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100 – c. 1155)• Ailred of Rievaulx (1110–1167)• Otto of Freising (c. 1114–1158)• Archpoet (c. 1130 - c. 1165)• William of Tyre (c. 1130-1185)• Peter of Blois (c. 1135 – c. 1203)• Walter of Châtillon (fl. c. 1200)•• Adam of St. Victor

13th century• Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1146 – c. 1223)• Saxo Grammaticus (c. 1150 – c. 1220)• Thomas of Celano (c. 1200 – c. 1265)• Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280)• Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294)• St Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274)• Ramon Llull (1232–1315)• Siger of Brabant (c. 1240–1280s)• Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308)

14th centuryFor 14th century authors that are no longer medieval in outlook (practically all of them Italian) see RenaissanceLatin• Ranulf Higdon (c. 1280 - c. 1363)• William of Ockham (c. 1288 - c. 1347)• Jean Buridan (1300–1358)

Medieval Latin literary movements• Goliards•• Hiberno-Latin•• Medieval Roman Law•• Medieval Latin comedy

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Important medieval Latin works•• Carmina Burana•• Pange Lingua•• Summa Theologiae•• Etymologiae•• Dies Irae•• Decretum Gratiani•• De Ortu Waluuanii Nepotis Arturi•• Magna Carta

Notes[1] http:/ / multitree. linguistlist. org/ codes/ lat-med[2] Ziolkowski, Jan M. (1996), "Towards a History of Medieval Latin Literature", in Mantello, F. A. C.; Rigg, A. G., Medieval Latin: An

Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, pp. 505-536 (pp. 510-511)[3] J. Franklin, Mental furniture from the philosophers (http:/ / www. maths. unsw. edu. au/ ~jim/ mental. pdf), Et Cetera 40 (1983), 177-91.[4] See Desiderius Erasmus, De recta Latini Graecique sermonis pronunciatione dialogus, Basel (Frobenius), 1528.

References• K.P. Harrington, J. Pucci, and A.G. Elliott, Medieval Latin (2nd ed.), (Univ. Chicago Press, 1997) ISBN

0-226-31712-9• F.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg, eds., Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide (CUA Press,

1996) ISBN 0-8132-0842-4

External links• In-depth Guides to Learning Latin by The National Archives (UK) (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ latin/

)• The Journal of Medieval Latin (http:/ / medievallatin. utoronto. ca/ )• J.F. Niermeyer's Mediae latinitatis lexicon minus (1976 edition) (http:/ / archive. org/ details/

MedievalLatinLexicon), a Latin-French/English lexicon• Du Cange et al., Glossarium ad scriptores mediæ et infimæ latinitatis (http:/ / ducange. enc. sorbonne. fr/ ), Niort :

L. Favre, 1883–1887, Ecole des chartes. A medieval latin glossary, originally written in the seventeenth centuryby Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, and still helpful in deciphering texts.

• Wright, Thomas, ed. A Selection of Latin Stories, from Manuscripts of the Thirteenth and Founteenth Centuries:A Contribution to the History of Fiction During the Middle Ages. (London: The Percy Society. 1842.) (http:/ /www2. latech. edu/ ~bmagee/ latin/ wright/ wright_links_to_stories. htm)

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VernacularA vernacular is the native language or native dialect of a specific population, as opposed to a language of widercommunication that is a second language or foreign language to the population, such as a national language, standardlanguage, or lingua franca.

The oldest known vernacular manuscript in Scanian (Danish, c. 1250.) It deals withScanian and Scanian Ecclesiastical Law.

An allegory of philosophy and grammar, Trinci Palace, Foligno, Italy, by Gentileda Fabriano, who lived at about the time the Italian language was being

standardized.

Etymology

The term is not a recent one. In 1688 JamesHowell wrote:

Concerning Italy, doubtlessthere were divers before theLatin did spread all over thatCountry; the Calabrian, andApulian spoke Greek, whereofsome Relicks are to be found tothis day; but it was anadventitious, noMother-Language to them: 'tisconfess'd that Latium it self,and all the Territories aboutRome, had the Latin for itsmaternal and common firstvernacular Tongue; butTuscany and Liguria had othersquite discrepant, viz. theHetruscane and Mesapian,whereof though there be someRecords yet extant; yet there arenone alive that can understandthem: The Oscan, the Sabin andTusculan, are thought to be butDialects to these.

Here vernacular, mother language anddialect are already in use in a modernsense.[1] According toMerriam-Webster's,[2] "vernacular" wasbrought into the English language as earlyas 1601 from Latin vernaculus, "native",which had been in figurative use in Classical Latin as "national" and "domestic", having originally been derived fromvernus and verna, a male or female slave respectively born in the house rather than abroad. The figurative meaningwas broadened from the diminutive extended words vernaculus, vernacula. Varro, the classical Latin grammarian,used the term vocabula vernacula, "termes de la langue nationale" or "vocabulary of the national language" asopposed to foreign words.[3]

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In some disciplines, such as Linguistic Anthropology, the term "vernacular" is falling out of usage and has come tobe identified as an offensive term. "Dialect" or "dialect variation" is more appropriate in context, as the word"vernacular" comes from the Latin "vernaculus" (domestic, native) which in turn comes from the Etruscan "verna"(home-born slave, native).

Concepts of the vernacular

General linguistic

Opposed to lingua franca

Allegory of Dante Alighieri, champion of the useof vernacular Italian for literature rather than thelingua franca, Latin. Fresco by Luca Signorelli in

the cappella di San Brizio dome, Orvieto.

Ratio of books printed in the vernacularlanguages to those in Latin in the 15th century[4]

In general linguistics, a vernacular is opposed to a lingua franca, athird-party language in which persons speaking different vernacularsnot understood by each other may communicate.[5] For instance, inWestern Europe until the 17th century, most scholarly works had beenwritten in Latin, which was serving as a lingua franca. Works writtenin Romance languages are said to be in the vernacular. The DivinaCommedia, the Cantar de mio Cid, and The Song of Roland areexamples of early vernacular literature in Italian, Spanish, and French,respectively.

In Europe, Latin was used widely instead of vernacular languages invarying forms until c. 1701, in its latter stage as New Latin.

In religion, Protestantism was a driving force in the use of thevernacular in Christian Europe, the Bible being translated from Latininto vernacular languages with such works as the Bible in Dutch:published in 1526 by Jacob van Liesvelt; Bible in French: published in1528 by Jacques Lefevre d’Étaples (or Faber Stapulensis); GermanLuther Bible in 1534; Bible in Spanish: published in Basel in 1569 byCasiodoro de Reina (Biblia del Oso); Bible in Czech: Bible of Kralice,printed between 1579 and 1593; Bible in English: King James Bible,published in 1611. In Catholicism, vernacular bibles were laterprovided, but Latin was used at Tridentine Mass until the SecondVatican Council of 1965. Certain groups, notably TraditionalistCatholics, continue to practice Latin Mass.

In India, the 12th century Bhakti movement led to the translation ofSanskrit texts to the vernacular.

In science, an early user of the vernacular was Galileo, writing inItalian c. 1600, though some of his works remained in Latin. A later example is Isaac Newton, whose 1687 Principiawas in Latin, but whose 1704 Opticks was in English. Latin continues to be used in certain fields of science, notablybinomial nomenclature in biology, while other fields such as mathematics use vernacular; see scientificnomenclature for details.

In diplomacy, French displaced Latin in Europe in the 1710s, due to the military power of Louis XIV of France.Certain languages have both a classical form and various vernacular forms, with two widely-used examples beingArabic and Chinese: see Varieties of Arabic and Chinese language. In the 1920s, due to the May Fourth Movement,Classical Chinese was replaced by written vernacular Chinese.

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A low variant in diglossia

The vernacular is also often contrasted with a liturgical language, a specialized use of a former lingua franca. Forexample, until the 1960s, Latin Rite Roman Catholics held Masses in Latin rather than in vernaculars; to this day theCoptic Church holds liturgies in Coptic, not Arabic; the Ethiopian Orthodox Church holds liturgies in Ge'ez thoughparts of Mass are read in Amharic.Similarly, in Hindu culture, traditionally religious or scholarly works were written in Sanskrit (long after its use as aspoken language) or in Tamil in Tamil country. Sanskrit was a lingua franca among the non-Indo-Europeanlanguages of the Indian subcontinent and became more of one as the spoken language, or prakrits, began to divergefrom it in different regions. With the rise of the bhakti movement from the 12th century onwards, religious workswere created in the other languages: Hindi, Kannada, Telugu and many others. For example, the Ramayana, one ofHinduism's sacred epics in Sanskrit, had vernacular versions such as Ranganadha Ramayanam composed in Teluguby Gona Buddha Reddy in the 15th century; and Ramacharitamanasa, a Hindi version of the Ramayana by the 16thcentury poet Tulsidas.These circumstances are a contrast between a vernacular and language variant used by the same speakers. Accordingto one school of linguistic thought, all such variants are examples of a linguistic phenomenon termed diglossia ("splittongue", on the model of the genetic anomaly[6]). In it, the language is bifurcated; i.e., the speaker learns two formsof the language and ordinarily uses one but under special circumstances the other. The one most frequently used isthe low (L) variant, equivalent to the vernacular, while the special variant is the high (H). The concept wasintroduced to linguistics by Charles A. Ferguson (1959), but Ferguson explicitly excluded variants as divergent asdialects or different languages or as similar as styles or registers. H must not be a conversational form; Ferguson hadin mind a literary language. For example, a lecture is delivered in a different variety than ordinary conversation.Ferguson's own example was classical and spoken Arabic, but the analogy between Vulgar Latin and Classical Latinis of the same type. Excluding the upper-class and lower-class register aspects of the two variants, Classical Latinwas a literary language; the people spoke Vulgar Latin as a vernacular.Joshua Fishman redefined the concept in 1964 to include everything Fergusen had excluded. Fishman allowed bothdifferent languages and dialects and also different styles and registers as the H variants. The essential contrastbetween them was that they be "functionally differentiated"; that is, H must be used for special purposes, such as aliturgical or sacred language. Fasold expanded the concept still further by proposing that multiple H exist in societyfrom which the users can select for various purposes. The definition of an H is intermediate between Ferguson's andFishman's. Realizing the inappropriateness of the term diglossia (only two) to his concept, he proposes the termbroad diglossia.[7]

SociolinguisticWithin the subcategory of sociolinguistics, the term vernacular has been applied to several concepts; unfortunately,it is only possible to identify which is meant in an authored work by context.

An informal register

In variation theory, pioneered by William Labov, language is a large set of styles or registers from which the speakerselects according to the social setting of the moment. The vernacular is "the least self-conscious style of people in arelaxed conversation", or "the most basic style"; that is, casual varieties used spontaneously rather thanself-consciously, informal talk used in intimate situations. In other contexts the speaker does conscious work toselect the appropriate variations. The one he can use without this effort is the first form of speech acquired.[8]

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A non-standard dialect

In another theory, the vernacular is opposed to the standard. The non-standard varieties thus defined are dialects,which are to be identified as complexes of factors: "social class, region, ethnicity, situation, and so forth." Both thestandard and the non-standard language have dialects, but in contrast to the standard, the non-standard have "sociallydisfavored" structures. The standard are primarily written, but the non-standard are spoken. An example of avernacular dialect is African American Vernacular English.[9]

An idealisation

A vernacular is not a real language but is "an abstract set of norms."[10]

First vernacular grammarsThrough metalinguistic publications vernaculars acquired the status of official languages. Between 1437 and 1586the first grammars of Italian, Spanish, French, Dutch, German and English were written, though not alwaysimmediately published. It is to be understood that the first vestiges of those languages preceded their standardizationby up to several hundred years.

Irish grammarAuraicept na n-Éces is a grammar of the Irish language which is thought to date back as far as the 7th century: theearliest surviving manuscripts are 12th century.

Welsh grammarThe so-called Grammar Books of the Master-poets (W.: Gramadegau'r Penceirddiaid) are considered to have beencomposed in the early fourteenth century, and are present in manuscripts from soon after. These tractates draw on thetraditions of the Latin grammars of Donatus and Priscianus and also on the teaching of the professional Welsh poets.The tradition of grammars of the Welsh Language developed from these through the Middle Ages and to theRenaissance.[11]

Italian grammarItalian appears before standardization as the lingua Italica of Isidore and the lingua vulgaris of subsequent medievalwriters. Documents of mixed Latin and Italian are known from the 12th century, which appears to be the start ofwriting in Italian.[12]

The first known grammar of a Romance language was a book written in manuscript form by Leon Battista Albertibetween 1437 and 1441 and entitled Grammatica della lingua toscana, "Grammar of the Tuscan Language" In itAlberti sought to demonstrate that the vernacular – here Tuscan, known today as modern Italian – was every bit asstructured as Latin; He did so by mapping vernacular structures onto Latin.The book was never printed until 1908. It was not generally known, but it was known, as an inventory of the libraryof Lorenzo de'Medici lists it under the title Regule lingue florentine ("Rules of the Florentine language"). The onlyknown manuscript copy, however, is included in the codex, Reginense Latino 1370, located at Rome in the Vaticanlibrary. It is therefore called the Grammatichetta vaticana.[13]

More influential perhaps were the 1516 Regole grammaticali della volgar lingua of Giovanni Francesco Fortunioand the 1525 Prose della vulgar lingua of Pietro Bembo. In those works the authors strove to establish a dialect thatwould qualify for becoming the Italian national language.[14]

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Spanish grammarSpanish, more accurately la lengua castellana, has a development chronologically similar to that of Italian: somevocabulary in Isidore of Seville, traces afterward, writing from about the 12th century, standardization beginning inthe 15th century, coincident with the rise of Castile as an international power.[15] The first Spanish grammar byAntonio de Nebrija (Tratado de gramática sobre la lengua Castellana, 1492) was divided into parts for native andnonnative speakers, pursuing a different purpose in each: Books 1–4 describe the Spanish language grammatically inorder to facilitate the study of Latin for its Spanish speaking readers. Book 5 contains a phonetical andmorphological overview of Spanish for nonnative speakers.

French grammarFrench emerged as a Gallo-Romance language from Vulgar Latin in the late antiquity period. The written languageis known from at least as early as the 9th century. That language contained many forms still identifiable as Latin.Interest in standardizing French began in the 16th century.[16] Because of the Norman conquest of England and theAnglo-Norman domains in both northwestern France and Britain, English scholars retained an interest in the fate ofFrench as well as of English. Some of the numerous 16th-century surviving grammars are as follows.• John Palsgrave: L'esclarcissement de la langue francoyse (in English), 1530• Louis Meigret: Tretté de la grammaire françoeze, 1550• Robert Stephanus: Traicté de la grammaire françoise, 1557

German grammarThe development of a standard German was impeded by political disunity and strong local traditions until theinvention of printing made possible a "High German-based book language."[17] This literary language was notidentical to any specific variety of German. The first grammar evolved from pedagogical works that also tried tocreate a uniform standard from the many regional dialects for various reasons. Religious leaders wished to create asacred language for Protestantism that would be parallel to the use of Latin for the Roman Catholic Church. Variousadministrations wished to create a civil service, or chancery, language that would be useful in more than one locality.And finally, nationalists wished to counter the spread of the French national language into German-speakingterritories assisted by the efforts of the French Academy.With so many linguists moving in the same direction a standard German (hochdeutsche Schriftsprache) did evolvewithout the assistance of a language academy. Its precise origin, the major constituents of its features, remainsuncertainly known and debatable. Latin prevailed as a lingua franca until the 17the century, when grammariansbegan to debate the creation of an ideal language. Before 1550 as a conventional date "supraregional compromises"were used in printed works, such as the one published by Valentin Ickelsamer (Ein Teutsche Grammatica) 1534.Books published in one of these artificial variants began to increase in frequency replacing the Latin then in use.After 1550 the supraregional ideal broadened to a universal intent to create a national language from Early NewHigh German by deliberately ignoring regional forms of speech,[18] which practice was considered to be a form ofpurification parallel to the ideal of purifying religion in Protestantism.In 1617 the Fruitbearing Society, a language club, was formed in Weimar in imitation of the Accademia della Cruscain Italy. It was one of many such clubs; however, none became a national academy. In 1618–1619 JohannesKromayer wrote the first all-German grammar.[19] In 1641 Justin Georg Schottel in teutsche Sprachkunst presentedthe standard language as an artificial one. By the time of his work of 1663, ausführliche Arbeit von der teutschenHaubt-Sprache, the standard language was well established.

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Dutch grammarA sermon of 1275 AD by Berthold von Regensburg made the earliest known distinction between the speech of theNiderlender and that of the Oberlender. The Niderlender, or speakers of Low German, were anyone living in thelowlands from the Baltic Sea to the Netherlands, while the Oberlender, who spoke High German, lived in moreelevated terrain.[20] The first known such distinction was made in Dutch – a Low German variant – in a printed bookof 1482, which mentioned nederlantsche and oberlantsche sprake, still with the same ranges,[21] with the meaning ofneder duutsche and hoghen duutsche. Martin Luther, however, a generation later, used Niderlender to mean thepopulation of the Burgundian Netherlands, a small state consisting of several lowland counties ruled by the Duke ofBurgundy since its creation by Charles the Bald of the Holy Roman Empire in 843.[20] By that time also northernGermany was using düdesch for their variant as opposed to duutsch in the low countries. The southerners referred totheir speech as diutesch.In the 16th century while Martin Luther was working out a compromise High German for his translation of theBible, societies called rederijkerskamers, "chambers of rhetoric," were being formed in Flanders and Hollandbetween 1550 and 1650, which at first attempted to impose a Latin structure on Dutch, on the presumption that Latingrammar had a "universal character."[22] However in 1559 Jan van den Werve published his grammar Den schat derDuytsscher Talen in Dutch and so did Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert (Eenen nieuwen ABC of Materi-boeck) in1564. The Latinizing tendency changed course with the joint publication in 1584 by De Eglantier, the rhetoricsociety of Amsterdam, of the first comprehensive Dutch grammar, Twe-spraack vande Nederduitsche letterkunst/ófte Vant spellen ende eyghenscap des Nederduitschen taals. Hendrick Laurenszoon Spieghel was a majorcontributor but others contributed as well.

English grammarModern English is considered to have begun at a conventional date of about 1550, most notably at the end of theGreat Vowel Shift (for example, bot, the footwear, more as in boat to boot). It was created by the infusion of OldFrench into Old English after the Norman conquest of 1066 AD and of Latin at the instigation of the clericaladministration. While modern-English-speaking adolescents regularly read Middle English authors such as Chaucerin secondary school with some coaching, Old English cannot be understood without more study.Middle English is known for its alternative spellings and pronunciations. The British Isles, although geographicallylimited, have always supported populations of widely variant dialects (as well as a few different languages). Beingthe language of a maritime power, English was of necessity formed from elements of many different languages.Standardization has been an ongoing issue. Even in the age of modern communications and mass media, accordingto one study,[23] "… although the Received Pronunciation of Standard English has been heard constantly on radioand then television for over 60 years, only 3 to 5% of the population of Britain actually speaks RP … new brands ofEnglish have been springing up even in recent times ...." What the vernacular would be in this case is a moot point:"… the standardisation of English has been in progress for many centuries."Modern English came into being as the standard Middle English – that is, the preferred dialect of the king, his courtand administration. That dialect was East Midland, which had spread to London where the king resided and fromwhich he ruled. It contained Danish forms not often used in the north or south, as the Danes had settled heavily in themidlands. Chaucer wrote in an early East Midland, Wycliffe translated the New Testament into it and WilliamCaxton, the first English printer, wrote in it. The first printed book in England was Chaucer's Canterbury Tales,published by Caxton in 1476. Caxton is considered the first modern English author.[24]

The first English grammars were written in Latin, with some in French.[25] After a general plea for mother-tongue education in England: The first part of the elementary, published in 1582 by Richard Mulcaster,[26] William Bullokar wrote the first English grammar to be written in English: Pamphlet for Grammar, followed by Bref Grammar, both in 1586. Previously he had written Booke at Large for the Amendment of Orthography for English Speech (1580) but his orthography was not generally accepted and was soon supplanted, and his grammar shared a similar fate. Other

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grammars in English followed rapidly: Paul Greaves' Grammatica Anglicana, 1594; Alexander Hume'sOrthographie and Congruitie of the Britain Tongue, 1617, and many others.[27] Over the succeeding decades manyliterary figures turned a hand to grammar in English: Alexander Gill, Ben Jonson, Joshua Poole, John Wallis,Jeremiah Wharton, James Howell, Thomas Lye, Christopher Cooper, William Lily, John Colet and so on, all leadingto the massive dictionary of Samuel Johnson.

First vernacular dictionariesA dictionary is to be distinguished from a glossary. Although numerous glossaries publishing vernacular words hadlong been in existence, such as the Etymologiae of Isidore of Seville, which listed many Spanish words, the firstvernacular dictionaries emerged together with vernacular grammars.

ItalianIn the early 15th century a number of glossaries appeared, such as that of Lucillo Minerbi on Boccaccio in 1535, andthose of Fabrizio Luna on Aristo, Petrarca, Boccaccio and Dante in 1536. In the mid-16th the dictionaries began, aslisted below. In 1582 the first language academy was formed, called Accademia della Crusca, "bran academy",which sifted language like grain. Once formed, its publications were standard-setting.[28]

Monolingual

• Alberto Accarisio: Vocabolario et grammatica con l'orthographia della lingua volgare, 1543• Francesco Alunno: Le richezze della lingua volgare, 1543• Francesco Alunno: La fabbrica del mondo, 1548• Giacomo Pergamini: Il memoriale della lingua italiana, 1602• Accademia della Crusca: Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, 1612

Italian/French

• Nathanael Duez : Dittionario italiano e francese/Dictionnaire italien et François, Leiden, 1559–1560• Gabriel Pannonius: Petit vocabulaire en langue françoise et italienne, Lyon, 1578• Jean Antoine Fenice : Dictionnaire françois et italien, Paris, 1584

Italian/English

• John Florio: A Worlde of Words, London, 1598• John Florio: Queen Anna’s New World of Words, London, 1611

Italian/Spanish

• Cristóbal de las Casas: Vocabulario de las dos lenguas toscana y castellana, Sevilla, 1570• Lorenzo Franciosini: Vocabulario italiano e spagnolo/ Vocabulario español e italiano, Roma, 1620.

SpanishThe first Spanish dictionaries in the 15th century were Latin-Spanish/Spanish-Latin, followed by monolingualSpanish. In 1713 the Real Academia Española, "Royal Spanish Academy," was founded to set standards. It publishedan official dictionary, 1726–1739.• Alonzo de Palencia: El universal vocabulario en latin y romance, 1490• Antonio de Nebrija: Lexicon latino-hispanicum et hispanico-latinum, 1492• Sebastián de Covarrubias Orozco: Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española, 1611• Real Academia Española: Diccionario de la lengua castellana, 1726–1739

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FrenchSurviving dictionaries are a century earlier than their grammars. The Académie française founded in 1635 was giventhe obligation of producing a standard dictionary. Some early dictionaries are:• Louis Cruse, alias Garbin: Dictionaire latin-françois, 1487• Robert Estienne, alias Robertus Stephanus: Dictionnaire françois–latin, 1539• Maurice de la Porte: Epitheta, 1571• Jean Nicot: Thresor de la langue fracoyse, tant ancienne que moderne, 1606• Pierre Richelet: Dictionnaire françois contenant les mots et les choses, 1680• Académie française: Dictionnaire de l’Académie française, 1694 and subsequently

GermanHigh German dictionaries began in the 16th century and were at first multi-lingual. They were preceded byglossaries of German words and phrases on various specialized topics. Finally interest in developing a vernacularGerman grew to the point where Maaler could publish a work called by Jacob Grimm "the first truly Germandictionary:"[29]

• Joshua Maaler: Die Teutsche Spraach: Dictionarium Germanico-latinum novum, 1561It was followed along similar lines by• Georg Heinisch: Teütsche Sprache und Weißheit, 1616After numerous dictionaries and glossaries of a less than comprehensive nature came a thesaurus that attempted toinclude all German:• Kaspar Stieler: Der Teutschen Sprache Stammbaum und Fortwachs oder Teutschen Sprachschatz, 1691and finally the first codification of written German:[30]

• Johann Christoph Adelung: Versuch eines vollständigen grammatisch-kritischen Wörterbuches DerHochdeutschen Mundart, 1774–1786

Schiller called Adlung an Orakel and Wieland is said to have nailed a copy to his desk.

DutchGlossaries in Dutch began about 1470 AD leading eventually to two Dutch dictionaries:[31]

• Christophe Plantin: Thesaurus Theutonicae Linguae, 1573• Cornelis Kiliaan: Dictionarium Teutonico-Latinum, 1574 (becoming Etymologicum with the 1599 3rd edition)Shortly after (1579) the Southern Netherlands came under the dominion of Spain, then of Austria (1713) and ofFrance (1794). The Congress of Vienna created the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 from whichsouthern Netherlands (being Catholic) seceded in 1830 to form the Kingdom of Belgium, which was confirmed in1839 by the Treaty of London.[32] As a result of this political instability no standard Dutch was defined (even thoughmuch in demand and recommended as an ideal) until after World War II. Currently the Dutch Language Union, aninternational treaty organization founded in 1980, supports a standard Dutch in the Netherlands, while Afrikaans isregulated by Die Taalkommissie founded in 1909.

EnglishStandard English remains a quasi-fictional ideal, despite the numerous private organizations publishing prescriptive rules for it. No language academy was ever established or espoused by any government past or present in the English-speaking world. In practice the British monarchy and its administrations established an ideal of what good English should be considered to be, and this in turn was based on the teachings of the major universities, such as Cambridge University and Oxford University, which relied on the scholars whom they hired. There is a general but

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far from uniform consensus among the leading scholars about what should or should not be said in standard English,but for every rule examples from famous English writers can be found that break it. Uniformity of spoken Englishnever existed and does not exist now, but usages do exist, which must be learnt by the speakers, and do not conformto prescriptive rules.Usages have been documented not by prescriptive grammars, which on the whole are less comprehensible to thegeneral public, but by comprehensive dictionaries, often termed unabridged, which attempt to list all usages of wordsand the phrases in which they occur as well as the date of first use and the etymology where possible. These typicallyrequire many volumes, and yet not more so than the unabridged dictionaries of many languages.Bilingual dictionaries and glossaries precede modern English and were in use in the earliest written English. The firstmonolingual dictionary was:[33]

• Robert Cawdrey: Table Alphabeticall, 1604which was followed by a larger one,• Edward Phillips: A New World of English Words, 1658• Nathaniel Bailey: An Universal Etymological English Dictionary, 1721These dictionaries whetted the interest of the English-speaking public in greater and more prescriptive dictionariesuntil Samuel Johnson published a grand design for such a one:• Samuel Johnson: Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language, 1747which would imitate the dictionary being produced by the French Academy. He had no problem acquiring thefunding, but not as a prescriptive dictionary. This was to be a grand comprehensive dictionary of all English words atany period:• Samuel Johnson: A Dictionary of the English Language, 1755By 1858 the need for an update resulted in the first planning for a new comprehensive dictionary, which woulddocument standard English, a term coined at that time by the planning committee.[34] The dictionary, known as theOxford English Dictionary, published its first fascicle in 1884. It attracted significant contributions from somesingular minds, such as William Chester Minor, a former army surgeon who had become criminally insane and mademost of his contributions while incarcerated. Whether the OED is the long-desired standard English Dictionary isdebatable, but its authority is taken seriously by the entire English-speaking world. Its staff is currently working on athird edition.

Notes[1] Howell, James (1688). Epistolæ Ho-Elianæ: Familiar letters, domestic and forren (6th ed.). London: Thomas Grey. p. 363.[2] "vernacular" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ VERNACULAR). Merriam-Webster Online. . Retrieved 8 November 2009.[3] Gaffiot, Felix (1934). "vernaculus". Dictionnaire Illustré Latin Français. Paris: Librairie Hachette.[4] "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue" (http:/ / www. bl. uk/ catalogues/ istc/ index. html). British Library. . Retrieved 2 March 2011.[5] Wardhaugh, Ronald (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Malden, Mass.; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 59. "In 1953, UNESCO

defined a lingua franca as 'a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitatecommunication between them.'"

[6] "diglossia". Stedman's Medical dictionary (5th ed.). 1918.[7] Fasold 1984, pp. 34–60[8] Mesthrie 1999, pp. 77–83[9] Wolfram, Walt; Schilling-Estes, Natalie (1998). American English: dialects and variation. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 13–16.[10][10] Lodge 2005, p. 13[11] Gruffudd, R. Geraint (2006), "Gramadegau'r Penceirddiaid", in Koch, John, Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia, Santa Barbara:

ABC-CLIO, pp. 843–4[12] Diez 1863, pp. 75–77[13] Marazzini, Claudio (2000), "102. Early grammatical descriptions of Italian", in Auroux, Sylvain; Koerner, E. F. K.; Niederehe, Hans-Josef

et al., History of the Language Sciences / Histoire des sciences du langage / Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaften, Part 1, Berlin, New York:Walter de Gruyter, pp. 742–749

[14][14] Diez 1863, p. 77

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[15][15] Diez 1863, p. 98[16] Diez 1863, pp. 118–119[17][17] Wells 1985, p. 134[18] Langer, Nils (2002), "On the Importance of Foreign Language Grammars for a History of Standard German", in Linn, Andrew Robert;

McLelland, Nicola, Standardization: studies from the Germanic languages, Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 235, Amsterdam: JohnBenjamins Publishing Company, pp. 69–70

[19][19] Wells 1985, p. 222[20][20] DeGrauwe 2002, p. 100[21][21] DeGrauwe 2002, p. 99[22][22] Noordegraaf 2000, p. 894[23] Milroy, Lesley (1985). Authority in language: investigating language prescription and standardisation. Routledge. p. 29.[24] Champneys 1893, pp. 269, 285–286, 301, 314[25][25] Dons 2004, p. 6[26][26] Dons 2004, p. 5[27] Dons 2004, pp. 7–9[28] Yates, Frances Amelia (1983). Renaissance and reform: the Italian contribution. Volume 2. Taylor & Francis Group. p. 18.[29] Wells 1985, pp. 214–215[30][30] Wells 1985, p. 339[31][31] Brachin 1985, p. 15[32] Brachin 1985, pp. 26–27[33][33] Bex 1999, p. 76[34][34] Bex 1999, p. 71

Bibliography• Bex, Tony (1999), "Representations of English in twentieth-century Britain: Fowler, Gowers, Partridge", in Bex,

Tony; Watts, Richard J., Standard English: the widening debate, New York: Routledge, pp. 89–112,0-415-19162-9.

• Brachin, Pierre (1985). The Dutch language: a survey. Leiden: E.J. Brill.• Champneys, Arthur Charles (1893). History of English: a sketch of the origin and development of the English

with Examples, Down to the Present Day. New York: Macmillan and Co..• DeGrauwe, Luc (2002), "Emerging Mother-Tongue Awareness: The Special Case of Dutch and German in the

Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period", in Linn, Andrew Robert; McLelland, Nicola, Standardization:studies from the Germanic languages, Amsterdam; Philadelphis: John Benjamins Publishing Co., pp. 99–116

• Diez, Friedrich (1863). Introduction to the grammar of the Romance languages. London, Edinburgh: Williamsand Norgate.

• Dons, Ute (2004). Descriptive adequacy of early modern English grammars. Topics in English Linguistics, 47.Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

• Fasold, Ralph W. (1984). The sociolinguistics of society. v. 1. Oxford, England; New York, NY, USA: B.Blackwell.

• Keller, Marcello Sorce (1984). "Folk Music in Trentino: Oral Transmission and the Use of VernacularLanguages". Ethnomusicology XXVIII (1): 75–89.

• Lodge, R. Anthony (2005). A sociolinguistic history of Parisian French. Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge UniversityPress.

• Mesthrie, Rajend (1999). Introducing sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.• Noordegraaf, Jan (2000), "The Normative Study of the National Languages from the 17th Century Onwards", in

Auroux, Sylvain, History of the language sciences : an international handbook on the evolution of the study oflanguage from the beginnings to the present, Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, Bd. 18,Volume 2, Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 893–900.

• Wells, C. J. (1985). German, a linguistic history to 1945. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.

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External links• Illich, Ivan. "Vernacular Values" (http:/ / www. preservenet. com/ theory/ Illich/ Vernacular. html). The

Preservation Institute. Retrieved 7 November 2009.

Vernacular literatureVernacular literature is literature written in the vernacular—the speech of the "common people".In the European tradition, this effectively means literature not written in Latin. In this context, vernacular literatureappeared during the Middle Ages at different periods in the various countries; the earliest European vernacularliteratures are Irish literature, Welsh literature, Anglo-Saxon literature and Gothic literature.The Italian poet Dante Alighieri, in his De vulgari eloquentia, was possibly the first European writer to arguecogently for the promotion of literature in the vernacular. Important early vernacular works include Dante's DivineComedy, Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron (both in Italian), John Barbour's The Brus (in Scots), Geoffrey Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales (in Middle English) and Jacob van Maerlant's Spieghel Historiael (in Middle Dutch). IndeedDante's work actually contributed towards the creation of the Italian language.The term is also applied to works not written in the standard and/or prestige language of their time and place. Forexample, many authors in Scotland, such as James Kelman and Edwin Morgan have used Scots, even though Englishis now the prestige language of publishing in Scotland. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o writes in his native Gikuyu languagethough he previously wrote in English. Some authors have written in invented vernacular; examples of such novelsinclude the futuristic literary novels A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess and Boxy an Star by Daren King.

Outside EuropeBy extension, the term is also used to describe, for example, Chinese literature not written in classical Chinese andIndian literature after Sanskrit.Similarly, in Hindu culture, traditionally religious or scholarly works were written in Sanskrit long after its use as aspoken language. With the rise of the bhakti movement from the 12th century onwards, religious works started beingcreated in Tamil, Hindi, Kannada, Telugu and many other Indian languages throughout the different regions of India.For example, the Ramayana, one of Hinduism's sacred epics in Sanskrit had vernacular versions such asRamacharitamanasa, a Hindi version of the Ramayana by the 16th century poet Tulsidas and Kambaramayanam bythe poet, Kamban in Tamil.In the Philippines, the term means any written literature in a language other than Filipino (or Tagalog) or English. Atpresent, it forms the second largest corpus of literature, following the literature in Tagalog. During the Spanishcolonial era, when Filipino was not yet existing as a national lingua franca, literature in this type flourished. Asidefrom religious literature, such as the Passiong Mahal (the Passion of Our Lord), zarzuelas were also produced usingthe Philippine vernacular languages.

References

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Life Of Empire

Government of the Carolingian EmpireThe government, administration, and organisation of the Carolingian Empire were forged in the court ofCharlemagne in the decades around the year 800. In this year, Charlemagne was crowned emperor and adapted hisexisting royal administration to live up to the expectations of his new title. The political reforms wrought in hiscapital Aachen were to have an immense impact on the political definition of Western Europe for the rest of theMiddle Ages. The Carolingian improvements on the old Merovingian mechanisms of governance have been laudedby historians for the increased central control, efficient bureaucracy, accountability, and cultural renaissance.The Carolingian Empire was the largest western territory since the fall of Rome, but historians have come to suspectthe depth of the emperor's influence and control. Legally, the Carolingian emperor exercised the bannum, the right torule and command, over all of his territories. Also, he had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation,led the army, and protected both the Church and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organise thekingdom, church and nobility around him, however, its efficacy was directly dependent upon the efficiency, loyaltyand support of his subjects.

CapitalIn the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to Aachen (French: Aix-la-Chapelle; Italian: Aquisgrana) for the firsttime. He began to build a palace twenty years later (788) after the death of his father. He made it to dedicate hisfather and hoped that someday he would be a great ruler like him. The palace chapel, constructed in 796, laterbecame Aachen Cathedral. Charlemagne spent most winters between 800 and his death (814) at Aachen, which hemade the joint capital with Rome, in order to enjoy the hot springs. Charlemagne organised his empire into 350counties, each led by an appointed count. Counts served as judges, administrators, and enforcers of capitularies. Toenforce loyalty, he set up the system of missi dominici, meaning "envoys of the lord". In this system, onerepresentative of the Church and one representative of the Emperor would head to the different counties every yearand report back to Charlemagne on their status.

HouseholdThe royal household was an itinerant body (until c. 802) which moved round the kingdom making sure goodgovernment was upheld in the localities. The most important positions were the chaplain (who was responsible forall ecclesiastical affairs in the kingdom), and the count of the palace (court palatine) who had supreme control overthe household. It also included more minor officials e.g. chamberlain, seneschal and marshal. The householdsometimes led the army (e.g. Seneschal Andorf against the Bretons in 786).Possibly associated with the chaplain and the royal chapel was the office of the chancellor, head of the chancery, anon-permanent writing office. The charters produced were rudimentary and mostly to do with land deeds. There are262 surviving from Charles’ reign as opposed to 40 from Pepin’s and 350 from Louis the Pious.

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OfficialsThere are 3 main offices which enforced Carolingian authority in the localities:The Comes (Latin: count). Appointed by Charles to administer a county. The Carolingian Empire (except Bavaria)was divided up into between 110 and 600 counties, each divided into centenae which were under the control of avicar. At first they were royal agents sent out by Charles but after c. 802 they were important local magnates. Theywere responsible for justice, enforcing capitularies, levying soldiers, receiving tolls and dues and maintaining roadsand bridges. They could technically be dismissed by the king but many offices became hereditary. They were alsosometimes corrupt although many were exemplary e.g. Count Eric of Friuli. Provincial governors eventually evolvedwho supervised several counts.The Missi Dominici (Latin: dominical emissaries). Originally appointed ad hoc, a reform in 802 led to the office ofmissus dominicus becoming a permanent one. The missi dominici were sent out in pairs. One was an ecclesiastic andone secular. Their status as high officials was thought to safeguard them from the temptation of taking bribes. Theymade 4 journeys a year in their local missaticum, each lasting a month, and were responsible for making the royalwill and capitularies known, judging cases and occasionally raising armies.The Vassi Dominici. These were the king’s vassals and were usually the sons of powerful men, holding ‘benefices’and forming a contingent in the royal army. They also went on ad hoc missions.

Legal systemAround 780 Charlemagne reformed the local system of administering justice and created the scabini, professionalexperts on law. Every count had the help of seven of these scabini, who were supposed to know every national lawso that all men could be judged according to it.Judges were also banned from taking bribes and were supposed to use sworn inquests to establish facts.In 802, all law was written down and amended (the Salic law was also amended in both 798 and 802, although evenEinhard admits in section 29 that this was imperfect). Judges were supposed to have a copy of both the Salic lawcode and the Ripuarian law code.

CoinageCoinage had a strong association with the Roman Empire, and Charlemagne took up its regulation with his otherimperial duties. The Carolingians exercised controls over the silver coinage of the realm, controlling its compositionand value. The name of the emperor, not of the minter, appeared on the coins. Charlemagne worked to suppressmints in northern Germany on the Baltic sea.

SubdivisionThe Frankish kingdom was subdivided by Charlemagne into three separate areas to make administration easier.These were the inner "core" of the kingdom (Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy) which were supervised directly bythe missatica system and the itinerant household. Outside this was the regna where Frankish administration restedupon the counts, and outside this was the marcher areas where ruled powerful governors. These marcher lordshipswere present in Brittany, Spain and Avaria.Charles also created two sub-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin respectively.Bavaria was also under the command of an autonomous governor, Gerold, until his death in 796. While Charles stillhad overall authority in these areas they were fairly autonomous with their own chancery and minting facilities.

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Placitum GeneralisThe annual meeting, the Placitum Generalis or Marchfield, was held every year (between March and May) at a placeappointed by the king. It was called for three reasons: to gather the Frankish host to go on campaign, to discusspolitical and ecclesiastical matters affecting the kingdom and to legislate for them, and to make judgements. Allimportant men had to go the meeting and so it was an important way for Charles to make his will known. Originallythe meeting worked effectively however later it merely became a forum for discussion and for nobles to express theirdissatisfaction.

OathsThe oath of fidelity was a way for Charles to ensure loyalty from all his subjects. As early as 779 he banned swornguilds between other men so that everyone took an oath of loyalty only to him. In 789 (in response to the 786rebellion) he began legislating that everyone should swear fidelity to him as king, however in 802 he expanded tooath greatly and made it so that all men over age 12 swore it to him.

CapitulariesCapitularies are the black hole of Charles' government as no-one really knows what their purpose was or howeffective they were. Indeed, most of the controversy surrounding Charles government comes from the fact that thecapitularies are the only main evidence, and there is no case law to see if they were implemented or followed.The four greatest capitularies of Charlemagne’s reign are:• The Capitulary of Herstal of 779. This is a short capitulary and launched according to Ganshof in response to a

crisis in Aquitaine, Italy and Spain. It is concerned a lot with ordo, making sure that the church is workingcorrectly, also with reinforcing the wergild and Frankish ideals. Notably forced the usage of tithes.

• Admonitio Generalis of 789. “Blueprint for a new society” mentioning social issues for the first time. The first 58clauses (of 82) reiterate decisions made by previous church councils and much is also to do with ordo.

•• The Capitulary of Frankfurt of 794. This is mainly to do with theology and speaks out against adoptionism andiconoclasm.

•• The Programmatic Capitulary of 802. This shows an increasing sense of vision in society.

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Carolingian Renaissance

Carolingian minuscule, one of the products of theCarolingian Renaissance.

In the history of ideas the Carolingian Renaissance stands out as aperiod of intellectual and cultural revival in Europe occurring from thelate eighth century, in the generation of Alcuin, to the 9th century, andthe generation of Heiric of Auxerre, with the peak of the activitiescoordinated during the reigns of the Carolingian rulers Charlemagneand Louis the Pious.[1] It formed one of three medieval renaissancesidentified by medievalists. The sense of renewal in a newly stabilizedsociety was galvanized by an elite group of scholars gathered to thecourt of Charlemagne. For moral betterment the Carolingianrenaissance reached for models drawn from the example of theChristian Roman Empire of the 4th century. During this period therewas an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture,jurisprudence, liturgical reforms and scriptural studies. Charlemagne'sAdmonitio generalis (789) and his Epistola de litteris colendis servedas manifestos. The effects of this cultural revival, however, werelargely limited to a small group of court literati: "it had a spectaculareffect on education and culture in Francia, a debatable effect on artisticendeavors, and an unmeasurable effect on what mattered most to theCarolingians, the moral regeneration of society," John Contreni observes.[2] Beyond their efforts to write betterLatin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts and to develop a more legible, classicizing script, theCarolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule, fromwhich has developed early modern Italic script, the secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissancefor the first time in centuries applied rational ideas to social issues, providing a common language and writing stylethat allowed for communication across most of Europe.

Sir Kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived bythe skin of its teeth.[3] The use of the term renaissance to describe this period is contested[4] due to the majority ofchanges brought about by this period being confined almost entirely to the clergy, and due to the period lacking thewide-ranging social movements of the later Italian Renaissance.[5] Instead of being a rebirth of new culturalmovements, the period was more an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the Roman Empire.[6] TheCarolingian Renaissance in retrospect also has some of the character of a false dawn, in that its cultural gains werelargely dissipated within a couple of generations, a perception voiced by Walahfrid Strabo (died 849), in hisintroduction to Einhard's Life of Charlemagne,[7] summing up the generation of renewal:

Charlemagne was able to offer the cultureless and, I might say, almost completely unenlightenedterritory of the realm which God had entrusted to him, a new enthusiasm for all human knowledge. In itsearlier state of barbarousness, his kingdom had been hardly touched at all by any such zeal, but now itopened its eyes to God's illumination. In our own time the thirst for knowledge is disappearing again:the light of wisdom is less and less sought after and is now becoming rare again in most men's minds.[8]

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Scholarly effortsThe lack of literate persons in eighth century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severelylimiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes. Of even greater concern to the very pious rulerswas the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read the Vulgate Bible. An additional problem was thatthe vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects, the precursors totoday's Romance languages, that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part ofEurope being able to communicate with persons from another part of Europe.

Alcuin (pictured center), was one of the leadingscholars of the Carolingian Renaissance.

To address these problems, Charlemagne ordered the creation ofschools. A major part of his program of reform was to attract many ofthe leading scholars of his day to his court. Among the first called tocourt were Italians: Peter of Pisa, who from 776 to about 790 instructedCharlemagne in Latin, and from 776 to 787 Paulinus of Aquileia,whom Charlemagne nominated as patriarch of Aquileia in 787. TheLombard Paul the Deacon was brought to court in 782 and remaineduntil 787, when Charles nominated him abbot of Montecassino.Theodulf of Orléans was a Spanish Goth who served at court from 782to 797 when nominated as bishop of Orléans. Theodulf had been infriendly competition over the standardization of the Vulgate with thechief among the Charlemagne's scholars, Alcuin of York. Alcuin was aNorthumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of the PalaceSchool from 782 to 796, except for the years 790 to 793 when hereturned to England. After 796, he continued his scholarly work as

abbot of St. Martin's Monastery in Tours.[5] Among those to follow Alcuin across the Channel to the Frankish courtwas Joseph Scottus, an Irishman who left some original biblical commentary and acrostic experiments. After thisfirst generation of non-Frankish scholars, their Frankish pupils, such as Angilbert, would make their own mark.

The later courts of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald had similar groups of scholars. Among the most importantwas John Scotus Eriugena.One of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools.Alcuin led this effort and was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, and establishing thetrivium and quadrivium as the basis for education.[9]

Another contribution from this period was the development of Carolingian minuscule, a "book-hand" first used at themonasteries of Corbie and Tours that introduced the use of lower case letters. A standardized version of Latin wasalso developed that allowed for the coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of Classical Latin.This Medieval Latin became the common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travelers to makethemselves understood across Europe.[10]

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Carolingian art

Aachen Gospels (c. 820), an example ofCarolingian illumination.

Carolingian art spans the roughly 100-year period from about800–900. Although brief, it was an influential period. Northern Europeembraced classical Mediterranean Roman art forms for the first time,setting the stage for the rise of Romanesque art and eventually Gothicart in the West. Illuminated manuscripts, metalwork, small-scalesculpture, mosaics and frescos survive from the period.

A copy of the Plan of Saint Gall

Carolingian architecture

Carolingian architecture is the style of North European architecture promoted byCharlemagne. The period of architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuriesuntil the reign of Otto I in 936, and was a conscious attempt to create a RomanRenaissance, emulating Roman, Early Christian and Byzantine architecture, withits own innovation, resulting in having a unique character. Its architecture wasthe most salient Carolingian art to a society that never saw an illuminatedmanuscript and rarely handled one of the new coins. "The little more than eightdecades between 768 to 855 alone saw the construction of 27 new cathedrals,417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences", John Contreni calculates.[11]

Carolingian musicIn Western culture, there had been an unbroken tradition in musical practice and theory from the earliest written records of the Sumerians (c. 2500 BC) through the Babylonians and Persians down to ancient Greece and Rome. However, the Germanic migrations of the 5th century brought about a break with this tradition. Most in western Europe for the next few centuries did not understand the Greek language, and thus the works of Boethius, who saw what was happening and translated ancient Greek treatises into Latin, became the foundation of learning during this period. The advent of scholarly reforms by Charlemagne, who was particularly interested in music, began a period of intense activity in the monasteries of the writing and copying of treatises in music theory – the Musica enchiriadis is one of the earliest and most interesting of these. Charlemagne sought to unify the practice of church music by eliminating regional stylistic differences. There is evidence that the earliest Western musical notation, in the form of neumes in camp aperto (without staff-lines), was created at Metz around 800, as a result of Charlemagne's desire for

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Frankish church musicians to retain the performance nuances used by the Roman singers.[12] Western musicalpractice and theory of today can be traced in an unbroken line from this time to the present, thus it had its beginningswith Charlemagne.

Economic and legal reformsCharlemagne was faced with a variety of currencies at the start of his reign. To correct problems these variouscurrencies caused, he standardized a system based on a pound of silver (Livre tournois). Deniers were minted with avalue of 240 deniers to a pound of silver. A second value, the solidus, was also created as an accounting device witha value of twelve deniers or one twentieth of a pound of silver. The solidus was not minted but was instead used torecord values such as a "solidus of grain" which was equal to the amount of grain that twelve deniers couldpurchase.[13]

References• Cantor, Norman F. (1993). The Civilization of the Middle Ages: a completely revised and expanded edition of

Medieval history, the life and death of a civilization. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017033-6.• Mortimer Chambers; Raymond Grew, David Herlihy, Theodore K. Rabb, Isser Woloch (1983). The Western

Experience: To 1715 (3rd edition ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-33085-4.• Martin Scott (1964). Medieval Europe. New York: Dorset Press. ISBN 0-88029-115-X.

Footnotes[1] G.W. Trompf, "The concept of the Carolingian Renaissance", Journal of the History of Ideas, 1973:3ff.[2] John G. Contreni, "The Carolingian Renaissance", in Warren T. Treadgold, ed. Renaissances before the Renaissance: cultural revivals of late

antiquity and the Middle Ages 1984:59; see also Janet L. Nelson, "On the limits of the Carolingian renaissance" in her Politics and Ritual inEarly Medieval Europe, 1986.

[3] Clark, Civilization.[4] Notably by Lynn Thorndike, as in his "Renaissance or Prenaissance?" in Journal of the History of Ideas, 4 (1943:65ff)[5][5] Scott pg 30[6][6] Cantor pg 190[7] Einhard's use of the Roman historian Suetonius as a model for the new genre of biography is itself a marker for the Carolingian Renaissance;

see M. Innes, "The classical tradition in the Carolingian Renaissance: Ninth-century encounters with Suetonius", International Journal of theClassical Tradition, 1997.

[8] Lewis Thorpe, tr., Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, Two Lives of Charlemagne, 1969:49f.[9][9] Cantor pg 189[10][10] Chambers pg 204-205[11][11] Contreni 1984:63.[12] James Grier Ademar de Chabannes, Carolingian Musical Practices, and "Nota Romana" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/

sici?sici=0003-0139(200321)56:1<43:ADCCMP>2. 0. CO;2-#), Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Spring,2003), pp. 43-98, retrieved July 2007

[13][13] Scott pg 40

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Carolingian minuscule

Example from 10th century manuscript, VulgateLuke 1:5-8.

Carolingian or Caroline minuscule is a script developed as acalligraphic standard in Europe so that the Latin alphabet could beeasily recognized by the literate class from one region to another. Itwas used in Charlemagne's empire between approximately 800 and1200. Codices, pagan and Christian texts, and educational materialwere written in Carolingian minuscule throughout the CarolingianRenaissance. The script developed into blackletter and becameobsolete, though its revival in the Italian renaissance forms the basis ofmore recent scripts.

Creation

Page of text (folio 160v) from a Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library,MS Add. 11848), written in Carolingian minuscule. Text is Vulgate Luke

23:15-26.

The script ultimately developed from Romanhalf uncial and its cursive version, which hadgiven rise to various Continental minusculescripts, which were combined with features fromthe "Insular" scripts that were being used in Irishand English monasteries.

Carolingian minuscule was created partly underthe patronage of the Emperor Charlemagne(hence Carolingian). Charlemagne had a keeninterest in learning, according to his biographerEinhard:

Temptabat et scribere tabulasque etcodicellos ad hoc in lecto subcervicalibus circumferre solebat, ut,cum vacuum tempus esset, manumlitteris effigiendis adsuesceret, sedparum successit labor praeposterusac sero inchoatus.He also tried to write, and used to keeptablets and blanks in bed under his pillow,that at leisure hours he might accustom hishand to form the letters; however, as hedid not begin his efforts in due season, butlate in life, they met with ill success.

Although Charlemagne was never fully literate,he clearly understood the value of literacy and a uniform script in running his empire. Charlemagne sent for theEnglish scholar Alcuin of York to run his palace school and scriptorium at his capital, Aachen. The revolutionarycharacter of the Carolingian reform cannot be over-emphasized; efforts at taming the crabbed Merovingian andGermanic hands had been under way before Alcuin arrived at Aachen, where he was master from 782 to 796, with a

two-year break. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, of which the Ada Gospels provide classic models, and later from the influential scriptorium at Marmoutier Abbey (Tours), where Alcuin withdrew from court

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service as an abbot in 796 and restructured the scriptorium.[1]

CharacteristicsCarolingian minuscule was uniform, with rounded shapes in clearly distinguishable glyphs, disciplined and aboveall, legible. Clear capital letters and spaces between words—norms we take for granted—became standard inCarolingian minuscule, which was one result of a campaign to achieve a culturally unifying standardization acrossthe Carolingian Empire.The value of a standardized hand is vivid to anyone who reads. Legibility may appear to be of secondary value, evena drawback, in some cultural contexts. Traditional charters, for example, continued to be written in a Merovingian"chancery hand" long after manuscripts of Scripture and classical literature were being produced in the minusculehand. Documents written in a local language, in Gothic, or Anglo-Saxon rather than Latin, tended to be expressed intraditional local handwritings.Carolingian script generally has fewer ligatures than other contemporary scripts, although the et (&), ae (æ), rt, st(st), and ct ligatures are common. The letter d often appears in an uncial form, with an ascender slanting to the left,but the letter g is essentially the same as the modern minuscule letter, rather than the previously common uncial g.Ascenders are usually 'clubbed'—i.e., they become thicker near the top.The early period of the script, during Charlemagne's reign in the late 8th century and early 9th, still has widelyvarying letter forms in different regions. The uncial form of the letter a, similar to a double c (cc), is still used inmanuscripts from this period. There is also use of punctuation such as the question mark, as in Beneventan script ofthe same period. The script flourished during the 9th century, when regional hands developed into an internationalstandard, with less variation of letter forms. Modern glyphs, such as s and v, began to appear (as opposed to the "longs" [ſ] and u), and ascenders, after thickening at the top, were finished with a three-cornered wedge. The script beganto decline slowly after the 9th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries, ligatures were rare, and ascenders began toslant to the right and were finished with a fork. The letter w also began to appear. By the 12th century, Carolingianletters became more angular and were written closer together, less legibly than in previous centuries; at the sametime, the modern dotted i appeared.

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A page of the Freising manuscripts, 10th century Slovene textwritten in Carolingian minuscules

Spread

The new script spread through Western Europe most widelywhere Carolingian influence was strongest. In luxuriouslyproduced Lectionaries that now began to be produced forprincely patronage of abbots and bishops, legibility wasessential. It reached far afield: the 10th century Freisingmanuscripts, which contain the oldest Slovene language, thefirst Roman-script record of any Slavic language, arewritten in Carolingian minuscule. In Switzerland,Carolingian was used in the Rhaetian and Alemannicminuscule types. Manuscripts written in Rhaetianminuscule tend to have slender letters, resembling Insularscript, with the letters a and t, and ligatures such as ri,showing similar to Visigothic and Beneventan. Alemannicminuscule, used for a short time in the early 9th century, isusually larger and broader, very vertical compared to theslanting Rhaetian type. In Austria, Salzburg was the majorcentre of Carolingian script, while Fulda, Mainz, andWürzburg were the major centres in Germany. Germanminuscule tends to be oval-shaped, very slender, and slantsto the right. It has uncial features as well, such as the ascender of the letter d slanting to the left, and vertical initialstrokes of m and n.

In northern Italy, the monastery at Bobbio used Carolingian minuscule beginning in the 9th century. Outside thesphere of influence of Charlemagne and his successors, however, the new legible hand was resisted by the RomanCuria; nevertheless the Romanesca type was developed in Rome after the 10th century. The script was not taken upin England and Ireland until ecclesiastic reforms in the middle of the 10th century; in Spain a traditionalistVisigothic hand survived; and in southern Italy a 'Beneventan minuscule' survived in the lands of the Lombard duchyof Benevento through the 13th century, although Romanesca eventually also appeared in southern Italy.

Role in cultural transmissionScholars during the Carolingian Renaissance sought out and copied in the new legible standardized hand manyRoman texts that had been wholly forgotten. Most of our knowledge of classical literature now derives from copiesmade in the scriptoria of Charlemagne. Over 7000 manuscripts written in Carolingian script survive from the 8th and9th centuries alone.Though the Carolingian minuscule was superseded by Gothic blackletter hands, it later seemed so thoroughly'classic' to the humanists of the early Renaissance that they took these old Carolingian manuscripts to be ancientRoman originals and modelled their Renaissance hand on the Carolingian one.[2] From there the script passed to the15th- and 16th-century printers of books, such as Aldus Manutius of Venice. In this way it forms the basis of ourmodern lowercase typefaces. Indeed 'Carolingian minuscule' is a style of typeface, which approximates this historicalhand, eliminating the nuances of size of capitals, long descenders, etc..

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References[1] The production of the scriptorium at Tours was reconstructed by E.K. Rand, A Survey of the Manuscripts of Tours (Harvard University Press),

1929.[2] Berthold Louis Ullman, The Origin and Development of Humanistic Script. (Rome), 1960, p. 12.

External links• Carolingian minuscule (http:/ / medievalwriting. 50megs. com/ scripts/ history5. htm) at Dr. Dianne Tillotson’s

website devoted to medieval writing• Pfeffer Mediæval (http:/ / robert-pfeffer. net/ schriftarten/ englisch/ index. html), a Carolingian minuscule

typeface which also includes Gothic and Runic characters

Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868

Vat. lat. 3868 (folios 4v/5r)

Folio 2 recto

The Vatican Terence (Terentius Vaticanus), or Codex VaticanusLatinus 3868, is a 9th-century illuminated manuscript of the Latincomedies of Publius Terentius Afer, housed in the Vatican Library.According to art-historical analysis the manuscript was copied from amodel of the 3rd century.

Description

The manuscript was made at Corvey in about the year 825 by a scribenamed Hrodgarius.[1] The illustrations were made by three artists, oneof them was named Adelricus.[2] It contains illustrations of 141 scenes.Bischoff dated the manuscript between 820–830.[2]

It is an example of Carolingian art, but the illustrations follow anantique model.[2] The text of the manuscript in English translation wasedited by George Colman in 1768.[3] The Latin text was edited byChristoph Stiegemann and Matthias Wemhoff.

The archetype of the codex

Since the end of the 19th century many scholars tried to estimate theage of the model from which Vaticanus 3868 was copied. According toWeitzmann the latter is a most faithful copy of a late classical originalmanuscript.[2] On the basis of the art-historical data the originalmanuscript was dated to the 5th century by Weitzmann, Koehler, andMütherich.[4] The artist was schooled in the Greco-Asiatic manner.[5]

This point of view dominated before World War II.

In the 1960s another more detailed art-historical analysis was made. The pictures of female masks were comparedwith three female masks dated between the years ca. 242 – ca. 267. The hairstyle of the Terence portrait is close tothe one favoured by emperors between the years 238 and 249, suggesting that models from which the codex wascopied were made in the 3rd century.[6]

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ReferencesCitations[1][1] Morey 1931, p. 374[2] C. R. Dodwell, Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 4.[3] The comedies of Terence (http:/ / archive. org/ details/ comediesofterenc01tereuoft) (1768), ed. George Colman, London.[4] C. R. Dodwell, Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 5.[5] C. R. Dodwell, Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 6.[6] C. R. Dodwell, Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 12–20.

Bibliography• Colman, George, ed. (1768). The Comedies of Terence (http:/ / archive. org/ details/ comediesofterenc01tereuoft).

London.• Dodwell, Charles R. (2000). Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage (http:/ / assets. cambridge. org/

97805216/ 61881/ sample/ 9780521661881WSC00. pdf). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–21.ISBN 0521661889 9.

• Morey, Charles R. (1931). "The Vatican Terence". Classical Philology 26 (4): 374–385. JSTOR 265109.

Further reading• Phormio. Translated into English prose by M.H. Morgan, with a new prologue by J.B. Greenough, and with the

Vatican miniatures accurately reproduced for the first time (http:/ / archive. org/ details/phormiotranslate00tereuoft) (1894) Cambridge.

External links• "The most ingenious and expressive work of narrative art known from all of Late Antiquity" (820) (http:/ / www.

historyofinformation. com/ index. php?id=3060) 2004–2012 Jeremy Norman & Co., Inc.

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Sequence of Saint Eulalia

Manuscript of the Sequence of Saint Eulalia, Valenciennes Municipal Library

The Sequence of Saint Eulalia, also knownas the Canticle of Saint Eulalia (French:Séquence or Cantilène de sainte Eulalie) isthe earliest surviving piece of Frenchhagiography and one of the earliest extanttexts in vernacular langue d'oïl. It dates fromaround 880.

Saint Eulalia of Mérida was an earlyChristian martyr from Mérida, Spain, whowas killed during Diocletian's repressionsaround 304. Her legend is recounted in the29 verses of the Sequence, in which sheresists pagan threats, bribery and torturefrom the pagan emperor Maximian. Shemiraculously survives being burned at thestake, but is finally decapitated. She thenascends to heaven in the form of a dove.

The Sequence was composed in verse around 880, soon after the rediscovery of the relics of a saint of the samename, Saint Eulalia of Barcelona, in 878.

ManuscriptThe manuscript containing the Sequence is a collection of sermons by Gregory of Nazianzus. It is first mentioned ina 12th century catalog of the library of Saint-Amand Abbey, although the production of the manuscript has beendated to the early 9th century. It is not known with certainty where it was produced. B. Bischoff suggests that it camefrom a scriptorium in (Lower) Lotharingia, but not from Saint-Amand itself, given its style of construction and thehandwriting, which cannot be matched to other manuscripts produced there during the same period.[1]

The manuscript is less significant for its original content, however, than for the empty pages at the end that laterscribes filled in with additional texts. These include:• the top half of f141: a 14-line Latin poem about Saint Eulalia (Cantica uirginis eulalie)• the top half of f141v: the Sequence of Saint Eulalia" in vernacular Romance• from the bottom of f141v to the top of f143: the Ludwigslied (Rithmus teutonicus), written in a variety of Old

High German.The Sequence and the Ludwigslied are written in the same hand, and since the preamble of the Ludwigslied mentionsthe death of Louis III, both additions to the manuscript are dated to 882 or soon thereafter. Again, it cannot beestablished with certainty where these additions were made, whether at Saint-Amand or elsewhere.When Jean Mabillon visited Saint-Amand Abbey in 1672, he made a hasty copy of the Ludwigslied, but neither he nor his hosts seem to have recognized the significance of the Sequence immediately preceding it. When Mabillon and the historian Johannes Schilter attempted to obtain a better transcription of the Ludwigslied in 1693, the monks of the abbey were unable to locate the manuscript. It remained lost throughout the 18th century, until the entire contents of the abbey library were confiscated and transferred to Valenciennes in 1792, by order of the revolutionary government. In September 1837, Hoffmann von Fallersleben visited the library of Valenciennes with the intention of unearthing the lost text of the Ludwigslied. According to his account, it only took him one afternoon to find the

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manuscript and to realize that it contained another important text, the Sequence of Saint Eulalia.[2]

TextThe Eulalia text is a sequence or "prose" consisting of 14 assonant couplets, each written on one line and separatedby a punctus, followed by a final unpaired coda verse. The Sequence follows no strict meter. Most of the coupletsconsist of two ten-syllable verses, although some have 11, 12, or 13 syllables.Both the vernacular Sequence and the Latin poem that precedes it show similarities with the hymn to Eulalia in thePeristephanon, by the 4th century Christian poet Prudentius.A transcription of the original text is provided below (with abbreviations expanded and some word boundariesinserted),[3] along with an English translation.[4]

Original text English

Buona pulcella fut eulalia.Bel auret corps bellezour animaVoldrent la ueintre li deo Inimi.Voldrent la faire diaule seruirElle no'nt eskoltet les mals conselliers.Qu'elle deo raneiet chi maent sus en ciel.Ne por or ned argent ne paramenz.Por manatce regiel ne preiement.Niule cose non la pouret omque pleier.La polle sempre non amast lo deomenestier.E por o fut presentede maximiien.Chi rex eret a cels dis soure pagiensIl li enortet dont lei nonque chielt.Qued elle fuiet lo nom christiien.Ell'ent adunet lo suon element.Melz sostendreiet les empedementzQu'elle perdesse sa uirginitet.Por o's furet morte a grand honestetEnz enl fou lo getterent com arde tost.Elle colpes non auret, por o no's coist.A czo no's uoldret concreidre li rex pagiens.Ad une spede li roueret tolir lo chieef.

510152025

"Eulalia was a good girl,She had a beautiful body, a soul more beautiful still.The enemies of God wanted to overcome her,they wanted to make her serve the devil.She does not listen to the evil counsellors,(who want her) to deny god, who lives up in heaven.Not for gold, nor silver, nor jewels,not for the king's threats or entreaties,nothing could ever persuade the girlnot to love continually the service of God.And for this reason she was brought before Maximian,who was king in those days over the pagans.He exhorts her — but she does not care —to abandon the name of Christian;She gathers up her strength." / "And subsequently worship hisgod.[5]

She would rather undergo persecutionThan lose her spiritual purity.For these reasons she died in great honor.

La domnizelle celle kose non contredist.Volt lo seule lazsier si ruouet Krist.In figure de colomb uolat a ciel.Tuit oram que por nos degnet preier.Qued auuisset de nos Christus mercitPost la mort et a lui nos laist uenirPar souue clementia.

They threw her into the fire so that she would burn quickly.She had no sins, for this reason she did not burn.The pagan king did not want to give in to this;He ordered her head to be cut off with a sword.The girl did not oppose that idea:She wants to abandon earthly life, and she calls upon Christ.In the form of a dove she flew to heaven.Let us all pray that she will deign to pray for usThat Christ may have mercy on usAnd may allow us to come to Him after deathThrough His grace."

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Analysis

DialectThe language of the Sequence presents characteristics of Walloon, Champenois, and Picard. At the time, these threeOïl varieties shared a common scripta, or written literary koiné.[6] The evidence points to a geographic origin for thetext in modern-day Wallonia or an adjacent region of north-east France.[7]

Some northern/northeastern dialectal features of the texts are:[8]

• the stressed form lei of the feminine singular dative pronoun (line 13)• the 1st person plural imperative ending -am in oram (line 26)• the unpalatalized initial [k] in the forms cose and kose (< Latin causa), contrasting with [t͡ʃ] in Francien dialect to

the south (mod. Fr. chose)• vocalization of [b] before [l] in diaule (line 4, < diabolem)• lowering of pre-tonic [en] to [an] in raneiet (line 6, < *reneget) and manatce (line 8, < mĭnacia).In contrast, the epenthetic [d] indicated by the forms voldrent (lines 3, 4, < uoluerunt), voldret (line 21, < uoluerat)and sostendreiet (line 16, < sustinerebat) is more characteristic of central French dialects.The pronoun lo that appears in line 19 (instead of the expected feminine form la) has been variously explained as adialectal feature, a pejorative neuter ("they threw it into the fire"), or simply a scribal error.[9]

Line 15Line 15 of the Sequence is "one of the most vexed lines of Old French literature".[10] The identity of the verb isdebated: early editors read adunet, but a reexamination of the manuscript by Learned (1941) revealed that the copyistoriginally wrote aduret. Scholars disagree about whether the line turning the ⟨r⟩ into an ⟨n⟩ was an inadvertent inksmudge or a deliberate correction by the copyist. Several interpretations have been proposed for both readings,including:[11]

• adunet: "reunites, assembles", "affirms"• aduret: "hardens", "adores", "endures"Scholars further disagree about whether the possessive adjective in lo suon element refers to Eulalia or to Maximian,and about the nature of this "element".[12] Questions also surround the syntactic construction of the line, as well asthe interpretation of the verse within the context of the Sequence.The following examples illustrate the variety of translations suggested for this verse:• "Elle n'en devint que plus forte dans ces principes religieux"[13]

• "she steeled her soul (she strengthened herself inwardly)"[14]

• "that she worship his false god"[15]

• "elle endure le feu [= son élément]"[16]

• "Elle réplique en affirmant « l'élément » qui est sien [= sa virginité]"[17]

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Notes[1] Cited by Berger & Brasseur (2004, p. 58f (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=4i8-_NGkSUEC& pg=PA58)) and by Simeray (1990, p. 54).[2] Hoffmann & Willems (1837, p. 3 (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=4D0_AAAAcAAJ& pg=PA3)); Simeray (1990, p. 56ff)[3] For a closer transcription, see e.g. Foerster and Koschwitz (1902, cols. 48–51 (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/ altfranzsische01foer#page/ n31/

mode/ 2up)). The first published transcription of the Sequence can be found in Hoffmann & Willems (1837, p. 6 (http:/ / books. google. fr/books?pg=PA3& id=4D0_AAAAcAAJ& pg=PA6)). For images of the manuscript, see the website (http:/ / bibliotheque. valenciennes. fr/ fr/bibliotheque-de-valenciennes/ patrimoine/ cantilene-de-sainte-eulalie/ photographies. html) of the Bibliothèque de Valenciennes.

[4] The first half of the translation is taken from Ayres-Bennett (1996, p. 32 (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=J-7leQ3jhg4C& pg=PA32)).The second half is taken from Bauer & Slocum ( Old French Online (http:/ / www. utexas. edu/ cola/ centers/ lrc/ eieol/ ofrol-4-X. html)).

[5][5] See below for the interpretation of line 15.[6] "L'Eulalie réunit dans sa langue certains traits picards, wallons et champenois qui ensemble impliquent la pratique d'une scripta poétique

romane commune aux trois régions" (Delbouille 1977, p. 104). "The second existing text in Old French (with Picard and Walloon features) isa rendering of a short sequence by Prudentius on the life of St. Eulalia, precisely dated (AD 880–882)" Encyclopaedia Britannica on Line(http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 508379/ Romance-languages/ 74692/ Major-languages).

[7][7] "N'est-ce pas en région picarde ou wallonne que ces lettres [les lettres françaises] ont poussé leur premier cri avec la Cantilène de SainteEulalie ?" (Genicot 1973, p. 170); see also Avalle (1966).

[8] Fought (1979, p. 846); Ayres-Bennett (1996, p. 34 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=J-7leQ3jhg4C& pg=PA32))[9] Berger & Boucher (2004, p. 142)[10][10] Atkinson (1968, p. 599)[11] Price (1990, p. 84–87)[12] Some authors suggest that the manuscript has the wrong word, and propose that element should be emended to mentem, alimentum, alia

mente, or linamentum (Price 1990, p. 85).[13] Hoffmann & Willems (1845, p. 34 (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=1WJxAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA34))[14][14] Hatcher (1949)[15][15] Barnett (1961)[16][16] Hilty (1990, p. 73)[17] Berger & Brasseur (2004, pp. 62, 72f)

References• Atkinson, James C. (1968). "Eulalia's "Element" or Maximian's?" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 4173608).

Studies in Philology 65 (4): 599–611.• Avalle, D'Arco Silvio (1966). Alle origini della letteratura francese: I Giuramenti di Strasburgo e la Sequenza di

santa Eulalia. Turin: G. Giappichelli.• Barnett, F. J.. "Some Notes to the Sequence of St. Eulalia". Studies in Medieval French, presented to Alfred Ewert

in honour of his seventieth birthday. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 1–25.• Ayres-Bennett, Wendy (1996). A History of the French Language Through Texts (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=J-7leQ3jhg4C). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09999-4.• Berger, Roger; Brasseur, Annette (2004) (in French). Les Séquences de Sainte Eulalie (http:/ / books. google. fr/

books?id=4i8-_NGkSUEC). Geneva: Droz. ISBN 978-2-600-00880-8.• Delbouille, Maurice (1977). "Romanité d'oïl. Les origines : la langue - les plus anciens textes". In Lejeune, Rita;

Stiennon, Jacques (in French). La Wallonie, le pays et les hommes. Arts, Lettres, Cultures. 1. Brussels: LaRenaissance du Livre. pp. 99-107.

• Foerster, Werner; Koschwitz, Eduard (1902) (in German). Altfranzösisches Übungsbuch, zum Gebrauch beiVorlesungen und Seminarübungen. Erster Teil: die Ältesten Sprachdenkmäler (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ books/OL24605702M/ Altfranzösisches_Ã�bungsbuch_zum_Gebrauch_bei_Vorlesungen_und_Seminarübungen)(2nd ed.). Leipzig: O. R. Reisland.

• Fought, John (1979). "The 'Medieval Sibilants' of the Eulalia-Ludwigslied Manuscript and Their Development inEarly Old French" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 412747). Language 55 (4): 842–858.

• Genicot, Léopold. "Entre l'Empire et la France". In Genicot, Léopold. Histoire de la Wallonie. Toulouse: Privat.pp. 124–185.

• Hatcher, Anna Granville (1949). "Eulalie, lines 15–17". Romanic Review XL: 241–49.

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• Hilty, Gérold (1990). "La Cantilène de sainte Eulalie: analyse linguistique et stylistique". In Marie-Pierre Dion (inFrench). La Cantilène de sainte Eulalie. Actes du colloque de Valenciennes, 21 mars 1989. Lille: ACCES.pp. 73–79. ISBN 2-902133-02-2.

• Hoffmann de Fallersleben, August Heinrich; J. F. Willems (1837) (in French). Elnonensia: Monuments deslangues romane et tudesque dans le IXe siècle, contenus dans un manuscrit de l'abbaye de Saint-Amand, conservéà la Bibliothèque publique de Valenciennes, avec une traduction et des remarques par J. F. Willems (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=4D0_AAAAcAAJ). F. & E. Gyselynck.

• Hoffmann de Fallersleben, August Heinrich; J. F. Willems (1845) (in French). Elnonensia: Monuments de lalangue romane et de la langue tudesque du IXe siècle, contenus dans un manuscrit de l'abbaye de Saint-Amand,conservé à la Bibliothèque publique de Valenciennes, découverts par Hoffmann de Fallersleben et publiés avecune traduction et des remarques par J. F. Willems (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=1WJxAAAAIAAJ) (2nded.). F. & E. Gyselynck.

• Learned, Henry Dexter (1941). "The Eulalia Ms. at Line 15 Reads Aduret, not `Adunet'" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/stable/ 2852710). Speculum 16 (3): 334–335.

• Price, Glanville (1990). "La Cantilène de sainte Eulalie et le problème du vers 15". In Marie-Pierre Dion (inFrench). La Cantilène de sainte Eulalie. Actes du colloque de Valenciennes, 21 mars 1989. Lille: ACCES.pp. 81–88. ISBN 2-902133-02-2.

• Simeray, Françoise (1990). Marie-Pierre Dion. ed (in French). La Cantilène de sainte Eulalie. Actes du colloquede Valenciennes, 21 mars 1989. Lille: ACCES. pp. 53–60. ISBN 2-902133-02-2.

Further reading• Jeanette M. A. Beer (1989). "Eulalie, La Séquence de Ste.". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Vol. 4. ISBN

0-684-17024-8• Cazelles, Brigitte (1991). "The Ninth-Century Sequence of Saint Eulalia". The Lady as Saint: A Collection of

French Hagiographic Romances of the Thirteenth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.pp. 313–4. ISBN 0-8122-1380-7.

External links• (French) Cantilène de sainte Eulalie (http:/ / bibliotheque. valenciennes. fr/ fr/ bibliotheque-de-valenciennes/

patrimoine/ cantilene-de-sainte-eulalie. html) from the Bibliothèque municipale de Valenciennes• Old French Online (http:/ / www. utexas. edu/ cola/ centers/ lrc/ eieol/ ofrol-4-X. html) (B. Bauer and J. Slocum),

Lesson 4: La Cantilène de Sainte Eulalie• (French) Bibliographie de la Cantilène de Sainte Eulalie (http:/ / www. musicologie. org/ publirem/

sainte_eulalie. html) (Yves Chartier)

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Carolingian architecture

Lorsch monastery gatehouse

The Palatine Chapel in Aachen

Carolingian architecture is the style of northEuropean Pre-Romanesque architecture belonging tothe period of the Carolingian Renaissance of the late8th and 9th centuries, when the Carolingian familydominated west European politics. It was a consciousattempt to emulate Roman architecture and to that endit borrowed heavily from Early Christian and Byzantinearchitecture, though there are nonetheless innovationsof its own, resulting in a unique character.

The gatehouse of the monastery at Lorsch, built around800, exemplifies classical inspiration for Carolingianarchitecture, built as a triple-arched hall dominating thegateway, with the arched facade interspersed withattached classical columns and pilasters above.

The Palatine Chapel in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle)constructed between 792 - 805 was inspired by theoctagonal Justinian church of San Vitale in Ravenna,built in the 6th century, but at Aachen there is a tallmonumental western entrance complex, as a wholecalled a westwork - a Carolingian innovation.

Carolingian churches generally are basilican, like theEarly Christian churches of Rome, and commonlyincorporated westworks, which is arguably theprecedent for the western facades of later medievalcathedrals. An original westwork survives today at theAbbey of Corvey, built in 885.

Examples

• Lorsch Abbey, gateway, (c.800)• Palatine Chapel in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle)

(792-805)• St. Ursmar's Collegiate church, in Lobbes, Belgium (819-823)• St. Michael, Fulda, rotunda and crypt (822)• Einhard's Basilica, Steinbach (827)• Saint Justinus' church, Frankfurt-Höchst (830)•• Broich Castle, Muelheim on the Ruhr (884)• Abbey of Corvey (885)• St. George, Oberzell in Reichenau Island (888)• Benedictine Convent of Saint John, Müstair

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References• Conant, K. J. (1978) Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture 800-1200• Pevsner, N. (1963) An Outline of European Architecture

Palace of Aachen

A possible reconstruction of Charlemagne'spalace

The Palace of Aachen was a group of buildings with residential,political and religious purposes chosen by Charlemagne to be thecentre of power of the Carolingian Empire. The palace was located atthe north of the current city of Aachen, today in the German Land ofNorth Rhine-Westphalia. Most of the Carolingian palace was built inthe 790s but the works went on until Charlemagne's death in 814. Theplans, drawn by Odo of Metz, were part with the programme ofrenovation of the kingdom decided by the ruler. Today much of thepalace is destroyed, but the Palatine Chapel has been preserved and isconsidered as a masterpiece of Carolingian architecture and a characteristic example of architecture from theCarolingian Renaissance.

Simplified plan: 1 = council hall ; 2 = porch ; 3 =treasury and archives ; 4 = gallery ; 5 = tribunaland garrison ; 6 = metatorium ; 7 = curia ; 8 =secretarium ; 9 = chapel ; 10 = atrium ; 11 =

thermae

Historical context

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The palace before Charlemagne

The construction of Aachen, illumination by JeanFouquet, in the Grandes Chroniques de France,15th century. Charlemagne is at the foreground.

In ancient times, the Romans chose the site of Aachen for its thermalsprings and its forward position towards Germania. The site, calledAquae Granni, was equipped with 50 acres (200000 m2).[1] thermaethat remained in use from the 1st to the 4th century[2] The Roman citygrew in connection with the thermae according to a classical grid plansimilar to that of Roman legions camps. A palace was used toaccommodate the governor of the province or the Emperor. In the 4thcentury, the city and the palace were destroyed during the BarbarianInvasions. Clovis made Paris the capital of the Frankish Kingdom, andAachen Palace was abandoned until the advent of the Carolingiandynasty. The Pippinid Mayors of the Palace carried out somerestoration works, but it was at the time only a residence among others.The Frankish court was nomadic and the rulers moved according to thecircumstances. Around 765, Pepin the Short had a palace erected overthe remains of the old Roman building; he had the thermae restored and removed its pagan idols.[3] As soon as hecame to power in 768, Charlemagne spent time in Aachen as well as in other villas in Austrasia.[2] However, in the790s, he decided to settle down in order to govern his kingdom, then his empire more efficiently.

The choice of Aachen

Statue of Charlemagne in front of Aachen's cityhall

The site of Aachen was chosen by Charlemagne after carefulconsideration in a key moment of his reign.[4] Since his advent as Kingof the Franks, Charlemagne had led numerous military expeditions thathad both filled his treasury and enlarged his realm, most notablytowards the East. He conquered pagan Saxony in 772–780, but thisarea resisted and the war with the Saxons lasted for about thirty years.Charlemagne ended the Germanic custom of an itinerant court movingfrom place to place and established a real capital. As he was ageing, hedecreased the frequency of military expeditions and, after 806,virtually did not leave Aachen.[5]

Aachen's geographic location was a decisive factor in Charlemagne'schoice: the place was situated in the Carolingian heartlands ofAustrasia, the cradle of his family, East of the Meuse river, at acrossroads of land roads and on a tributary of the Rur, called theWurm. From then, Charlemagne left the administration of the Southernregions to his son Louis, named King of Aquitaine[6], which enabledhim to reside in the North.

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Carolingian Empire and its capital, Aachen, in theearly 9th century.

Besides, settling down in Aachen enabled Charlemagne to control fromcloser the operations in Saxony.[7] Charlemagne also considered otheradvantages of the place: surrounded with forest abounding in game, heintended to abandon himself to hunting in the area.[8] The ageingemperor could also benefit from Aachen's hot springs.

The scholars of the Carolingian era presented Charlemagne as the"New Constantine". In that purpose, a capital and a palace worthy ofthe name.[9] · [10] He left Rome to the Pope. The rivalry with theByzantine Empire[8] led Charlemagne to build a magnificent palace.The fire that destroyed his palace in Worms in 793[11] also encouragedhim to follow such a plan.

Importance of the project entrusted to Odo of Metz

Eginhard is Charlemagne's biographer; the nameof the architect of the Palace of Aachen is known

thanks to his work (14th/15th-centuryillumination)

Historians know almost nothing about the architect of the Palace ofAachen, Odo of Metz. His name appears in the works of Eginhard (c.775–840), Charlemagne's biographer. He is supposed to have been aneducated cleric, familiar with liberal arts, especially quadrivia. He hadprobably read Vitruvius' treaties of architecture.[12]

The decision to build the palace was taken in the late 780s or the early790s, before Charlemagne held the title of emperor. Works began in794[13] and went on for several years. Aachen quickly became thefavourite residence of the sovereign. After 807, he almost did not leaveit any more. In the absence of sufficient documentation, it is impossibleto know the number of workers employed, but the dimensions of thebuilding make it probable that there were many of them.

The geometry of the plan chosen was very simple: Odo of Metzdecided to keep the layout of the Roman roads and inscribe the squarein 360 Carolingian feet, or 120 metres-side square.[14][15] The squareenclosed an area of 50 acres[16] divided in four parts by a North-Southaxis (the stone gallery) and an East-West axis (the former Roman road, the decumanus). To the north of this squarelied the council hall, to the south the Palatine Chapel. The architect drew a triangle toward the East to connect thethermae to the palace complex. The two best-known buildings are the council hall (today disappeared) and thePalatine Chapel, included into the Cathedral. The other building are hardly identified.[17] often built in Timberframing, made of wood and brick, they have been destroyed. Lastly, the palace complex was surrounded with awall.[18]

The arrival of the court in Aachen and the construction work stimulated the activity in the city that experiencedgrowth in the late 8th century and the early 9th century, as craftsmen, traders and shopkeepers had settled near thecourt. Some important ones lived in houses inside the city. The members of the Palace Academy and Charlemagne'sadvisors such as Eginhard and Angilbert owned houses near the palace.[18]

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Council Hall

Location of the hall within the Palace (red)

Located at the North of the Palace complex, the great Council Hall(aula regia or aula palatina in Latin) was used to house the speechesdelivered by the Emperor once a year. This occasion gathered thehighest officials in the Carolingian Empire, dignitaries and thehierarchy of the power: counts, vassals of the king, bishops and abbots.The general assembly was usually held in May. Participants discussedimportant political and legal affairs. Capitularies, written byamanuenses of the Aachen chancellery, summed up the decisionstaken. In this building also took place official ceremonies and the reception of embassies. Describing the coronationof Louis, son of Charlemagne, Ermold the Black states that there Charlemagne "spoke down from his goldenseat."[19]

The Constantine Basilica in Trier, Germany wasprobably used as a model for Aachen's Council

Hall

The dimensions of the hall (1,000 m2) were suitable to the reception ofseveral hundreds of people at the same time:[20] although the buildinghas been destroyed, it is known it was 47,42 metres long, 20,76 metreslarge and 21 metres high.[15] The plan seems to be based upon theRoman 'aula palatina of Trier. The structure was made of brick, andthe shape was that of a civil basilica with three apses: the largest one(17,2 m),[15] located to the West, was dedicated to the king and hissuite. The two other apses, to the North and South, were smaller. Lightentered through two rows of windows. The inside was probablydecorated with paintings depicting heroes both from the Ancient timesand contemporary.[3] A wooden gallery girdled the building betweenthe two rows of windows. From this gallery could be seen the market

that was held North of the Palace. A gallery with porticos on the southern side of the hall gave access to the building.The southern apse cut though the middle of this entrance.[3]

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Palatine Chapelsee also: Palatine Chapel in Aachen

Description

Section of the Palatine Chapel

The Palatine Chapel was located at the other side of the palacecomplex, at the South. A stone gallery linked it to the Aula Regia. Itsymbolized another aspect of Charlemagne's power, religious power.The building was consecrated in 805 by Pope Leo III,[8] in honour ofthe Virgin Mary, Mother of Christ.

Several buildings used by the clerics of the chapel were arranged in theshape of a latin cross: a curia in the East, offices in the North andSouth, and a projecting part (Westbau[21]) and an atrium with exedraein the West. But the center piece was the chapel, covered with a 16,54meters wide and 31 meters high octagonal cupola.[22][23] Eight massivepillars receive the thrust of large arcades. The nave on the first floor,located under the cupola, is surrounded by an aisle; here stood thePalace servants.[24]

Charlemagne's throne in the Palatine Chapel

The two additional floors (tribunes) open on the central space throughsemicircular arches supported by columns. The inner side takes theshape of an octagon whereas the outer side develops into asixteen-sides polygon. The chapel had two choirs located in the Eastand West. The king sat on a throne made of white marble plates, in theWest of the second floor, surrounded by his closer courtiers. Thus hehad a view on the three altars: that of the Savior right in front of him,that of the Virgin Mary on the first floor and that of Saint Peter in thefar end of the Western choir.

Charlemagne wanted his chapel to be magnificently decorated, so hehad massive bronze doors made in a foundry near Aachen. The walls were covered with marble and polychromestone.[25] The columns, still visible today, were taken on buildings in Ravenna and Rome, with the Pope'spermission.

Internal view of the octagon

The walls and cupola were covered with mosaic, enhanced by bothartificial lights and exterior light coming in through the windows.Eginhard provides a description of the inside in his Life ofCharlemagne (c. 825–826):

[...] Hence it was that he [Charlemagne] built the beautifulbasilica at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he adorned with gold andsilver and lamps, and with rails and doors of solid brass. He hadthe columns and marbles for this structure brought from Romeand Ravenna, for he could not find such as were suitable

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elsewhere. [...] He provided it with a great number of sacred vessels of gold and silver and with such aquantity of clerical robes that not even the doorkeepers who fill the humblest office in the church were obligedto wear their everyday clothes when in the exercise of their duties.[26]

Symbolism

View on the Chapel's octagon

Odo of Metz applied the Christian symbolism for figures and numbers.The building was conceived as a representation of the heavenlyJerusalem, the Kingdom of God, as described in the Apocalypse.[27]

The outer perimeter of the cupola measures exactly 144 Carolingianfeet whereas that of the heavenly Jerusalem, ideal city drawn byangels, is of 144 cubits. The mosaic of the cupola, hidden today behinda 19th-century restoration, showed Christ in Majesty with the 24 eldersof the Apocalypse. Other mosaics, on the vaults of the aisle, takes upthis subject by representing the heavenly Jerusalem. Charlemagne'sthrone, located in the West of the second floor, was placed on theseventh step of a platform.[28]

Other buildings

Treasury and ArchivesThe treasury and archives of the palace were located in a tower tied to the great hall, in the North of thecomplex.[3][17] The chamberman was the officer liable for the rulers' treasury and wardrobe. Finance administrationfell on the archichaplain, assisted by a treasurer.[29] The treasury gathered gifts brought by the kingdom's importantpeople during the general assemblies or by foreign envoys. This made up an heterogeneous collection of objectsranging from precious books to weapons and clothing. The king would also buy items from merchants visitingAachen.The chancellor was liable for the archives. The chancellery employed several scribes and notaries who wrote downdiplomas, capitularies and royal correspondence. Agents of the king's offices were mostly clergymen of the chapel.

Gallery

Location of the gallery within the Palace (red)

The covered gallery was a hundred meters long. It linked the councilhall to the chapel; a monumental porch in its middle was used as themain entrance. A room for legal hearing was located on the secondfloor. The king dispensed justice in this place, although affairs inwhich important people were involved were handled in the 'aula regia.When the king was away, this task fell on the count of the Palace. Thebuilding was also probably used as a garrison.[3]

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Thermae

Location of the thermae (red)

The thermal complex, located in the Southeast, measured 50 acres(200000 m2) and included several buildings near the sources of theEmperor and Quirinus. Eginhard mentions a swimming pool that couldaccommodate one hundred swimmers at a time[30] :

[...] [Charlemagne] enjoyed the exhalations from natural warmsprings, and often practised swimming, in which he was such anadept that none could surpass him; and hence it was that he builthis palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and lived there constantly duringhis latter years until his death. He used not only to invite his sons to his bath, but his nobles and friends, andnow and then a troop of his retinue or body guard, so that a hundred or more persons sometimes bathed withhim.[26]

Other buildings for other functions

The Codex aureus of Lorsch was made in one ofAachen's palace workshops around 810

The other buildings are not easy to identify because of the lack ofdetailed enough written accounts. Charlemagne's and his family'sapartments seem to have been located in the north-eastern part of thepalace complex; his room may have been on the second floor.[3] Someof the servants of the palace must have lived in the western part[1][31],and some in the city. The Emperor is said to have owned a library[32]

but its exact location is hard to assess. The palace also housed otherareas dedicated to artistic creation: a scriptorium that saw the writingof several precious manuscripts (Drogo Sacramentary, GodescalcEvangelistary…), a goldsmith workshop[33] and an ivory workshop.There was also a mint that was still operational in the 13th century.

The palace also housed the literary activities of the Palace Academy.This circle of scholars did not gather in a definite building:Charlemagne liked to listen to poems while he was swimming andeating. The Palace school provided education to the ruler's children andthe "nourished ones" (nutriti in Latin), aristocrat sons that were toserve the king.

Outside of the palace complex were also a gynaeceum, barracks, anhospice,[17] a hunting park and a menagerie in which lived the elephant Abul-Abbas, given by Baghdad CaliphHarun al-Rashid. Ermoldus Nigellus describes the place in his Poems on Louis the Pious (first half of the 9thcentury).

The place was frequented everyday by crowds of people: courtiers, scholars, aristocrats, merchants but also beggarsand poor people that came to ask for charity.[34] Internal affairs were the task of officers such as butler, le seneschal,the chamberman.[35]

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Symbolic interpretation of the Palace

Roman legacy and Byzantine model

San Vitale Basilica in Ravenna was one of themodels for the Palatine Chapel

Charlemagne did not intend to restore the Roman Empire but to founda Christian and Frankish empire. However the palace borrows severalelements of Roman civilization: the 'aula palatina follows a basilicalplan; basilicas in ancient times were public buildings where the cityaffairs were discussed. The chapel follows models from ancient Rome:grids exhibit antique decorations (acanthus[36]) and columns are toppedby Corinthian capitals. The Emperor was buried in the Palatine Chapelwithin a 2nd-century marble sarcophagus decorated with a depiction ofthe abduction of Proserpina.[18][37] Scholars of Charlemagne's timenicknamed Aachen «the Second Rome».

Charlemagne wished to compete with the other emperor of the time, the Basileus of Constantinople.[9] The cupolaand mosaics of the chapel are Byzantine elements. The plan itself is probably inspired by the Basilica of San Vitalein Ravenna built by Justinian I in the 6th century. Other experts point at similarities with the Church of the SaintsSergius and Bacchus and Constantinople's Chrysotriklinos, the main throne room in the Great Palace ofConstantinople. During religious offices, Charlemagne stood in the second floor gallery, as did the Emperor inConstantinople.[3]

Odo of Metz was also likely inspired by the 8th-century Lombard palace of Pavia where the chapel was decoratedwith mosaics and paintings.[17] Although he may have travelled to Italy, it is unlikely that he may have been toConstantinople.

A Frankish PalaceAlthough many references to Roman and Byzantine models are visible in Aachen's buildings, Odo of Metz expressedhis talent of Frankish architect and brought undeniably different elements. The palace is also distinguishable fromMerovingian architecture by its large scale and the multiplicity of volumes.[38] The vaulting of the chapel illustratesan original Carolingian expertise,[39] especially in the ambulatory topped with a groin vault.[3] Whereas Byzantineemperors sat in the East to watch offices, Charlemagne sat in the West. Last, wooden buildings and half-timberingtechniques were typical of Northern Europe.Charlemagne's palace was thus more than a copy of Classical and Byzantine models: it was rather a synthesis ofvarious influences, as a reflection of the Carolingian Empire. Just like Carolingian Renaissance, the palace was aproduct of the assimilation of several cultures and legacies.

Imperial centralization and unityThe layout of the palatine complex perfectly implemented the alliance between two powers: the spiritual power wasrepresented by the chapel in the South and the temporal power by the Council hall in the North. Both poles werelinked by the gallery. Since Pepin the Short, Charlemagne's father, Carolingian kings were sacred and received theirpower from God. Charlemagne himself wanted to influence religious matters through his reforms and the numerousecumenical council and synods held in Aachen. By establishing the seat of the power and the court in Aachen,Charlemagne knew he would be able to supervise more easily those close to him. The palace was the heart of thecapital city, a place that gathered dignitaries from all over the Empire.

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The Palace after Charlemagne

Aachen, a model for other palaces?

Inside Ottmarsheim's dome, Alsace

It is difficult to know whether other Carolingian palaces did imitatethat of Aachen, as most of them have been destroyed. However, theconstructions of Aachen were not the only ones undertaken underCharlemagne: 16 cathedrals, 232 monasteries and 65 royal palaceswere built between 768 and 814.[40] The Palatine Chapel of Aachenseems to have been imitated by several other buildings of the samekind: The octagonal oratory of Germigny-des-Prés, built in the early9th century for Theodulf of Orléans seems to have been directlyrelated. The Collegiate church of Liège was built in the 10th centuryfollowing the plan of the palatine chapel.Ottmarsheim church in Alsacealso adopts a centered plan but was built later (11th century). Theinfluence of Aachen's chapel is also found in Compiègne[41] and in other German religious buildings (such as theAbbey church of Essen).

Palace history after CharlemagneCharlemagne was buried in the chapel in 814. His son and successor, Emperor Louis the Pious, used the palace ofAachen without making it his exclusive residence. He used to stay there in the winter[18] until Easter. Severalimportant Ecumenical councils were held in Aix in the early 9th century.[42] Those of 817 and 836 took place in thebuildings adjacent to the chapel.[18] In 817, Louis the Pious had his elder son Lothair in the presence of the Frankishpeople.Following the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Carolingian Empire was split into three kingdoms. Aachen was thenincluded into Middle Francia. Lothair I (840–855) and Lothair II (855–869) lived in the palace.[18] When this onedied, the palace lost its political and cultural significance. Lotharingia became a field of rivalry between the kings ofWest and East Francia. It was split several times and finally fell under the control of Germany under Henry I theFowler (876–936).

View of the cathedral today

Yet the memory of Charlemagne's Empire remained fresh and becamea symbol of German power: in the 10th century, Otto I (912–973) wascrowned King of Germany in Aachen[43] (936). The ceremony tookplace in three steps in several locations of the palace: first in thecourtyard (election by the dukes), then in the chapel (handing of theinsignia of the Kingdom), finally in the palace (banquet).[44] Duringthe ceremony, Otto had sat on Charlemagne's throne. Afterwards, anduntil the 16th century, all the German Emperors were crowned first inAachen and then in Rome, which highlights the attachment toCharlemagne's political legacy. The Golden Bull of 1356 confirmedthat coronations were to take place in the palatine chapel.

Otto II (955–983) lived in Aachen with his wife Theophanu. In the summer of 978 Lothair of France led a raid onAachen but the Imperial family avoided capture. Relating these events, Richer of Reims states the existence of abronze eagle, which exact location is unknown:

[...] The bronze eagle, that Charlemagne had put on top of the palace in a flight attitude, has been turned backtowards the East. The Germans had turned it towards the West to symbolize that their cavalry could beat theFrench whenever they wanted [...].[45]

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Aachen's city hall is today located on the site ofthe Council hall

In 881, a Viking raid damaged the palace and the chapel. In 1000, theHoly Roman Emperor Otto III had Charlemagne's tomb opened.According to two 11th-century chroniclers, he would have been foundsitting on his throne, wearing his crown and holding his scepter.[46]

However, Eginhard does not mention it in his biography of theEmperor. At the same time the worship of Charlemagne began toattract pilgrims to the chapel. In the 12th century, Frederick Barbarossaplaced the body of the Carolingian Emperor into a reliquary intercededwith the Pope for his canonization; the relics were scattered across theempire. The treasure of Aachen began to grow with the numerous giftsof French and German kings and princes.

Between 1355 and 1414, an apse was added to the East of the Chapel. The city hall was built from 1267 on thelocation of the Council Hall. During the French Revolution, the French occupied Aachen and looted the treasure.Before choosing Notre-Dame de Paris, Napoleon I had considered for a time having his Imperial coronation takeplace in Aachen.[47] The chapel was restored in 1884. In 1978, the cathedral, including the chapel, was listed as aWorld Heritage Site by the UNESCO.

Notes[1] A. Erlande-Brandeburg, A.-B. Erlande-Brandeburg, Histoire de l’architecture française, 1999, p.104[2] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.285[3] P. Riché, La vie quotidienne dans l’Empire carolingien, p.57[4] A. Erlande-Brandeburg, A.-B. Erlande-Brandeburg, Histoire de l’architecture française, 1999, p.92[5] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.582[6] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.287[7] A. Erlande-Brandeburg, A.-B. Erlande-Brandeburg, Histoire de l’architecture française, 1999, p.92–93[8] G. Démians d’Archimbaud, Histoire artistique de l’Occident médiéval, 1992, p.76[9] P. Riché, Les Carolingiens. Une famille qui fit l’Europe, 1983, p.326[10] M. Durliat, Des barbares à l’an Mil, 1985, p.145[11] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.288[12] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.502[13] Christian Bonnet (dir.), Les sociétés en Europe (milieu du VIe siècle – fin du IXe siècle), Paris, Ellipses, 2002, ISBN 2-7298-1331-8 , p.184[14][14] A Carolingian foot corresponds to 0,333 metres[15] A. Erlande-Brandeburg, A.-B. Erlande-Brandeburg, Histoire de l’architecture française, 1999, p.103[16] P. Riché, Les Carolingiens …, 1983, p.325[17] Régine Le Jan, La société du Haut Moyen Âge, VIe – IXe siècle, Paris, Armand Colin, 2003, ISBN 2-200-26577-8, p.120[18] P. Riché, La vie quotidienne dans l’Empire carolingien, p.58[19] Ermold le Noir, Poème sur Louis le Pieux et épîtres au roi Pépin, édité et traduit par Edmond Faral, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1964, p.53[20] P. Riché, Les Carolingiens. Une famille qui fit l’Europe, 1983, p.131[21][21] A porch surrounded with two stair towers, la forerunner of Westworks[22] Collectif, Le grand atlas de l’architecture mondiale, Encyclopædia Universalis, 1982, ISBN 2-85229-971-2, p.1888[23] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.505[24] G. Démians d’Archimbaud, Histoire artistique de l’Occident médiéval, 1992, p.81[25] A. Erlande-Brandeburg, A.-B. Erlande-Brandeburg, Histoire de l’architecture française, 1999, p.127[26] Source : Einhard: "The Life of Charlemagne", translated by Samuel Epes Turner (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1880). http:/ / www.

fordham. edu/ halsall/ basis/ einhard. html[27] Apocalypse, XXI, 17,[28] Thérèse Robin, L’Allemagne médiévale, Paris, Armand Colin, 1998, ISBN 2-200-21883-4, p.136[29] Jean-Pierre Brunterc’h, Archives de la France, tome 1 (Ve – XIe siècle), Paris, Fayard, ISBN 2-213-03180-0, p.244[30] A. Erlande-Brandeburg, A.-B. Erlande-Brandeburg, Histoire de l’architecture française, 1999, p.105[31] G. Démians d’Archimbaud, Histoire artistique de l’Occident médiéval, 1992, p.78[32] existence is attested by Eginhard, Life of Charlemagne, traduction et édition de Louis Halphen, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1994, p.99[33] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.513

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[34] Jean-Pierre Brunterc’h, Archives de la France, tome 1 (Ve – XIe siècle), Paris, Fayard, ISBN 2-213-03180-0, p.243[35] On the palace organization, refer to the description by Rheims Archbishop Hincmar, Lettre sur l’organisation du Palais, Paris, Paléo, 2002,

ISBN 2-913944-63-9[36] G. Démians d’Archimbaud, Histoire artistique de l’Occident médiéval, 1992, p.80[37] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.592[38] Piotr Skubiszewski, L’art du Haut Moyen Âge, Paris, Librairie Générale française, 1998, ISBN 2-253-13056-7, p.287[39] Collective, Le grand atlas de l’architecture mondiale, Encyclopædia Universalis, 1982, ISBN 2-85229-971-2, p.1888[40] M. Durliat, Des barbares à l’an Mil, 1985, p.148[41] P. Riché, La vie quotidienne dans l’Empire carolingien, p.59[42] Thérèse Robin, L’Allemagne médiévale, Paris, Armand Colin, 1998, ISBN 2-200-21883-4, p.35[43] Thérèse Robin, L’Allemagne médiévale, Paris, Armand Colin, 1998, ISBN 2-200-21883-4, p.40[44] P. Riché, Les Carolingiens. Une famille qui fit l’Europe, 1983, p.247[45] Richer, Histoire de France (888–995), tome 2, edition and translation by Robert Latouche, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1964, p.89[46] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.590[47] J. Favier, Charlemagne, 1999, p.691

References• Alain Erlande-Brandeburg, Anne-Bénédicte Erlande-Brandeburg, Histoire de l’architecture française, tome 1 : du

Moyen Âge à la Renaissance, IVe – XVIe siècle, 1999, Paris, éditions du Patrimoine, ISBN 2-85620-367-1.• Gabrielle Démians D’Archimbaud, Histoire artistique de l’Occident médiéval, Paris, Colin, 3e édition, 1968,

1992, ISBN 2-200-31304-7.• Marcel Durliat, Des barbares à l’an Mil, Paris, éditions citadelles et Mazenod, 1985, ISBN 2-85088-020-5.• Jean Favier, Charlemagne, Paris, Fayard, 1999, ISBN 2-213-60404-5.• Jean Hubert, Jean Porcher, W. F. Volbach, L’empire carolingien, Paris, Gallimard, 1968• Félix Kreush, « La Chapelle palatine de Charlemagne à Aix », dans Les Dossiers d'archéologie, n°30, 1978, pages

14–23.• Pierre Riché, La Vie quotidienne dans l’Empire carolingien, Paris, Hachette, 1973• Pierre Riché, Les Carolingiens. Une famille qui fit l’Europe, Paris, Hachette, 1983, ISBN 2-01-019638-4.

External links• (French) Aachen cathedral in pictures (http:/ / architecture. relig. free. fr/ aix_chapelle1. htm)

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Palatine Chapel, Aachen

Interior.

The Palatine Chapel is an Early Medieval chapel thatis the remaining component of Charlemagne's Palace ofAachen. Although the palace no longer exists, thechapel has been incorporated into the AachenCathedral, Germany. It is the city's major landmark andthe central monument of the Carolingian Renaissance.The chapel holds the remains of Charlemagne and wasthe site of coronations for 600 years.

As part of the Aachen Cathedral, the chapel isdesignated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

History

Exterior view.

Charlemagne began the construction of the Palatine Chapel around792, along with the building of the rest of the palace structures.[1] Itwas consecrated in 805 by Pope Leo III in honor of the Virgin Mary.The building is a centrally planned, domed chapel. The east end had asquare apse, and was originally flanked by two basilican structures,now lost but known through archaeology. The chapel was enteredthrough a monumental atrium, to the west. The plan and decoration ofthe building combines elements of Classical, Byzantine andPre-Romanesque, and opulent materials as the expression of a newroyal house, ruled by Charlemagne.

The architect responsible, Odo of Metz, is named in a tenth-centuryinscription around the dome:Insignem hanc dignitatis aulam Karolus caesar magnus instituit;egregius Odo magister explevit, Metensi fotus in urbe quiescit.About him, we know nothing. The building he designed has a simpleexterior and a complex interior, with a double shell octagonal domeresting on heavy piers, a two-story elevation, and elaborate revetment and decoration.

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Throne of Charlemagne in the palace chapel.

Structure

Aisle in chapel

Floor plan of Charlemagne's palace chapel

There is a sixteen-sided ambulatory with a gallery overheadencircling the central octagonal dome. The plan and decorationowe much to the sixth-century Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna.Indeed Charlemagne visited Ravenna three times, the first in 787.In that year he wrote to Pope Hadrian I and requested "mosaic,marbles, and other materials from floors and walls" in Rome andRavenna, for his palace.[2]

The construction, including barrel and groin vaults and anoctagonal cloister-vault in the dome, reflects late Roman, orPre-Romanesque, practices rather than the Byzantine techniquesemployed at San Vitale, and its plan simplifies the complexgeometry of the Ravenna building. Multi-coloured marble veneeris used to create a sumptuous interior. The chapel makes use ofancient spolia, conceivably from Ravenna (Einhard claimed theywere from Rome and Ravenna), as well as newly carved materials.The bronze decoration is of extraordinarily high quality, especiallythe doors with lions heads and the interior railings, with theirCorinthian order columns and acanthus scrolls.

The dome was decorated originally with a fresco then later withmosaic. After a fire these have been replaced with anineteenth-century reproduction, which has the same iconographyas the original if not the stylistic qualities. It depicts thetwenty-four elders of the Apocalypse bearing crowns and standingaround the base of the dome. Above the main altar, and facing theroyal throne, is an image of Christ in Majesty.[3] The upper galleryof the chapel was the royal space, with a special throne area for theking, then emperor, which let onto the liturgical space of the church and onto the atrium, outside, as well.

The main entrance is dominated by a westwork comprising the western facade including the entrance vestibule,rooms at one or more levels above, and one or more towers. These overlook the atrium of the church. The addition ofa westwork to churches is one of the Carolingian contributions to Western architectural traditions.

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References[1] Kenneth J. Conant, Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture, 4th ed. (New Haven, 1994), p. 47).[2] Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Epistolae III Merowingici et Karolini Aevi, I, 614 .[3] Charles McClendon, The Origins of Medieval Architecture (New Haven, 2005), pp. 108-19.

Lorsch Abbey

Abbey and Altenmünster ofLorsch *

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Country Germany

Type Cultural

Criteria iii, iv

Reference 515 [1]

Region ** Europe and North America

Inscription historyInscription 1991 (15th Session)

* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List [2]

** Region as classified by UNESCO [3]

Imperial Abbey of LorschReichsabtei Lorsch

Imperial Abbey of the Holy RomanEmpire

← 852–1232 →

Coat of arms

Capital Lorsch Abbey

Government Theocracy

Historical era Middle Ages

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- Founded by Count Cancor 764

- Codex Aureus produced 778–820

- Immediacy confirmed 852

- Gorze Reforms 10th century

- Lorsch codex produced 1175–95

- Granted to Mainz by    Pope Gregory IX and    Emp. Frederick II

1232

- Razed by French troops    during Nine Years' War

1679–97

Today part of  Germany

The Abbey of Lorsch (German: Reichsabtei Lorsch; Latin: Laureshamense Monasterium, called also Laurissa andLauresham) is a former Imperial Abbey in Lorsch, Germany, about 10 km east of Worms, one of the most renownedmonasteries of the Carolingian Empire. Even in its ruined state, its remains are among the most importantpre-Romanesque–Carolingian style buildings in Germany. Its chronicle, entered in the Lorscher Codex compiled inthe 1170s (now in the state archive at Würzburg) is a fundamental document for early medieval German history.Another famous document from the monastic library is the Codex Aureus of Lorsch. In 1991 the ruined abbey waslisted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[4]

Historic namesThe following historical names have been recorded:•• In the 9th century: Lorishaim•• 9th and 11th centuries: Loresham• 9th–10th centuries: Laurishaim•• 10th century: Laresham• 10th–12th centuries: Lareshaeim and Lauresheim• 11th–12th centuries: Lauresham•• 11th century: Larsem, Loraszam, Lorozam, Lorisham•• 12th century: Laurisca, Laurisham, Laureshan, Loressam, Lorisheym, Lorscheim, Lors

History

Church ruins

The abbey was founded in 764 by the Frankish Count Cancor and hiswidowed mother Williswinda as a proprietary church (Eigenkirche)and monastery on their estate, Laurissa. They entrusted its governmentto Cancor's nephew Chrodegang, Archbishop of Metz, who dedicatedthe church and monastery to Saint Peter and became its first abbot. Thepious founders enriched the new abbey by further donations. In 766Chrodegang resigned the office of abbot, in favour of his other dutiesas Archbishop of Metz. He then sent his brother Gundeland to Lorschas his successor, with fourteen Benedictine monks. To make the abbeypopular as a shrine and a place of pilgrimage, Chrodegang obtainedfrom Pope Paul I the body of Saint Nazarius, martyred at Rome with

three companions under Diocletian. On 11 July 765, the sacred relics arrived, and with great solemnity were deposited in the basilica of the monastery. The abbey and basilica were then renamed in honour of Saint Nazarius:

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the main church of Saints Peter, Paul, and Nazarius was consecrated by the Archbishop of Mainz in 774, in thepresence of Charlemagne.Many miracles were said to be wrought through the intercession of Saint Nazarius at Lorsch, and from all parts ofEurope pilgrims in large numbers came to visit the shrine. In the course of the ninth century the library andscriptorium of Lorsch made it one of the cultural centres of Germany; its four surviving ninth-century cataloguesshow that it was rich in both Classical and Christian texts.[5] Few Carolingian manuscripts are better known than theLorsch gospels, the Codex Aureus of Lorsch, now divided between the Vatican Library and Biblioteca Batthyaneum,Alba Iulia, Romania; the carved ivory consular diptychs of Anastasius (consul 517) that were reused for its bindingsare urbane classicising works of art in themselves, and embodiments of the classical tradition of Byzantium as it wastransmitted to Lorsch in the time of Charlemagne.[6]

Popes and emperors repeatedly favoured the abbey with privileges and estates ranging from the Alps to the NorthSea, so that in a short time it became not only immensely rich, but also a seat of political influence. It was declared aReichsabtei (a sovereign principality in its own right, subject directly and solely to the emperor. The abbey'simportance is highlighted by the fact that two Carolingian kings, Louis the German and Louis the Younger, wereburied there.

Opening page of the Lorsch Codex, a codex inCarolingian minuscule that details the Lorsch

land holdings

The abbey, enjoying sovereign territorial rights, became implicated inseveral local feuds and in a number of wars. After forty-six abbots ofthe Benedictine Order had governed the abbey, Conrad, the last of theabbots, was deposed by Pope Gregory IX in 1226, and through theinfluence of Frederick II, Lorsch came into the possession of SiegfriedIII, Archbishop of Mainz, in 1232, ending the great period of Lorsch'scultural and political independence.

In 1248 Premonstratensian monks were given charge of the monasterywith the sanction of Pope Celestine IV, and they remained there till1556, when Lorsch and the surrounding country passed into the handsof Lutheran and Calvinist princes. The Elector Palatine Otto Heinrichremoved the contents of the library to Heidelberg, forming the famousBibliotheca Palatina, just prior to Lorsch's dissolution in 1557/1563.The remaining religious inhabitants of the abbey were pensioned andsent away. In 1623, after the capture of Heidelberg, the ElectorMaximilian of Bavaria presented the splendid library, 196 cases ofmanuscripts, to Pope Gregory XV.[7] Leo Allatius was sent tosuperintend its removal to Rome, where it was incorporated into the Vatican library as the "Biblioteca Palatina".

During the Thirty Years' War Lorsch and its neighbourhood suffered greatly. In 1621 most of the buildings at Lorschwere pulled down. After the Archbishopric of Mainz regained possession of it, the region was returned to theCatholic faith. The most dreary period for Lorsch was during the wars of Louis XIV of France, 1679–97. Wholevillages were laid in ruins, the homes of the peasantry were destroyed by fire, and the French soldiers burned the oldabbey buildings. One portion, which was left intact, served as a tobacco warehouse in the years before World War I.The ancient entrance hall, the Königshalle (illustration, above), built in the ninth century by Emperor Louis III, is theoldest and probably the most beautiful monument of Carolingian architecture.

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Notes[1] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 515[2] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list[3] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ ?search=& search_by_country=& type=& media=& region=& order=region[4] Abbey and Altenmünster of Lorsch (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ pg. cfm?cid=31& id_site=515) on the UNESCO Register of World Heritage

Sites[5] James W. Thompson, The Medieval Library (New York) 1957, pp 80-82; Chauncey E. Finch, "Catalogues and Other Manuscripts from

Lorsch" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 99 (1968) pp. 165-179.[6] Margaret H. Longhurst and Charles Rufus Morey, "The Covers of the Lorsch Gospels", Speculum 3.1 (January 1928:64-74); Charles Rufus

Morey, " The Covers of the Lorsch Gospels", Speculum 4.4 (October 1929):411-429).[7][7] Thompson 1957; Finch 1968:165.

References•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913).

"Lorsch Abbey". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.

External links• Official website (http:/ / www. kloster-lorsch. de/ ) (German)

• Codex Laureshamensis, volume 1–3 (http:/ / www. literature. at/ webinterface/ library/COLLECTION_V01?objid=18716) Charters of abbey Lorsch in Latin at Austrian literature online edited by KarlGlöckner, Darmstadt 1929-1936.

• Interactive map of the property of abbey Lorsch (http:/ / www. francia. ahlfeldt. se/ monastery/ Lorsch/ ) atRegnum Francorum Online

• Bibliotheca Laureshamensis – digital: (http:/ / www. bibliotheca-laureshamensis-digital. de/ en/ index. html)Virtualization of the Monastic Library of Lorsch

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St. Michael's Church, Fulda

St. Michael's Church, Fulda

St. Michael, Fulda, interior

St. Michael Church, in Fulda, Hesse, is considered tobe the oldest Holy Sepulchre church in Germany, builtin the Carolingian architectural style (Pre-Romanesque)on behalf of abbot Eigil in the years (820 - 822). Itserved as a burial chapel to Fulda monastery founded in744, which was one of the prominent cultural centres ofthe early Middle Ages. St. Michael stands in theneighbourhood of Fulda cathedral, and the architectwas probably the monk Racholf (d. 824). The rotundaand crypt remain preserved from this time. In the 10thand 11th century, the church was extended from therotunda, and a west tower was built. In 1618 the roofover the rotunda was rebuilt with a conical roof, and in1715 - 1716 a chapel was added to the north side. Wallpaintings in the interior date from the 11th century.

References

• Taken from the German Wikipedia article:Michaelskirche (Fulda)

• Reference cited in Michaelskirche (Fulda):• Die Michaelskirche zu Fulda. Kunstführer von

Erwin Sturm (Hg.). 1997

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Corvey Abbey 118

Corvey Abbey

Corvey Abbey: West end

Courtyard of Corvey Abbey

Corvey today

The Imperial Abbey of Corvey (German: Fürstabtei Corvey) wasa Benedictine monastery on the River Weser, 2 km northeast ofHöxter, now in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

Early Years

It was first founded in 815 among the recently converted Saxonson a site called Hethis[1] by Charlemagne's cousins Wala andAdelard, with monks from Corbie Abbey in Picardy, under thejoint patronage of the Emperor Louis the Pious and the abbot ofthe older foundation, whence the new one derived its name (Latin:Corbeia nova, the "new Corbie").

In 822,[2] the monastery was reconstructed on the present site nearthe banks of the river Weser. It became "one of the mostprivileged Carolingian monastic sanctuaries in the ninth-centuryDuchy of Saxony".[3] A mint was authorized as early as 833[4]

though surviving coins date from the early eleventh century. Thesite of the abbey, where the east-west route called the Hellwegcrossed the Weser, accounted for some strategic importance andassured its economic and cultural importance. The abbey'shistorian H. H. Kaminsky estimates that the royal entouragevisited Corvey at least 110 times before 1073, occasions for theissuance of charters.

Imperial Rights Granted

A diploma granted by Otto I in 940, the first of its kind,established the abbot, Folcmar, on a new kind of setting. Theabbot was granted bannus—powers of enforcement—over thepopulation of peasants that were to seek refuge in the fortress builtin the monastery's lands; in return they were expected to maintainits structure, under the abbot's supervision. The workforce undermonastic protection was drawn from three pagi, under thejurisdiction of four counts, who, however, were to have no rightsto demand castlework from them.[5] "Here then a profitablesanction, which cut across the ordinary competence of counts, wasentrusted to the monastery", Karl Leyser notes.

Under the guidance of abbots drawn from the Imperial family,Corvey was granted the first rights of minting coins east of the Rhine (with the exception of Frisia). It soon becamefamous for its school, which produced many celebrated scholars, among them the tenth-century Saxon historianWidukind of Corvey. In its library were preserved the first five books of the Annales of Tacitus. From its cloisterswent forth a stream of missionaries who evangelised Northern Europe, chief amongst them being Saint Ansgar, the

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Corvey Abbey 119

"Apostle of Scandinavia". The Annales Corbenjenses, which issued from the same scriptorium, is a major source ofmedieval history—spuriously supplemented by the forged Chronicon Corbejense which appeared in the nineteenthcentury. Unsuspected, in the library lurked books I to V of Tacitus' Annales.[6] Ninth-century wall-paintings remainon the west end inner wall.The Carolingian west end of the abbey, with its landmark matching towers (built 873–885) survives, the earlieststanding medieval structure in Westphalia, but the abbey church is now Baroque.

Strife and DeclineIn the Investiture Controversy, the abbot of Corvey took a stand with the Saxon nobles against Henry IV, HolyRoman Emperor. Its abbot Markward (served 1081–1107), "without doubt one of the most important abbots of thethousand-year history of the abbey" (Kaminsky), and his successor Erkenbert (1107–28) saw the abbey through thecritical period.The school of Corvey declined after the fifteenth century, but the abbey itself, most of its feudal lands separated fromit, continued until 1803, when it was secularized under Napoleonic administration and became briefly part of thePrincipality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda, then went to Jérôme Bonaparte's Kingdom of Westphalia (1807), then toPrussia (1815); the Landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg rebuilt the abbey buildings as a Schloss (palace) which hasdescended to the Victor I, Duke of Ratibor.

The Modern EraThe famous abbey library has long since been dispersed, but the "princely library" (Fürstliche Bibliothek), anaristocratic family library, containing about 67,000 volumes, mainly in German, French, and English, with a tailingoff circa 1834, survives in the Schloss. One striking feature of the collection is the large number of English Romanticnovels, some in unique copies, for in Britain fiction was more often borrowed than bought, and was read extensivelyin the lending libraries.[7]

Bibliography• Poeschke, Joachim (2002) (in German). Sinopien und Stuck im Westwerk der karolingischen Klosterkirche von

Corvey [Sinopia and stuccowork in the westwork of the Carolingian monastery church of Corvey]. Münster:Rhema-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-930454-34-1. OCLC 50130269. Also OCLC 491824148. Proceedings of aconference on the theme "Die karolingischen Stuckfiguren im Westwerk von Corvey : zur Frage ihrer Deutung[Carolingian stucco figures in the westwork of Corvey: on questions about their meaning]", held Nov. 1-3, 1996at the Institut für Kunstgeschichte [Institute of art history], University of Münster.

Notes[1] The site, Hethis, is not securely identifiable ( Hethis, noting Herbert Krüger, "Wo lag Hethis, der Ort der ersten Corveyer Klostergründung?",

Mannus 24, Leipzig, (1932:320—32) (http:/ / de. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Hethis)).[2] Dedication of the new abbey church, September 822. Jahns, Susanne: "The later Holocene history of vegetation, land-use and settlements

around the Ahlequellmoor in the Solling area, Germany," Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 15.1 (2006:57-63 ) p. 57.[3] Leyser, Karl. "Ottonian Government" The English Historical Review 96, No. 381 (October, 1981), p 735.[4] Hans Heinrich Kaminsky, Studien zur Reichsabtei Corvey in der Salierzeit (Historische Commission Westfalens, Cologne 1972) assembles

the documentary history.[5] Leyser, Karl. “Henry I and the Beginnings of the Saxon Empire” The English Historical Review 83, No. 326 (Jan., 1968), p.9[6] R.J. Tarrant in L.D. Reynolds, ed., Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford 1983), p 406f.[7] The library has been discussed as a cultural marker in the record of a symposium at Corvey, Rainer Schöwerling, Hartmut Steinecke and

Norbert Otto Eke, Die Fürstliche Bibliothek Corvey: ihre Bedeutung für eine neue Sicht der Literatur des frühen 19. Jahrhunderts, 1992, andWerner Huber and Rainer Schöwerling, The Corvey Library and Anglo-German cultural exchanges, 1770-1837, 2004.

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External links• Corvey, Nordrhein-Westfalen (http:/ / www. centralia. ctc. edu/ ~vfreund/ GermanResources/ Germanslides/

Germany/ NordrheinWestfalen/ Corvey/ Corvey. htm): introduction• "Fürstabtei Corvey" (http:/ / www. hoeckmann. de/ geschichte/ corvey. htm) (in German)• Peter Garside and Anthony Mandal, "Producing fiction in Britain, 1800 – 1829" (http:/ / www. cardiff. ac. uk/

encap/ corvey/ articles/ cc01_n01. html): outlining the Corbie project

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Michelstadt 121

Michelstadt

Michelstadt

Michelstadt

Coordinates 49.6786°N 9.0039°E

Administration

Country Germany

State Hesse

Admin. region Darmstadt

District Odenwaldkreis

Town subdivisions 8 Stadtteile

Mayor Stephan Kelbert (ÜWG)

Basic statistics

Area 86.97 km2 (33.58 sq mi)

Elevation 230 m  (755 ft)

Population 16573 (31 December 2010)[1]

- Density 191 /km2 (494 /sq mi)

Other information

Time zone CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2)

Licence plate ERB

Postal codes 64712–64720

Area codes 06061 (Vielbrunn: 06066)

Website www.michelstadt.de [2]

Michelstadt in the Odenwald is a town in the Odenwaldkreis (district) in southern Hesse, Germany betweenDarmstadt and Heidelberg. In 1962, the town hosted the second Hessentag state festival.

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Geography

LocationMichelstadt is the biggest town in the Odenwaldkreis and borders on the district seat of Erbach.

Neighbouring municipalitiesMichelstadt borders in the north on the municipality of Brombachtal, the town of Bad König and the municipality ofLützelbach, in the east on the town of Klingenberg, the market municipalities of Laudenbach and Kleinheubach, thetown of Miltenberg, the market municipality of Weilbach, the town of Amorbach and the market municipality ofKirchzell (all seven in Miltenberg district in Bavaria), in the south on the town of Erbach, and in the west on themunicipalities of Mossautal and Reichelsheim.

Constituent communitiesMichelstadt’s Stadtteile, besides the main town, also called Michelstadt, are Rehbach, Steinbach, Steinbuch,Stockheim, Vielbrunn, Weiten-Gesäß and Würzberg.

HistoryMichelstadt had its first documentary mention in 741 from Mayor of the Palace Carloman, Charlemagne’s uncle.Michelstadt is one of the oldest settlements in the inner Odenwald. Its castle grew out of a Frankish baronial estate.This was built into a refuge for the local inhabitants. As a royal estate, Prince Carloman donated it in 741 to SaintBoniface’s pupil Burchard, the first Bishop of Würzburg. This donation was surely meant for Bishop Burchardpersonally, for the Michelnstat area passed back to the Frankish Crown upon Burchard’s death in 791.

Timber-frame house at the marketplace with the marketwell

In 815, the Michlinstat area was donated once again. Inrecognition of his great merit as confidant at Charlemagne’s court,Einhard acquired the main town and all land within two leagues(roughly 15 km) from Charlemagne’s son, Louis the Pious, as afreehold. Einhard was also the one who built the Einhardsbasilika.In 819, he bequeathed his Odenwald holdings to Lorsch Abbeyand in so doing also precisely defined the boundaries of the MarkMichelstadt. Upon Einhard’s death on 14 March 840, themonastery came into its inheritance.

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Old coat of arms at the town hall from1743

In the 17th century, the first houses outside the town wall were built. In 1773,a new town gate was built, called the Neutor (“New Gate”). In the 19thcentury, the gate towers were all torn down one after the other.

In 1806, Michelstadt, along with the County of Erbach, passed to the GrandDuchy of Hesse.

The building of the railway line and its completion through to Darmstadt in1870 and then Eberbach in 1881 brought Michelstadt a sharp economicupswing. Out of what was once a little town of gentlemen farmers with all itscraftsmen and tradesmen grew a sizeable community with importantindustrial operations on the foundation of the centuries-old ironworking. Anew economic era began. From the clothweavers’ and dyers’ guild grew acloth factory; from foundries grew machine factories. Ivory carving was astarting point for businesses in the souvenir industry and plastics processing.

In 2007, a decision to merge the town with the neighbouring town of Erbachwas thwarted by a civic vote.[3]

PoliticsThe municipal election held on 26 March 2006 yielded the following results:

Parties and voter communities %2006

Seats2006

%2001

Seats2001

SPD Social Democratic Party of Germany 36.7 14 36.7 14

CDU Christian Democratic Union of Germany 27.4 10 27.0 10

ÜWG Überparteiliche Wählergemeinschaft 22.8 8 26.8 10

GREENS Bündnis 90/Die Grünen 9.4 4 9.5 3

FDP Free Democratic Party 3.7 1 – –

Total 100.0 37 100.0 37

Voter turnout in % 49.3 56.6

MayorThe mayor, Stephan Kelbert, in office since 16 September 2009, was elected on 8 March 2009 with a share of 52.7%in the first round of voting.

Town partnerships• Rumilly, Haute-Savoie, France• Hulst, Zeeuws Vlaanderen, Netherlands

Coat of armsThe town’s arms might be described thus: Per fess azure two mullets Or and Or diapered.Michelstadt was granted these arms in 1541 along with its new seal by Count Georg of Erbach. The diapering in the lower half of the escutcheon is unhistoric, and only appeared in the 17th century. Indeed, the escutcheon on the Town Hall, pictured in this article, does not show it. The mullets (six-pointed star shapes) come from the Counts' arms, but why the parting per fess (horizontal division across the middle) was chosen is a mystery. Except for the

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diapering, the arms have not changed since the 16th century.[4]

Culture and sightseeing

Theatre• Kleinkunstbühne Patat (cabaret)• Michelstädter Theatersommer, yearly open-air plays in the historic Kellereihof• Theaterkarren e.V. Odenwald, since 1998 regular events with changing groups and producers

Museums• Odenwald- und Spielzeug-Museum (Odenwald and toys)• Museumsmühle Michelstadt – historic mill from 1420• Landesrabbiner Dr. l. E. Lichtigfeld-Museum (State Rabbi Lichtigfeld)• Privates Elfenbeinmuseum Ulrich Seidenberg (private ivory museum)• Motorrad-Museum (motorcycles)

BuildingsMichelstadt has a picturesque Old Town with many timber-frame houses. Particularly worthy of mention are thefollowing buildings, some within the old town, others in the outlying woods: The Historic Town Hall, the Diebsturm(“Thief’s Tower”) at the town wall, the Kellereihof (a Frankish, early mediaeval castle complex refurbished in anearly Renaissance style) in the Michelstadt town wall ring, the Late Gothic town church (late 13th century), theEinhards-Basilika, the palace of the Counts at Erbach-Fürstenau (Schloss Fürstenau, within which are parts of an oldmoated castle in Michelstadt-Steinbach), the Eulbach hunting palace with an “English” park, the Roman bath andcastra as part of the Neckar-Odenwald-Limes.

Historic Town Hall

Town Hall

Michelstadt’s timber-frame town hall, which has beenimmortalized on a Deutsche Post stamp and is known throughoutthe world, was built in 1484 in the Late Gothic style and laterremodelled inside many times; from 1743 to 1903 it was coveredin shakes. The town hall’s main floor served from the beginning asa market hall, and was built using jettying. The back (east) wallwas originally part of the graveyard wall, upon which the groundfloor’s upper bressumer was laid. To this day it is unknown whothe master builder was, although it is assumed that the drivingforce behind the project could have been Schenk Adolar vonErbach and Bishop Johann von Dalberg (his adviser).

Late Gothic Town Church

The town church, completed in 1490, was built to replace aCarolingian stone church by Einhard, itself built on the site of aformer wooden church. The nave’s columns and the two aisles’walls were built in 1475. The quire comes from 1461; theantechoir’s north wall is even older – Carolingian. Until the 1970s,

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Diebsturm at the town wall

the church housed one of the most valuable libraries in Germanyin its belltower containing more than a thousand volumes thatbelonged to Michelstadt-born Nicolaus Matz, who was capitular inSpeyer, and who bequeathed this collection to his hometown andits citizens in the late 14th century. Since then the library has beenhoused in a storehouse specially converted for it at the Michelstadtcoaching inn that belonged to the Thurn und Taxis noble family,who played a key rôle in European postal services in the 16thcentury. The former church on this spot was built over a brook thatcomes up here, called the Kiliansfloß, an early Celtic-Germanicworship site and later a Roman Mithraic worship site. The thuschannelled Kiliansfloß fed not only the baptismal font, but also allthe town’s fountains. The Kiliansfloß, however, does not actuallyrise here, but rather far outside the town, but it then disappears intothe ground not far from the graveyard, springing up again in themiddle of town.

Einhard’s Basilica in the outlying centre of Steinbach

Einhard’s Basilica

The Einhards-Basilika was built by Einhard,Charlemagne’s chronicler and confidant. TheCarolingian church built between 824 and 827 is one ofthe very few Carolingian buildings that have largelysurvived. The Basilica’s crypt once housed SaintsPeter’s and Marcellinus’s relics, which had been stolenfrom Rome on Einhard’s instructions by his notaryRatleik. His servants’ nightmares and the remains’“sweating blood” there, however, made Einhard thinkthat this arrangement did not feel right. He thustransferred himself, his wife, the relics and his seat to

Ober-Mulinheim am Main, now known as Seligenstadt, which thereby became a pilgrimage site with a new, biggerbasilica.

The story that has been handed down says that the relics hidden from Rome were transported toSaint-Maurice-en-Valais, now in Switzerland, whence they were then brought to Michelstadt by a cheeringpilgrimage procession.The Basilica in Steinbach was converted, expanded, and rededicated many times and later served first as a hospitaland then in the 17th century as a barn. Once it was rediscovered in 1873 as being Carolingian, the exploration andsafeguarding of the parts of the basilica that were still intact began.The Einhards-Basilika was until 1967 owned by the princely Counts of Erbach-Fürstenau. The grounds are nowowned by the state of Hesse.

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The Palace of the Counts of Erbach-Fürstenau in the outlying centre of Steinbach

Schloss Fürstenau with decorative gateway arch (1588)

New Palace (left), Schloss Fürstenau

The whole palace complex is a series of building styleswell worth seeing, from remains of the old Electorateof Mainz border fortifications and moated castle (about1300) on the north side to the Gothic works by thestonecutters who came from Strasbourg to Steinbach, tothe gigantic Renaissance-style gateway arch (1588)between the moated castle’s two western corner towerswhich replaced the castle wall and opened the gloomy,dank courtyard back up to the former castle garden, tothe Renaissance palace mill, a former mint (today arun-of-the-river hydroelectric station), to the daintyBaroque Kavaliershaus (a palace outbuilding for staffand guests) on the Mümling, to the Classicistresidential wing, the Neues Palais (1810/11) and theLate Baroque orangery in the palace park, which wasdone in the English style. The orangery’s upper floorhoused the small palace theatre.

Schloss Fürstenau is still a dwelling, with the head ofthe house of the princely Counts of Erbach-Fürstenauand his family still living there. The former Electorateof Mainz defence facility lay on the property of theSchenk of Erbach (a forefather of the noble family,which at that time had not yet branched) and passedinto his ownership in 1355. Viewing the palace fromthe outside can be done by day. At the stylish outerbailey with its gateway arch from 1765 some prominentvisual artists have taken up residence (in among other places the former stables from after 1765).

Roman bath and castra

Right near Würzberg, in the middle of a clearing are found the remains of the Roman Castrum of Würzberg, whichwas built about AD 100 as part of the Neckar-Odenwald-Limes, and was used for about 60 years before the borderwas shifted farther east. The castrum can only be made out by an earthen wall. The Roman bathhouse, on the otherhand, which stands right next to the castrum, has been partially restored; the floors have been replaced and the wallhas been built back up to a height of about a metre. Despite the bath’s small size, which was only meant for the fort’s120-man garrison, the design of a Roman bathhouse is easily recognizable.Not far from the outlying centre of Vielbrunn, in the area around the former hunting palace of the Princes ofLöwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, traces of the Castrum of Hainhaus can still be found. Furthermore, onMichelstadt’s eastern outskirts can be found the Castrum of Eulbach near the Eulbacher Park, a landscaped Englishpark from the early 19th century with its like-named hunting palace and an adjoining wildlife park.

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Other structures

•• Würzberg Transmission Mast•• ESOC-Bodenstation Michelstadt (disused satellite ground receiving station)

Regular events• Michelstädter Bienenmarkt (“bee market”) – Held each year at Whitsun, it was started by former mayor

Hasenzahl in 1954.• Musiknacht – Each year, various concert productions take place in the Old Town with many different kinds of

music.• Church Consecration Festival with Weinbrunnenfest – From the Old Town’s many fountains, wine is given out by

the many wine cellars and businesses at the Weinbrunnenfest (“Wine Fountain Festival”), which is actuallyMichelstadt’s traditional folk festival, at which all the town’s countless fountains are decorated.

• Michelstadt Christmas Market – One of Germany’s loveliest Christmas markets, with its mediaeval town as abackdrop, this is still quite a new creation of the television-sponsored Stadtmarketing (“Town Marketing”) of thelate 1960s. The opening always takes place on the Friday before the onset of Advent. The market is open Mondayto Friday from 13:00 to 20:00 and weekends from 11:00 to 20:00 until the fourth day of Advent.

• Nightgroove – The first Saturday in November. Many bands play in various pubs and restaurants.• Michelstädter Theatersommer – Since 2003 a yearly open-air theatrical festival, initiated by the Michelstadt

“theatremakers” Alexander Kaffenberger and Dirk Daniel Zucht.

Economy, infrastructure, public institutions

TransportIn Michelstadt the two Bundesstraßen 45 and 47 cross, both old trade roads from Frankfurt am Main to Augsburgand from Worms to Würzburg respectively.The town has at its disposal a railway station on the Odenwaldbahn (railway; RMV Line 65; Eberbach – Erbach –Darmstadt – Frankfurt / Hanau). Regionalbahn, Stadtexpress and Regionalexpress trains of the VIAS GmbH stophere.Moreover, Michelstadt has at its disposal the special landing facility Flugplatz Michelstadt (airfield), which liesroughly 2 km from the town and is run by a club.

Education• Stadtschule Michelstadt (primary school)•• Schule am Hollerbusch (primary school)•• Einhardschule (primary school in the outlying centre of Steinbach)•• Grundschule Vielbrunn (primary school)• Theodor-Litt-Schule (Realschule and Hauptschule)• Gymnasium Michelstadt• Odenwaldkreis Vocational Schools (including, among others, Berufsschule, Berufsfachschule and Berufliches

Gymnasium, nowadays known as “BSO – Europaschule”.

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Famous people• Seckel Löb Wormser (b. 1768 in Michelstadt, d. 1847 in Michelstadt), Kabbalist• Fritz Kredel (b. 8 February 1900 in Michelstadt, d. 11 June 1973 in New York)• Dietrich Schenk von Erbach (d. 1459), Archbishop of Mainz (from 1434 to 1459)• Bernhard Koziol, founder of the Koziol plastics company (injection moulding)• Gabriele von Lutzau (b. 1954), sculptor, lives and works in Michelstadt•• Nicolaus Matz, Rector of the University of Freiburg, Capitular in Speyer• Rebecca Horn (b. 1944), artist• Stefan Seeger (b. 1962), chemist, university professor and entrepreneur• Jessica Schwarz (b. 1977), moderator and actress

Further reading• Wolfgang Hartmann: Zu den frühen urkundlichen Erwähnungen von Michelstadt im Odenwald. In: Der Odenwald

40 (1993), pp. 47–57. Online publication [5] (German)

• Wolfgang Hartmann: Der Einhardweg von Michelstadt nach Seligenstadt. In: Odenwälder Jahrbuch für Kulturund Geschichte 1997, pp. 93–102. Online publication [6] (German)

Karl E. Grözinger, Der Ba’al Schem von Michelstadt. Ein deutsch-jüdisches Heiligenleben zwischen Legende undWirklichkeit. Mit einem Neuabdruck der Legenden aus der Hand von Judaeus und Arthur Kahn, Frankfurt / NewYork (Campus) 2010

References[1] "Die Bevölkerung der hessischen Gemeinden" (http:/ / www. statistik-hessen. de/ static/ publikationen/ A/ AI2_AII_AIII_AV_10-1hj_pdf.

zip) (in German). Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt. June 2011. .[2] http:/ / www. michelstadt. de[3] Proposed merger of Michelstadt and Erbach (http:/ / www. hr-online. de/ website/ fernsehen/ sendungen/ index. jsp?rubrik=3058&

key=standard_document_33392026& msg=1987)[4] Description and explanation of Michelstadt’s arms (http:/ / www. ngw. nl/ int/ dld/ m/ michelst. htm)[5] http:/ / www. geschichte-untermain. de/ f_michelstadt. html[6] http:/ / www. geschichte-untermain. de/ f_einhardweg. html

External links• Official website (http:/ / www. michelstadt. de/ ) (German)

• Michelstadt (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ World/ Deutsch/ Regional/ Europa/ Deutschland/ Hessen/ Landkreise/Odenwaldkreis/ Städte_und_Gemeinden/ Michelstadt/ ) at the Open Directory Project (German)

This article incorporates information from the German Wikipedia.

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Saint Justinus' church, Frankfurt-Höchst 129

Saint Justinus' church, Frankfurt-Höchst

St. Justinus' church in Frankfurt-Höchst

The Carolingian Saint Justinus' church inFrankfurt-Höchst is the oldest building inFrankfurt/Main and one of the oldestchurches still existing in Germany.

The Catholic basilica originates from around830, and the late gothic chancel was builtfrom 1441. The church stands at the east ofthe old part of the town Höchst, lookingover the Main river.

On the one hand, St. Justinus is importantfor its stonework (the Carolingian capitalsand the late gothic north doorway), and onthe other hand, it is important as being oneof the few nearly completely surviving earlymedieval churches - which has beencontinuously used for around 1200 years.

History of the church

Founders of St. Justinus - archbiship Otgar of Mainz(right) and Rabanus Maurus (left) from the

manuscriptum Fuldense ca. 830

The history of the church is closely connected with the city ofHöchst founded in the 8th century as a daughter city of Mainz. Thefirst well known documentary evidence of the city dates from 790.

Archbishop Odgar of Mainz (826-847) established the ConfessorJustinus church in Höchst, and his successor, Rabanus Maurus,made the final consecration in around 850. It did not really serveas a parish church then, but as a symbol for the power of theElectorate of Mainz proximate to the royal court at Frankfurt. Therelics of ‘St. Justinus the confessor’ were brought into the newchurch, where they remained for about 450 years.

A particular synod of Mainz was held at the church in 1024, and in1090 it became a Benedictine monastic church of St. Alban'sAbbey, Mainz, as well as a parish church. In 1298 the relics of St.Justinus were transferred to the mother house, and the churchconsecrated to St. Margaret, though the dedication to St. Justinusremains to this day.

In 1441 it became an monastic church of the Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony, because since 1419 it was only usedas a parish church. The Antoniter order built the late gothic chancel and made numerous alterations. It ceased to be amonastic church after secularization in 1802.

St. Justinus was restored in the 1930s and 1980s and today belongs to the parish of St. Josef in the Frankfurt districtof Roman Catholic Diocese of Limburg.

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The Carolingian basilica

Carolingian capital

The original church was a six-bay basilica with three sanctuariesand apses at the east end. The entrance was originally at the westend of the central nave, but is now on the north side of the churchat the northern sanctuary. The aisle windows have been replaced,and late gothic chapels were added on the north side. Also theapses were removed following the alterations.

The remainder of the Carolingian work is however intact: the twoother sanctuaries, the central nave with small round-archedclerestory windows, the flat ceiling, the aisles, and at the top of thetwo sets of five columns - Corinthian capitals, which belong to themost important works of Carolingian art.

Late gothic additionsUp to the end of the affiliation with the Benedictine monastery of Saint Alban in 1419, the church had hardlychanged structurally. In the 1420s the southern Carolingian sanctuary was replaced by a gothic Holy Cross chapel, inthe place of today's vestry. To the northern aisle, three further chapels were added.

The high choir (chancel)

Nave looking towards choir

In 1441, the rules of the Augustinian choir master, under theAntoniter order, required a larger choir, and so a high choir(chancel) was built with a polygonal apsidal end and sevenwindows. The chancel was clearly higher than the originalbasilica, and this contrast is certainly visible today. The originalvaulting in the chancel had to be taken down in 1523 due to dangerof collapse, and is now replaced with a flat ceiling.

Due to the change in position of the entrance, a richly decoratedpointed-arch north doorway was built in around 1442, which isflanked by statues of Paul of Thebes and Anthony the Great.

Construction which commenced in 1441 are the works of the so called Frankfurt school, under the master builderMadern Gerthener. The most important builder in Höchst was Steffan von Irlebach, son-in-law of Gerthener, as wellas the stonemason Peter Wale, who worked with Gerthener on the Frankfurt Cathedral tower.

References

Taken from the German Wikipedia article Justinuskirche

References cited in the German Wikipedia article Justinuskirche:•• Metternich, Wolfgang: Justinuskirche Frankfurt/Höchst. Schnell Kunstführer Nr. 1215, München/Zürich 1980.

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North doorway

•• Metternich, Wolfgang: Die Justinuskirche in Frankfurt amMain. Ein Bauwerk von nationaler Bedeutung. VerlagWaldemar Kramer, Frankfurt am Main, 1987,

•• Haberland, Ernst-Dietrich: Madern Gerthener "der stadtfranckenfurd werkmeister". Baumeister und Bildhauer derSpätgotik. Knecht, Frankfurt 1992.

•• Prestel Städteführer Frankfurt am Main, München 1990.

External links (German)• Church of St. Josef [1]

• St. Justinus' church [2]

• Detailed representation [3] St. Justinus' church with photos, sketches, historical reconstruction and bibliography.• 360°-panorama of St. Justinus [4]

References[1] http:/ / www. st-josef-hoechst. de/[2] http:/ / www. justinuskirche. de/[3] http:/ / www. ihr-nachbar. de/ home/ nachbar/ na-menschen/ na-me-justinuskirche-info. htm[4] http:/ / www. frankfurt360. de/ justinuskirche. htm

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Benedictine Convent of Saint John 132

Benedictine Convent of Saint John

Benedictine Convent of St.John at Müstair *

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Country Switzerland

Type Cultural

Criteria iii

Reference 269 [1]

Region ** Europe and North America

Inscription historyInscription 1983 (7th Session)

* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List [2]

** Region as classified by UNESCO [3]

The Convent of Saint John is an ancient Benedictine monastery in Müstair village of Val Müstair, Switzerland,and, by reason of its exceptionally well-preserved heritage of Carolingian art, has been a UNESCO World HeritageSite since 1983.

History

Statue of Charlemagne in the abbeychurch

It is believed that the abbey was established ca. 780 by a bishop of Chur,[2][3]

perhaps under orders from Charlemagne.[3] It was built during a wave ofmonastery construction that included the nearby monasteries at Cazis, Mistail,Pfäfers, and Disentis. The abbey was located along the Val Müstair pass over theAlps from Italy and was fortified to allow it to control the pass. In 881 the abbeypassed over to be completely under the control of the Bishop of Chur. During theearly years of the abbey, in the early 9th century, a series of frescos were paintedin the church. Later, in the 11th and 12th centuries, the abbey experienced asecond expansion and new paintings were added or painted over the old frescos.These paintings were lost and were only rediscovered in the 20th century.

In the 10th century, the church tower was added to the abbey church. During theexpansion of the 11th century the bishop of Chur enlarged his residence at themonastery. A fine tower home, cloister, and the double chapel of St. Ulrich andSt. Niklaus were added. During the expansion, the two-story residence chapel ofthe bishop was also decorated with extensive stucco and fresco work.[2] At some

time in the 12th century it was converted from a monastery into a convent. The change to a nunnery is firstmentioned in 1167, but it happened sometime before this date.[3]

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The Swabian War, which was an attempt by the Habsburgs to assert control over the Grisons and key alpine passes,started at the convent.[4] On 20 January 1499, Habsburg troops occupied the surrounding valley and plundered theconvent, but were soon driven back by the forces of the Three Leagues at the Battle of Calven. Following the raid, anarmistice was signed between the Habsburgs and the Three Leagues. However this armistice only lasted a few daysbefore the conflicts broke out between the Three Leagues' Old Swiss Confederacy allies and the Habsburg troops.These raids quickly escalated into the Swabian War, which ended in September 1499 with the Treaty of Baselgranting virtual independence to the Swiss Confederacy.[4]

About 1500 the convent church was modified from a single-nave Carolingian construction into a three-nave lategothic church. Shortly thereafter, in 1524 and 1526, the Ilanzer Articles weakened the temporal power of the bishopof Chur and reduced the financial support of the convent. There was limited construction on the convent followingthis reduction in income.In the spirit of the Council of Trent the bishop issued a series of reforms governing religious life from 1600 to 1614.The reforms included who could receive sacraments and created a new Breviary. Other policies, such as therequirement for common sleeping areas, were also relaxed in this era.Throughout the history of the Convent of Saint John there were conflicts between the bishop of Chur, the GreyLeague, and the House of Habsburg. The Convent's spiritual leader, the abbess, and the physical leader, the vogt,were often chosen by one of these three powers.

Paintings

Dinner of Herod Antipas with dancing Salome

During the 20th-century restoration works,some Romanesque frescoes from the 1160swere discovered here. Other murals aredated to Charlemagne's reign. TheUNESCO recognized these as"Switzerland's greatest series of figurativemurals, painted c. A.D. 800, along withRomanesque frescoes and stuccoes".[5]

The original single nave church with fiveapses has several significant Early MiddleAges frescoes from around 800. Thepaintings are organized in five rows thatstretch from the southern wall across thewest wall to the northern wall. The top rowfeatures scenes from the life of King David of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. The next three rows show scenesfrom the youth, life, and Passion of Christ. The bottom row contains scenes from the crucifixion of St. Andreas. Onthe western wall the rows are tied together with an image of the Last Judgment.[6] The paintings were done in alimited range of colors including ochre, red, and brown and help in the "comprehension of the evolution of certainChristian iconographic themes, like that of the last judgment".[2]

The apses and the eastern wall were repainted in the 12th century with Romanesque frecsos showing a variety ofbiblical themes including the dinner of Herod Antipas (where the dancing of Herodias' daughter leads to theexecution of John the Baptist[7]), the wise and foolish virgins, apostles, and St. Stephen.[3]

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Gallery

Benedictine Conventof St. John

BenedictineConvent ofSt. John (2)

Convent of St. John Convent of St.John (2)

Convent church Convent church withtower home (right)

Chapel of theCross

Three-nave church View of thecentral apse

Christ asPantokrator

Central apse withdinner of Herod

Antipas and statueof Charlemagne

Southern apse

Carolingianfrescoes onthe north

wall

Carolingianfresco:Apostle

figure, detail

Carolingian frescoshowing Christ

healing a deaf-mute

Stucco relief on thenorth wall of the

abbey church

References[1] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 269[2] ICOMOS Evaluation for UNESCO (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ archive/ advisory_body_evaluation/ 269. pdf)[3] Müstair Abbey in German (http:/ / www. hls-dhs-dss. ch/ textes/ d/ D11610. php), French (http:/ / www. hls-dhs-dss. ch/ textes/ f/ F11610.

php) and Italian (http:/ / www. hls-dhs-dss. ch/ textes/ i/ I11610. php) in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.[4] Riezler, Sigmund: Die Grafen von Fürstenberg im Schweizerkriege 1499 (http:/ / www. historicum. net/ no_cache/ persistent/ artikel/ 1070/ );

Tübingen 1883. (German) from historicum.net. Detailed chronological account of events.[5] UNESCO List (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 269) accessed 28 April 2008[6] Niklaus Flüeler, Lukas Gloor, Isabelle Rucki (eds.) (1982) (in German). Kulturführer Schweiz. Spreitenbach: Limmatdruck AG. pp. 254–5.[7] Matthew  14:6–11; Mark  6:19–28

External links• Benedictine Convent of Saint John in German (http:/ / www. hls-dhs-dss. ch/ textes/ d/ D11610. php), French

(http:/ / www. hls-dhs-dss. ch/ textes/ f/ F11610. php) and Italian (http:/ / www. hls-dhs-dss. ch/ textes/ i/ I11610.php) in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.

• Kloster Müstair (http:/ / www. muestair. ch/ ) limited information in English

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Reichenau Island 135

Reichenau Island

Monastic Island of Reichenau *UNESCO World Heritage Site

15th-century towers on the Romanesque church of Sts Peter and Paul in Reichenau-NiederzellCountry Germany

Type Cultural

Criteria iii, iv, vi

Reference 974 [1]

Region ** Europe and North America

Inscription historyInscription 2000 (24th Session)

* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List [2]

** Region as classified by UNESCO [3]

Imperial Abbey of ReichenauReichskloster Reichenau

Imperial Abbey of the Holy Roman Empire

← ? – 1540 or

1548 →

Coat of arms

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Reichenau Island 136

Reichenau, shown with Konstanz and Bodensee Kreise of Germany (yellow) and Thurgau canton ofSwitzerland (green)

Capital Reichenau Abbey

Government Theocracy

Historical era Middle Ages

- Founded 724

- Gained Reichsfreiheit Unknown

- Reichsfreiheit lost to    Bishopric of Constance

1540 or 1548

- Secularised to    Württemberg

1757–1803

Today part of  Germany

Reichenau Island lies in Lake Constance in southern Germany, at approximately 47°42′N 9°4′E. It lies betweenGnadensee and Untersee, two parts of Lake Constance, almost due west of the city of Konstanz. The island isconnected to the mainland by a causeway that was completed in 1838. The causeway is interrupted between the siteof the former castle Schopflen and the eastern end of Reichenau Island island by the 10-metre-wide Bruckgraben, awaterway which is spanned by a low road bridge that allows passage of ordinary boats but not of sailboats throughits 95-metre course. The highest elevation on the island, the Hochwart, reaches 438.7 metres, or 43 metres above thelake surface.It was declared a World Heritage Site in 2000 because of its monastery, the Abbey of Reichenau. The abbey'sMünster is dedicated to the Virgin and Saint Mark. Two further churches were built on the island consecrated to StGeorg, and to Sts Peter and Paul. The famous artworks of Reichenau include the Ottonian murals of miracles ofChrist in St Georg, unique survivals from the 10th century. The abbey's bailiff was housed in a two-storey stonebuilding that was raised by two more storeys of timber framing in the 14th century, one of the oldest timber-framebuildings in south Germany.Among the Abbey's far-flung landholdings was Reichenau, a village in the municipality of Tamins in the canton ofGraubünden, Switzerland, named for the Abbey.Today the island is also famous for its vegetable farms. The Wollmatinger Ried next to the island is a big naturepreserve, a wetland area of reeds which is used by many birds for the stopover during their annual migration.

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Reichenau Island 137

HistoryThe Alemannic name of the island was Sindleozesauua, but it was also simply known as Ow, Auua, 'island'(Latinized as Augia, later also Augia felix or Augia dives, hence Richenow, Reichenau).The Benedictine Abbey of Reichenau was founded in 724 by the itinerant Saint Pirmin, who is said to have fledSpain ahead of the Moorish invaders, with patronage that included Charles Martel, and, more locally, CountBerthold of the Ahalolfinger and the Alemannian Duke Santfrid I (Nebi). Pirmin's conflict with his local patronresulted in his leaving Reichenau in 727. Under his successor Haito the monastery began to flourish. It gainedinfluence in the Carolingian dynasty, under Abbot Waldo of Reichenau (740–814), by educating the clerks whostaffed Imperial and ducal chanceries. Abbot Reginbert of Reichenau (-846) built up the important book collection.Abbot Walahfrid Strabo (842–849) was renowned as a poet and Latin scholar.The Abbey stood along a main north–south highway between Germany and Italy, where the lake passage eased thearduous route. The Abbey of Reichenau housed a school, and a scriptorium and artists' workshop, that has a claim tohaving been the largest and artistically most influential centre for producing lavishly illuminated manuscripts inEurope during the late 10th and early 11th centuries, when this part of Switzerland belonged to the Holy RomanEmpire. An example of the scriptorium's production is the Pericopes of Henry II, made for the Emperor, now inMunich. Reichenau has preserved its precious relics, which include the pitcher from the wedding at Cana.The Abbey reached its apex under Abbot Berno of Reichenau (1008–48). During his time, important scholars, suchas Hermannus Contractus, lived and worked in Reichenau. In the second half of the 11th century, the culturalimportance of the Abbey started to wane owing to the restrictive reforms of Pope Gregory VII, and also to rivalrywith the nearby St. Gall; in 1540, the Bishop of Constance, an old rival of the Reichenau abbots, became lord ofReichenau, and, under the control of the succeeding bishops, the abbey's significance dwindled.

One of the island's many vegetable fields withSankt Georg Kirche in the background

When the abbey lands were secularized (initially in 1757 andpermanently in 1803) and the monks disbanded under Napoleon, partof Reichenau's famed library was preserved in the state library(Landesbibliothek) at Karlsruhe. The Geographus Bavarus and severalother important documents may be found in the Bavarian State Libraryin Munich. Since 2001 a small community of Benedictines has beenre-established at Niederzell (Sts. Peter and Paul).

Burchard III, Duke of Swabia and Herman I, Duke of Swabia wereburied here.

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Reichenau Island 138

Gallery

Aerial view Aerial view South West Reichenau Island South East Reichenau Island

St George's Church Tree-linedRoad to

ReichenauIsland

External links• Reichenau: monastic island [2]

• (German) History and images [3]

• Reichenau Abbey Church [4]

• "Reichenau" [5]. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.• 3 spherical panoramas of St. Georg Church [6]

• Saint George in Overzell in Circulo Romanico page [7]

• Abacial de Santa Maria y San Marcos in Circulo Romanico page [8]

• Iglesia de San Pedro y san Pablo in Circulo Romanico [9]

References[1] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 974[2] http:/ / www. reichenau. de[3] http:/ / www. deheim. de/ reichenau/[4] http:/ / www. schloesser-magazin. de/ en/ monastery-reichenau/ Home/ 268292. html[5] http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 12723a. htm[6] http:/ / www. strudel. de/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=43[7] http:/ / www. circuloromanico. com/ index. php?menu_id=9& jera_id=2033& page_id=1616[8] http:/ / www. circuloromanico. com/ index. php?menu_id=9& jera_id=2034& page_id=1609& cont_id=3583[9] http:/ / www. circuloromanico. com/ index. php?menu_id=9& jera_id=2034& page_id=1609& cont_id=3584

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Carolingian art 139

Carolingian art

Lorsch Gospels 778–820. Charlemagne's Court School.

Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire inthe period of roughly 120 years from about 780 to900 — during the reign of Charlemagne and hisimmediate heirs — popularly known as theCarolingian Renaissance. The art was produced byand for the court circle and a group of importantmonasteries under Imperial patronage; survivalsfrom outside this charmed circle show a considerabledrop in quality of workmanship and sophistication ofdesign. The art was produced in several centres inwhat are now France, Germany, Austria, northernItaly and the Low Countries, and receivedconsiderable influence, via continental missioncentres, from the Insular art of the British Isles, aswell as a number of Byzantine artists who appear tohave been resident in Carolingian centres.

There was for the first time a thoroughgoing attemptin Northern Europe to revive and emulate classicalMediterranean art forms and styles, that resulted in ablending of classical and Northern elements in asumptuous and dignified style, in particularintroducing to the North confidence in representingthe human figure, and setting the stage for the rise ofRomanesque art and eventually Gothic art in theWest. The Carolingian era is part of the period in Medieval art sometimes called the "Pre-Romanesque". After arather chaotic interval following the Carolingian period, the new Ottonian dynasty revived Imperial art from about950, building on and further developing Carolingian style in Ottonian art.

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Overview

Ivory plaque, probably from a book cover, Reims late 9th century, withtwo scenes from the life of Saint Remy and the Baptism of Clovis

Having established an Empire as large as theByzantine Empire of the day, and rivaling in size theold Western Roman Empire, the Carolingian courtmust have been conscious that they lacked an artisticstyle to match these or even the post-antique (or"sub-antique" as Ernst Kitzinger called it)[1] art stillbeing produced in small quantities in Rome and a fewother centres in Italy, which Charlemagne knew fromhis campaigns, and where he was crowned HolyRoman Emperor in Rome in 800.

As symbolic representative of Rome he sought therenovatio (revival) of Roman culture and learning inthe West, and needed an art capable of telling storiesand representing figures with an effectiveness whichornamental Germanic Migration period art couldnot.[2] He wished to establish himself as the heir tothe great rulers of the past, to emulate andsymbolically link the artistic achievements of EarlyChristian and Byzantine culture with his own.

But it was more than a conscious desire to reviveancient Roman culture. During Charlemagne's reignthe Byzantine Iconoclasm controversy was dividingthe Byzantine Empire. Charlemagne supported theWestern church's consistent refusal to followiconoclasm; the Libri Carolini sets out the position ofhis court circle, no doubt under his direction. With no inhibitions from a cultural memory of Mediterranean paganidolatry, Charlemagne introduced the first Christian monumental religious sculpture, a momentous precedent forWestern art.

Reasonable numbers of Carolingian illuminated manuscripts and small-scale sculptures, mostly in ivory, havesurvived, but far fewer examples of metalwork, mosaics and frescoes and other types of work. Many manuscripts inparticular are copies or reinterpretations of Late Antique or Byzantine models, nearly all now lost, and the nature ofthe influence of specific models on individual Carolingian works remains a perennial topic in art history. As well asthese influences, the extravagant energy of Insular art added a definite flavour to Carolingian work, whichsometimes used interlacedecoration, and followed more cautiously the insular freedom in allowing decoration tospread around and into the text on the page of a manuscript.

With the end of Carolingian rule around 900, high quality artistic production greatly declined for about threegenerations in the Empire. By the later 10th century with the Cluny reform movement, and a revived spirit for theidea of Empire, art production began again. New Pre-Romanesque styles appeared in Germany with the Ottonian artof the next stable dynasty, in England with late Anglo-Saxon art, after the threat from the Vikings was removed, andin Spain.

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Carolingian art 141

Illuminated manuscripts

Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850: a historiated initial 'C' contains theAscension of Christ. The text is in gold ink.

The most numerous surviving works of the Carolingianrenaissance are illuminated manuscripts. A number ofluxury manuscripts, mostly Gospel books, havesurvived, decorated with a relatively small number offull-page miniatures, often including evangelistportraits, and lavish canon tables, following theprecedent of the Insular art of Britain and Ireland.Narrative images and especially cycles are rarer, butmany exist, mostly of the Old Testament, especiallyGenesis – New Testament scenes are more often foundon the ivory reliefs on the covers.[3] The over-sized andheavily decorated initials of Insular art were adopted,and the historiated initial further developed, with smallnarrative scenes seen for the first time towards the endof the period - notably in the Drogo Sacramentary.Luxury manuscripts were given treasure bindings orrich covers with jewels set in gold and carved ivorypanels, and, as in Insular art, were prestige objects keptin the church or treasury, and a different class of objectfrom the working manuscripts kept in the library, wheresome initials might be decorated, and pen drawingsadded in a few places. A few of the grandest imperialmanuscripts were written on purple parchment. TheBern Physiologus is a relatively rare example of asecular manuscript heavily illustrated with fully painted

miniatures, lying in between these two classes, and perhaps produced for the private library of an importantindividual, as was the Vatican Terence. The Utrecht Psalter, stands alone as a very heavily illustrated library versionof the Psalms done in pen and wash, and almost certainly copied from a much earlier manuscript.

Other liturgical works were sometimes produced in luxury manuscripts, such as sacramentaries, but no CarolingianBible is decorated as heavily as the Late Antique examples that survive in fragments. Teaching books such astheological, historical, literary and scientific works from ancient authors were copied and generally only illustrated inink, if at all. The Chronography of 354 was a Late Roman manuscript that apparently was copied in the Carolingianperiod, though this copy seems to have been lost in the 17th century.

Centres of illuminationCarolingian manuscripts are presumed to have been produced largely or entirely by clerics, in a few workshopsaround the Carolingian Empire, each with its own style that developed based on the artists and influences of thatparticular location and time.[4] Manuscripts often have inscriptions, not necessarily contemporary, as to whocommissioned them, and which church or monastery they were given to, but few dates or names and locations ofthose producing them. The surviving manuscripts have been assigned, and often re-assigned, to workshops byscholars, and the controversies attending this process have largely died down. The earliest workshop was the CourtSchool of Charlemagne; then a Rheimsian style, which became the most influential of the Carolingian period; aTouronian style; a Drogo style; and finally a Court School of Charles the Bald. These are the major centres, butothers exist, characterized by the works of art produced there.

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Saint Mark from the Ebbo Gospels. Figurine linedrawing with colour.

The Court School of Charlemagne (also known as the AdaSchool) produced the earliest manuscripts, including theGodescalc Evangelistary (781–783); the Lorsch Gospels(778–820); the Ada Gospels; the Soissons Gospels; the HarleyGolden Gospels (800-820); and the Vienna Coronation Gospels;ten manuscripts in total are usually recognised. The Court Schoolmanuscripts were ornate and ostentatious, and reminiscent of 6thcentury ivories and mosaics from Ravenna, Italy. They were theearliest Carolingian manuscripts and initiated a revival of Romanclassicism, yet still maintained Migration Period art (Merovingianand Insular) traditions in their basically linear presentation, withno concern for volume and spatial relationships.

In the early 9th century Archbishop Ebo of Rheims, at Hautvillers(near Rheims), assembled artists and transformed Carolingian artto something entirely new. The Gospel book of Ebbo (816–835)was painted with swift, fresh and vibrant brush strokes, evoking aninspiration and energy unknown in classical Mediterranean forms.Other books associated with the Rheims school include the UtrechtPsalter, which was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian

manuscripts, and the Bern Physiologus, the earliest Latin edition of the Christian allegorical text on animals. Theexpressive animations of the Rheims school, in particular the Utrecht Psalter with its naturalistic expressive figurineline drawings, would have influence on northern medieval art for centuries to follow, into the Romanesque period.

Another style developed at the monastery of St Martin of Tours, in which large Bibles were illustrated based on LateAntique bible illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created, the last, and best, example was made about845/846 for Charles the Bald, called the Vivian Bible. The Tours School was cut short by the invasion of theNormans in 853, but its style had already left a permanent mark on other centers in the Carolingian Empire.

From the Utrecht Psalter, 9th C. Naturalistic and energetic figurine linedrawings were entirely new, and were to become the most influential

innovation of Carolinian art in later periods.

The diocese of Metz was another center ofCarolingian art. Between 850 and 855 asacramentary was made for Bishop Drogo calledthe Drogo Sacramentary. The illuminated"historiated" decorated initials (see image thispage) were to have influence into theRomanesque period and were a harmonious unionof classical lettering with figural scenes.

In the second half of the 9th century the traditionsof the first half continued. A number of richlydecorated Bibles were made for Charles the Bald,fusing Late Antiquity forms with the stylesdeveloped at Rheims and Tours. It was during this time a Franco-Saxon style appeared in the north of France,integrating Hiberno-Saxon interlace, and would outlast all other Carolingian styles into the next century.

Charles the Bald, like his grandfather, also established a Court School. Its location is uncertain but severalmanuscripts are attributed to it, with the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (870) being the last and most spectacular. Itcontained Touronian and Rheimsian elements, but fused with the style that characterized Charlemagne's CourtSchool more formal manuscripts.

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With the death of Charles the Bald patronage for manuscripts declined, signaling the beginning of the end, but somework did continue for a while. The Abbey of St. Gall created the Folchard Psalter (872) and the Golden Psalter(883). This Gallish style was unique, but lacked the level of technical mastery seen in other regions.

Sculpture and metalwork

Gem-encrusted cover of the Codex Aureus of St.Emmeram, 870

Luxury Carolingian manuscripts were intended to have treasurebindings - ornate covers in precious metal set with jewels aroundcentral carved ivory panels - sometimes these were donated some timeafter the manuscript itself was produced. Only a few such covers havesurvived intact, but many of the ivory panels survive detached, wherethe covers have been broken up for their materials. The subjects wereoften narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derivedfrom Late Antique paintings and carvings, as were those with morehieratic images derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art,such as the front and back covers of the Lorsch Gospels, which adapt a6th century Imperial triumph to the triumph of Christ and the Virgin.

Important Carolingian examples of goldsmith's work include the uppercover of the Lindau Gospels; the cover of the Codex Aureus of St.Emmeram, which can be precisely dated to 870, is probably a productof the same workshop, though there are differences of style. Thisworkshop is associated with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (theBald), and often called his "Palace School". Its location (if it had afixed one) remains uncertain and much discussed, but Saint-Denis Abbey outside Paris is one leading possibility.[5]

The Arnulf Ciborium (a miniature architectural ciborium rather than the vessel for hosts), now in the MunichResidenz, is the third major work in the group; all three have fine relief figures in repoussé gold. Another workassociated with the workshop is the frame of an antique serpentine dish in the Louvre.[6] Recent scholars tend togroup the Lindau Gospels and the Arnulf Ciborium in closer relation to each other than the Codex Aureus to either.

Charlemagne revived large-scale bronze casting when he created a foundry at Aachen which cast the doors for hispalace chapel, in imitation of Roman designs. The chapel also had a now lost life-size crucifix, with the figure ofChrist in gold, the first known work of this type, which was to become so important a feature of medieval church art.Probably a wooden figure was mechanically gilded, as with the Ottonian Golden Madonna of Essen.One of the finest examples of Carolingian goldsmiths' work is the Golden Altar (824–859) (picture:altar [7]), alsoknown as the Paliotto, in the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan. The altars four sides are decorated with images ingold and silver repoussé, framed by borders of filigree, precious stones and enamel.The Lothair Crystal, of the middle of the 9th century, is one the largest of a group of about 20 engraved pieces ofrock crystal which survive; this shows large numbers of figures in several scenes showing the unusual subject of thestory of Suzanna.

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Mosaics and frescos

Mosaic of the Ark of the Covenant,Germigny-des-Prés, c. 806, but restored. Thesubject seems drawn from illuminated Jewish

bibles, and relates to the Libri Carolini, possiblywritten by Theodulf, where the Ark is cited as

divine approval of sacred images.

Mosaics installed in Charlemagne's palatine chapel showed anenthroned Christ worshipped by the Evangelist's symbols and thetwenty-four elders from the Apocalypse. This mosaic no longersurvives, but an over-restored one remains in the apse of the oratory atGermigny-des-Prés (806) which shows the Ark of the Covenant adoredby angels, discovered in 1820 under a coat of plaster.

The villa to which the oratory was attached belonged to a key associateof Charlemagne, Bishop Theodulf of Orléans. It was destroyed later inthe century, but had frescos of the Seven liberal arts, the Four Seasons,and the Mappa Mundi.[8] We know from written sources of otherfrescos in churches and palaces, nearly all completely lost.Charlemagne's Aachen palace contained a wall painting of the LiberalArts, as well as narrative scenes from his war in Spain. The palace ofLouis the Pious at Ingelheim contained historical images fromantiquity to the time of Charlemagne, and the palace church contained typological scenes of the Old and NewTestaments juxtaposed with one another.

Fragmentary paintings have survived at Auxerre, Coblenz, Lorsch, Cologne, Fulda, Corvey, Trier, Müstair, Mals,Naturns, Cividale, Brescia and Milan.

Spolia

Lorsch Gospels. Ivory book cover. Late AntiquityImperial scenes adapted to a Christian theme.

Spolia is the Latin term for "spoils" and is used to refer to the taking orappropriation of ancient monumental or other art works for new uses orlocations. We know that many marbles and columns were broughtfrom Rome northward during this period.

Perhaps the most famous example of Carolingian spolia is the tale ofan equestrian statue. In Rome, Charlemagne had seen the EquestrianStatue of Marcus Aurelius in the Lateran Palace. It was the onlysurviving statue of a pre-Christian Roman Emperor because it wasmistakenly thought, at the time, to be that of Constantine and thus heldgreat accord—Charlemagne thus brought an equestrian statue fromRavenna, then believed to be that of Theodoric the Great, to Aachen, tomatch the statue of "Constantine" in Rome.

Antique carved gems were reused in various settings, without muchregard to their original iconography.

Notes[1][1] Kitzinger, 8[2][2] Kitzinger, 40-42[3][3] Kitzinger, 69. Dodwell, 49 discusses the reasons for this.[4][4] Dodwell, 52[5][5] Lasko, 60-68[6] Lasko, 64-65, 66-67; picture of the dish[7] http:/ / milano. arounder. com/ PROJECTS/ SANT_AMBROGIO/ home_fullscreen. html

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The Lothair Crystal, mid-9th century

[8][8] Beckwith, 13-17

References

• Beckwith, John. Early Medieval Art: Carolingian, Ottonian,Romanesque, Thames & Hudson, 1964 (rev. 1969), ISBN0-500-20019-X

• Dodwell, C.R.; The Pictorial arts of the West, 800-1200, 1993, YaleUP, ISBN 0-300-06493-4

• Joachim E. Gaehde (1989). "Pre-Romanesque Art". Dictionary ofthe Middle Ages. ISBN 0-684-18276-9

• Hinks, Roger. Carolingian Art, 1974 edn. (1935 1st edn.),University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-06071-6

• Kitzinger, Ernst, Early Medieval Art at the British Museum, (1940) 2nd edn, 1955, British Museum• Lasko, Peter, Ars Sacra, 800-1200, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 1972 (nb, 1st edn.) ISBN14056036X• "Carolingian art" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9020436/ Carolingian-art). In Encyclopædia

Britannica Online.

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Article Sources and ContributorsCarolingian Empire  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510074094  Contributors: 12qwas, A. Parrot, Abasdfasldf kasl;dkf jasl;dkf j, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Canon, Aldux,Alfonso Márquez, Angusmclellan, Arab Hafez, Austin Hair, Awien, Bcat, Benoni, BruceJohnson, CalJW, CanDal87, Casteres, Cavila, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, Coach.nyta, D6,DBaba, Dbachmann, Decora, Delirium, Djmutex, Djnjwd, Donald Albury, Elendil 119, Eog1916, Fabartus, Faithlessthewonderboy, FilipeS, FinnWiki, Geonosian, Ghaly, Ghewgill, GoodOlfactory, Gpeilon, Gökçe Yörük, Hans Adler, Heirpixel, Holycharly, Isnow, J.delanoy, J04n, JHK, Jaraalbe, JeBonSer, Joostik, Jwwong420, Kaisershatner, King Lopez, Kuralyov,Kwamikagami, Lacrimosus, Leuqarte, LilHelpa, Look2See1, LordAmeth, Macsyrinx, Marek69, Mattis, Mcorazao, Memorymike, Mgiganteus1, Mimihitam, MinisterForBadTimes, Moriori,Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, NYArtsnWords, Nightstallion, Nomadic1, NuclearWarfare, Olahus, Oldwindybear, Omnipaedista, Optimus82, OwenBlacker, Per Honor et Gloria, Pfly,Pindanl, Piotrus, RG2, Rjwilmsi, Rorro, Rsquire3, Ryulong, Senori, Skollvaldr, Squash Racket, Srnec, Stbalbach, SteveStrummer, Str1977, Supertask, Theguyfromsaturn, Tomas e, Umedard,Wilfried Derksen, Zoe, Zscout370, 146 anonymous edits

Carolingian dynasty  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=503247518  Contributors: .marc., A. Parrot, Aldis90, Allen3, Angusmclellan, BRUTE, Bergsmit, Bilsonius, BryanDerksen, Carlaude, Cherubino, Choess, Conversion script, Countakeshi, CrniBombarder!!!, Crypteia, Cthompson, Cuchullain, CyrilleDunant, Deor, Derek Ross, Djmutex, EunseokLee, Fabartus,Favonian, Flibjib8, Ghaly, Ginsengbomb, Graham87, Guy Peters, H2O, Hemlock Martinis, IP 213, IZAK, JFHJr, JHK, Jauhienij, Joan-of-arc, Johanthon, John K, Joyous!, Jvs.cz, Kaisershatner,Kiril Simeonovski, Kku, Knight45, KnightRider, Kuralyov, Laurens-af, Leandrod, Les Invisibles, Look2See1, Luk, Marco polo, Marek69, Mark J, Marsal20, Mboverload, Michaelsanders,MinisterForBadTimes, Muriel Gottrop, NYArtsnWords, NatusRoma, Ninly, Nk, Norhelt, Nudas veritas, Nuno Tavares, Ogress, Okapi, Olivier, OwenBlacker, Pat Berry, Paul Martin, Pearle, PerHonor et Gloria, R'n'B, Raven in Orbit, Rick.martel, Rjwilmsi, Rsquire3, Rtol, Rudric, Saforrest, Socceradm, Srnec, Stijn Calle, Surtsicna, Tedraymer, Tgeairn, The Epopt, The_ansible, Tigga en,Tokle, Treisijs, Triton (usurped), Wetman, Will231, Xn4, Švitrigaila, 86 anonymous edits

Treaty of Verdun  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=503780719  Contributors: -js-, 1exec1, A. Parrot, Andre Engels, Antandrus, Ardfern, Babajobu, Bbfire, Bearingbreaker92,Berndf, Blazer410, CalJW, Carlwev, Cast, Charles Matthews, Che829, Conversion script, CrniBombarder!!!, D6, Davewild, Dbachmann, DerHexer, Deucalionite, Disdero, Djmutex,Dukeofomnium, Eclecticology, Eugene van der Pijll, EunseokLee, Fabartus, FilipeS, G.W., Gaius Octavius Princeps, General Helper, Ghaly, Glacialfox, Good Olfactory, Gurch, Haham hanuka,JHK, Jaraalbe, Jclemens, JeBonSer, Jfruh, Jj137, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kelisi, Kuralyov, L Kensington, Lacrimosus, Lazulilasher, Look2See1, Lord Cornwallis, Luwilt, Mandarax,Manushand, Matthead, Mattis, Mav, Mclay1, MichaelTinkler, Mimihitam, Mksmith, Mrwatts2, Mschlindwein, Olahus, Olivier, Omnipaedista, OwenBlacker, PMG, Puckly, QuiteUnusual, Ravenin Orbit, RedHillian, Reddi, Rich Farmbrough, Scott14, Shadow1, Shimmin, Sleigh, Snowdog, Srnec, Stemonitis, Stifle, Stijn Calle, Str1977, Supertask, Talrias, Tarquin, Tesi1700, The ScarletLetter, Toejam118, Tomeasy, Vikiyazar, Wimstead, Wrp103, Zumbulka, 116 anonymous edits

Oaths of Strasbourg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507975271  Contributors: A. Parrot, Agnizium, Ardfern, Benwing, Bogdangiusca, Brikane, CapnPrep, Cavila,Chameleon, Cmdrjameson, Conversion script, Curb Chain, DabMachine, Diligent, Disdero, Djmutex, Djnjwd, Ellywa, FilipeS, Flibjib8, Future Perfect at Sunrise, G.W., Gaius Cornelius, Ghaly,Grover cleveland, Hooperbloob, Howcheng, Iblardi, Igorwindsor, Ihcoyc, JHK, Jaraalbe, Jbeans, Jerry, Karkadann, Kuralyov, Kwamikagami, Leszek Jańczuk, Look2See1, Matthead,Meursault2004, Mitrius, Mschlindwein, Nortmannus, Olivier, PETF, Pfold, Pgreenfinch, Philip Stevens, R'n'B, R9tgokunks, RCS, Rokus01, Sannse, Snocrates, Sundar1, Szwejk, Tancrede,Zundark, 霧 木 諒 二, 47 anonymous edits

Langues d'oïl  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=509553157  Contributors: -Ril-, Aaker, Actio, Angr, Ant, ArséniureDeGallium, Awiseman, BD2412, Balabiot, Baristarim,Bluezy, Boleslaw, CALR, CWenger, CaliforniaAliBaba, CanisRufus, CapnPrep, Cengime, Chienlit, Chris the speller, CodeCat, Danarmak, Darren23, David Latapie, Deflective, Deville,Djkernen, FinnWiki, FvdP, GTMusashi, Gdr, Grafen, Gwernol, He Who Is, Hmains, Homun, JaGa, Jade Knight, Jaimetout, Jbeans, Jessi1989, John, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh Cherry,Kintetsubuffalo, Kman543210, Kwamikagami, Kwiki, L1A1 FAL, Le Anh-Huy, LeQuantum, Lemonade100, Lfh, Liam D, LightPhoenix, Liontooth, Luwilt, Lzur, MacRusgail, MacTire02, Manvyi, Manco Capac, Mashford, Montrealais, Nathan Hamblen, Nick, Nightstallion, Norm mit, Otto4711, Pais, Peter Grey, Pne, Poccil, Quadalpha, R9tgokunks, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi,Rmhermen, Roidhrigh, Rothorpe, Rsg, Ryright, Saintongese, Saltation, Sarcelles, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Skylark42, Sl, Tamfang, Terfili, TheLeopard, TheResearchPersona, Thegreenj, TimQ. Wells, Tommy2010, Tone, Toptenor, Truthdowser, Unyoyega, Urgos, VIOLENTRULER, Verdy p, Wars, Wiki Wikardo, Woohookitty, 112 anonymous edits

Occitan language  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512162807  Contributors: -Ril-, 1297, 2004-12-29T22:45Z, A. B., Adam78, AdamMorton, Aeusoes1, Agnizium,Ahoerstemeier, Aidan Elliott-McCrea, Aidel, Alan Flynn, Alex '05, Amallolc, Amire80, AnPrionsaBeag, Andre Engels, AndrewWTaylor, AngryParsley, Anon user, Appraiser, Aqwseedd, Archdude, Art LaPella, Aubadaurada, Avicennasis, Axeman89, Baagman, Babajobu, Barkeep, Bdiscoe, Behemoth, Bender235, Benji man, Benwing, Bergadan, Berndf, Bilgelik, Bitbut, BjornElenfors, Bob247, Bogdangiusca, Buyobuyo, CALR, CJ Withers, CRGreathouse, CanisRufus, CapnPrep, Capsot, Carlossuarez46, Catalaalatac, Cedric31, Centrx, CharlotteWebb, Charvex, ChickBowen, Chirigami, Christopher Sundita, Circeus, Cj-maranup, Cnoguera, Colonies Chris, Confluente, Conversion script, Crculver, Cristòl, Cubicalbubble88, Cymru123, Cyrrk, Dahn,Dakrismeno, Danceswithzerglings, Danny, Davidcannon, Dcandeto, DePiep, Deflective, Derek Ross, Deusdemona, Dimitrii, Dionix, Djkernen, Dogcow, Donald Albury, Donfbreed, DrFO.Jr.Tn,Drmies, Drphilharmonic, Dukemeiser, Dysprosia, Dësbela Ambërbojada, Eclecticology, Edmundwoods, El Roih, El estremeñu, Enzino, Eras-mus, Eric, Ericd, Error, Erutuon, Esbullin, FeralMonkey, FilipeS, Flata, Florian Blaschke, Freyjagirl, Funnyhat, Future Perfect at Sunrise, GCarty, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Garik, Garzo, Gene Fellner, Gene Nygaard, General Reader,Gerbrant, Gilgamesh, Gioto, GoingBatty, Gongshow, Graham87, Grstain, Gunnernett, Gwernol, Hardouin, Hedgehog, Henriku, Hermione is a dude, Hibernian, Hippo43, Hottentot, Hu12,Huangdi, Ida Shaw, Igorwindsor, Iketsi, Ilario, Improv, Iwasaboytoo, Iñaki LL, J. 'mach' wust, JFHJr, JYolkowski, Jacopone, Jaume87, Jdemarcos, Jeff G., Jeff3000, Jeffq, Jfblanc, Jiang, Jkforde,Jlittlet, Joao Xavier, Joe Byrne, John K, John Price, John Vandenberg, Jor, JorisvS, Joseph Solis in Australia, JosephHVilas, Jotamar, Jtle515, Kahuroa, Kayac1971, Kazu89, Keizers,KekoDActyluS, Kieron a m, Klf uk, Kman543210, Kottex, Kpalion, Kricxjo, Krottet, Ktlynch, Kukini, Kwamikagami, LOL, La goutte de pluie, Lar, Leasnam, Lesgles, Lifthrasir1, Lightmouse,LilHelpa, Livajo, Living001, Llull, LoDrac, Loreleil, Lotje, Lova Falk, M-le-mot-dit, MLModel, Magister10, Man vyi, Mana Excalibur, Mashford, Maunus, Mav, Max rspct, McEsposito, Me vsgutenberg, Michael Hardy, MichaelTinkler, Mijzelf, Mikenassau, Missdipsy, Montrealais, Muriel Gottrop, N-HH, NYArtsnWords, Nathan Hamblen, Neofelis Nebulosa, NewGuy4, Nick, NilBlau, Ninonino, Nk, Nohat, NorwegianBlue, Nosuchforever, Ohnoitsjamie, Olivier, Omnipaedista, Ovtchi, OwenX, P M Yonge, PTSE, Paploo, Pasquale, PaulHeggarty, Pauli133, Pawebster,Perique des Palottes, Peter Isotalo, Peyre, PierreAbbat, Pm504, Pne, Poccil, Polete 98, Portalian, Ptcamn, Punanimal, Purpleturple, R'n'B, R9tgokunks, RHaworth, RVJ, Ran, Random user8384993, Raso mk, Rdsmith4, Rich Farmbrough, Rje, Rjwilmsi, Robert1947, Roidhrigh, Rothorpe, Royboycrashfan, Rsocol, Ruakh, Ryucloud, S. Neuman, SJP, SMP, SPQRobin, Saintongese,Salamurai, Samwaltz, Sarcelles, Schzmo, Scott Gall, Secretlondon, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Seth Nimbosa, Siafu, SidP, SilverFox183, Sl, Sotavento, Srnec, Steinbach, Stephen MUFC,Stephensuleeman, Stevage, Strapuff, StuffOfInterest, Succha, Sun Creator, Svick, Taamu, Tainter, Tamfang, Tarquin, Tdhsmith, The Anome, TheKMan, Theelf29, Themfromspace,Thewayforward, ThisguyYEAH, Thucydides411, Tito4000, Tobias Conradi, Toniher, Tournesol, Tox, Tpbradbury, Treisijs, Ulric1313, Unoffensive text or character, Vaniba12, Varlaam, VincentLextrait, Wathiik, Wereon, Wetman, WhisperToMe, Wik, Wiki Wikardo, WikiLaurent, Wikiain, William Avery, Womtelo, Woohookitty, XJamRastafire, Xavic69, Xbvca, Xcaballe, Xwu,Xxglennxx, Yasingam, Yboord028, Yhlee1010, Zarxos, Zocky, Zundark, Zyztem2000, 571 ,דישנובה anonymous edits

Old Occitan  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510511274  Contributors: Aeusoes1, AnPrionsaBeag, CapnPrep, Cavila, Chemako0606, Correjon, Djkernen, Excelsius,Jaume87, Jfblanc, Kwamikagami, Mglovesfun, SeNeKa, Serge Bouyer, Srnec, Steorra, Widsith, 8 anonymous edits

Occitan literature  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498724015  Contributors: Adam Bishop, Allens, AnPrionsaBeag, Andrew Dalby, Antandrus, Aranel, Attilios,Aubadaurada, Auntof6, BD2412, Bob Palin, Bruguiea, Capsot, Cavila, Charles Matthews, Colonies Chris, Complainer, Crusoe8181, Dave Foley, David Crawshaw, Deb, Download, Dukemeiser,Dvyost, Elonka, Emilio Juanatey, Equendil, Extraordinary, Fconaway, Filiocht, FilipeS, Flauto Dolce, Foetusized, Goodnightmush, Greenbassoon, Harry R, Hmains, Instantnood, Inwind, JIP,JaGa, Jbmurray, Jibbajabba, Jkelly, Jmoreau1, JohnnyMrNinja, Joy, Justin Eiler, Kbdank71, KnightRider, Ligulem, LilHelpa, M-le-mot-dit, Madchester, Maias, Makemi, Man vyi, Martpol, Maryquite contrary, Meredyth, Mild Bill Hiccup, Moonraker, MotherfuckingSHIT, Neddyseagoon, Neutrality, Noroton, Number 0, Olivier, Ollebha, Pcb21, Pierre et Condat, Prsephone1674,Purplefire, Qwanqwa, Rbraunwa, Renata3, Reviewer34, Rjwilmsi, Sam Hocevar, Schoen, SchreiberBike, Srnec, SteinbDJ, Tallred, Template namespace initialisation script,TheLateDentarthurdent, TimBentley, Tobias Conradi, VKokielov, Velho, Zoroastro, 18 anonymous edits

Medieval Latin  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=502140552  Contributors: 16@r, A history of the modern world, A. Parrot, Adam Bishop, Aeusoes1, Aggfvavitus,AjaxSmack, AmiDaniel, Aminullah, AndrewNJ, Angr, Angusmclellan, Anthony Appleyard, Argentina 678, Asfarer, Attilios, Bill Thayer, CBDunkerson, Cange, CapnPrep, Carlaude,Center-for-Medieval-Studies, Cobija, Cuchullain, DaQuirin, Deacon of Pndapetzim, DerBorg, Djkernen, Ehrenkater, Eisfbnore, Embryomystic, Enviroboy, Eugene-elgato, Felipe GonçalvesAssis, Fiddleback, FilipeS, Fram, Furrykef, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Fuzzy Logic, Glenfarclas, Greatgavini, Gun Powder Ma, Gunter.krebs, Hmains, Howdoesitflee, Iblardi, Ihcoyc, JSimin,Jag123, Jasperdoomen, Jimmaths, Joan-of-arc, Jot&tittle, Kintetsubuffalo, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kwamikagami, Lacrimosus, Leszek Jańczuk, Llywrch, Luciengav, Man vyi, Matthew Fennell, MelEtitis, Monedula, Mothdust79, MrOllie, Muke, Oliver Mundy, Paul August, Pegship, Perkeleperkele, Peter Isotalo, Pomte, R'n'B, RandomCritic, RedRabbit1983, Rich Farmbrough, Rigadoun,Robertg9, Rwflammang, SD5, Skizzik, Slaporte, Srleffler, St. Brigit, Strombollii, Syncategoremata, Tergum violinae, TheSuave, Velvetron, Wavelength, Wetman, Woohookitty, Yone Fernandes,99 anonymous edits

Vernacular  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=505461147  Contributors: 119, 5 albert square, Abc518, Alfie66, Amakuru, Angr, AzaToth, Azazello, Bagel4732, Bobet, Bongwarrior, Bruxism, CALR, Caesar, Capricorn42, CharlesMartel, Che829, Chensiyuan, Chosenofruss, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, Chuckhoffmann, Cobaltcigs, CraigNKeys, CrookedAsterisk, Danieledwin, Darrel francis, Darth Panda, David ekstrand, Davydog, Delirium, Deville, Dkmiller, DuncanHill, EJF, EagleFan, Erianna, Ferdinand Pienaar, FilipeS, Freddiehg, Funnyhat, GVOLTT, Ghaly, Glane23, Golbez, Gun Powder Ma, Gwybedyn, Halaqah, Hmains, Hukito-san, Jeffmatt, JorisvS, Jotamar, K raso, K. Annoyomous, KF, Kevin B12, Kf4bdy, Kilo-Lima, Kintetsubuffalo, Kman543210, Konstable, Kpufferfish, Kwamikagami, Kwiki, Kzzl, LeastCommonMultiple2, Lights, LilHelpa, Limequat, Lockley, LordRM, Lukpat23, Magister

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Article Sources and Contributors 147

Mathematicae, Mahmudmasri, Mallerd, Man vyi, Mandarax, Margin1522, Marx01, Melsaran, Mets501, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mitzle, Monshed, MrFish, Muhends, Mulad,Mystborne, Nasugbu Batangas, Nbarth, Nikki chan, Ntsimp, Oerjan, Ohnoitsjamie, Omnipaedista, Onur Ural, Optimist on the run, Oreo Priest, Osmòtic, PaulHanson, Pearle, Perichandra1, Peter,Pigman, Popwriter, Qwasty, R'n'B, Raj2004, Ranveig, Richy, Ruben buys, Ruy Pugliesi, Ryanmcdaniel, SMC, Senator Palpatine, Shirik, Sion8, Slightsmile, Solitude, Spamguy, Spring1,StupiDeity, Subwayguy, Supertouch, Swantje, TAS, Tabletop, Targaryen, The Evil IP address, The Nut, The Rationalist, Three-quarter-ten, Thumperward, Tide rolls, Travelbird, UnLoCode,UtherSRG, Velho, Vrillon, Wiki alf, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Yoyo12123, Zorion, Zundark, 177 anonymous edits

Vernacular literature  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491339389  Contributors: Angela, Brown cp, CALR, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Deville, Felix Folio Secundus,Feydey, Filiocht, Garik, Hadrian89, Hmains, HoodedMan, Issyl0, Jeandré du Toit, Jiang, Katenoelmoss, Khazar, Kozuch, LindsayH, Man vyi, Minesweeper, Mjs1991, Nasugbu Batangas,Pigman, Raj2004, RedWolf, Ruben buys, Sloman, Stbalbach, Stitchill, TREEHOUSELIGHTHOUSE, Tabletop, Tassedethe, The.helping.people.tick, UnLoCode, Zollerriia, 15 anonymous edits

Government of the Carolingian Empire  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=509328840  Contributors: Anaxial, Brandon cohen, Dbachmann, DemonicInfluence, Djnjwd, DrGangrene, FilipeS, Happymeface, Hermione is a dude, JLaTondre, Laurascudder, Look2See1, MJ94, Mais oui!, Rjwilmsi, Simon12, SlaveToTheWage, Squash Racket, Srnec, Tlatosmd,Wisdom89, 11 anonymous edits

Carolingian Renaissance  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498264597  Contributors: Adambiswanger1, Alkashi, Allen3, Attilios, Auf, Billinghurst, Blackhole89, Bolobolo,Carlaude, Chan Yin Keen, Charles Matthews, Chetvorno, Coder Dan, Dbachmann, Deanlaw, Dee dee1, Docu, Dpzuberbier, Elassint, Emmo827, Finn Bjørklid, Gmanzueta24, Heron, Hmains,Iblardi, Irmgard, Itai, Jaxl, Jaysweet, JoanneB, Kevinmon, Kinzele, Knight45, Kozuch, Kuralyov, L0ngpar1sh, Leinad-Z, Lightmouse, Lockesdonkey, Look2See1, Martinvl, Mathiasrex, Mattis,Modernist, Monz, Nakon, Neddyseagoon, Nicke L, Numbo3, Ohconfucius, Olivier, Pegship, Pink!Teen, Plerdsus, Politepunk, Postdlf, Pseudo-Richard, Psy guy, Qurqa, R'n'B, Rbraunwa,Reaverdrop, Rémih, Sardur, Simon Webb, Sparkit, Srnec, Stbalbach, Stevenmitchell, Tetracube, Tothebarricades.tk, Ufwuct, Vald, Velvetron, Wetman, Woohookitty, Zimbardo CookieExperiment, 99 anonymous edits

Carolingian minuscule  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512101093  Contributors: Adam Bishop, Aethralis, AndrewHowse, Ashley Y, Autarch, Bluemoose, Bryan Derksen,Cema, Chris Roy, Chzz, Conscious, Dalahäst, Dijxtra, Donreed, Eleassar, FilipeS, Fishal, Furrykef, Gpvos, H14, Hephaestos, Heron, Hmains, Iceager, Imz, Ipsofactoid, J. 'mach' wust, Jaraalbe,Jeffq, Josh Grosse, Kbh3rd, Kragen, KudukGirl, Kwamikagami, Leszek Jańczuk, LokiClock, Look2See1, Matthias.goergens, Mitrius, Moonraker, Ms2ger, Niteowlneils, Notheruser,OwenBlacker, Qero, Quadell, RedWolf, Robertgreer, Rwflammang, SebastianHelm, Stereo, StradivariusTV, T.L. Chan, TJollans, Tm19, Tom harrison, Trojanavenger, Two PhDs and a Master'sDegree, Tybergris, UserNameless, Wetman, XJamRastafire, Yug, Любослов Езыкин, 41 anonymous edits

Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=496093574  Contributors: Adam Bishop, Afernand74, Alessandro57, Desiderius82, Ericoides, GeorgePonderevo, Johnbod, Leszek Jańczuk

Sequence of Saint Eulalia  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507976337  Contributors: A Musing, Aa77zz, Brikane, CapnPrep, Chowbok, Disdero, Excelsius, Hajor,Jnestorius, José Fontaine, Karkadann, KnightRider, LittleSmall, Magioladitis, Man vyi, MarieBlancheSylvie, NYArtsnWords, Polylerus, RandomCritic, Seduisant, Srnec, Stbalbach, 9 anonymousedits

Carolingian architecture  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=459303519  Contributors: Adelbrecht, Goldenrowley, Ivansevil, JNélis, Johnbod, Look2See1, Mix321, Opie,Quadell, Sailko, Shawn in Montreal, Simon Webb, Srnec, THB, Trewin, Tyrker, Wetman, 4 anonymous edits

Palace of Aachen  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510684091  Contributors: Aaron of Mpls, Angusmclellan, AresAndEnyo, Astynax, Berthold Werner, Binabik80, Chris thespeller, Cplakidas, Ghirlandajo, Goldenrowley, Insert coins, Iohannes Animosus, It Is Me Here, Jafeluv, Jllm06, Johnbod, Lightmouse, Look2See1, Mercenario97, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mr pand,Mrrhum, Ous85, Plastikspork, Rosenzweig, Rysz, ShelfSkewed, SimonDeDanser, Snocrates, Srnec, Tad Lincoln, Tommy2010, Urgos, Warofdreams, Woohookitty, Ycdkwm, 14 anonymous edits

Palatine Chapel, Aachen  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=509334452  Contributors: Amandajm, Appraiser, Attilios, Baxterguy, CSvBibra, Carlaude, Contrafool, Coolgamer,DBaba, Dsmdgold, Ghirlandajo, Goldenrowley, Grutness, HeartofaDog, Hiberniantears, Ian Salisbury, JASpencer, JamesAM, Johnbod, Jugbo, MaEr, Mcginnly, Neddyseagoon, Paul A, PetriKrohn, Raven in Orbit, Sailko, Selket, Simon Webb, Srnec, Sundar1, Tedernst, The wub, Warofdreams, William Avery, Ycdkwm, 15 anonymous edits

Lorsch Abbey  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=500787417  Contributors: AB, Attilios, Barticus88, Bender235, BoxCount, Carlaude, Charles Matthews, Charles01,CristianChirita, Docu, EstherLois, Ghirlandajo, Greenshed, Gryffindor, HeartofaDog, Isnow, JASpencer, Jaraalbe, Jllm06, Joey80, Johanthon, Kelisi, Kmorozov, Kuebi, Ligulem, Look2See1,MIKHEIL, Mcginnly, Olivier, Opie, OwenBlacker, PBS-AWB, Paul Erik, SchuminWeb, Staffelde, Travelbird, Tresckow, Vegetator, Vivianclare, Warinus, Warofdreams, Wetman, YaroslavBlanter, 13 anonymous edits

St. Michael's Church, Fulda  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=488395402  Contributors: Carlaude, Charles Matthews, Choster, Gimboid13, Gryffindor, History2007,Jubilate08, Ken Gallager, Neddyseagoon, Petri Krohn, Rich Farmbrough, Severo, Simon Webb, Warofdreams, 1 anonymous edits

Corvey Abbey  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=490909048  Contributors: Alaunicus, Andrew c, Angilbertus, Attilios, Bob Burkhardt, Carlaude, Chl, Dabensons,David.cormier, Demophon, Greenshed, HeartofaDog, Jaraalbe, Jdsteakley, Johanthon, John Carter, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mix321, Necrothesp, PWilkinson, Qui1che, Rjwilmsi, Salvidrim,Sardanaphalus, Simon Webb, Staffelde, Warofdreams, Wetman, Yopie, 10 anonymous edits

Michelstadt  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=504312780  Contributors: 52 Pickup, Ahoerstemeier, Brühl, Dcandeto, Erckmann, Gerda Arendt, Herostratus, JamesAM, Kelisi,Ksnow, Markussep, Ospalh, QBay, RickK, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Staffelde, Stemonitis, Till D., Ulric1313, 39 anonymous edits

Saint Justinus' church, Frankfurt-Höchst  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=451365551  Contributors: Bjones, Carlaude, Delirium, EvaK, GLGerman, Jaraalbe, Magadan,Markussep, Neddyseagoon, R'n'B, Simon Webb, Symposiarch, Warofdreams, 2 anonymous edits

Benedictine Convent of Saint John  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=499625531  Contributors: Andrwsc, Bob Burkhardt, Docu, Ettrig, Fram, Ghirlandajo, Greenshed,Jaraalbe, Jdsteakley, Jllm06, Joey80, John of Reading, Kirstenataoguz, Kummi, MIKHEIL, Ohconfucius, Ori, OwenBlacker, Reedy, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Rjwilmsi, Robertsteadman,Sailko, SlackerMom, Str1977, Superp, Tobyc75, Waacstats, 4 anonymous edits

Reichenau Island  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=508660273  Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Analogdrift, Benni B., D6, Dapsv, Dbachmann, Deror avi, Docu, Ekki01,EstherLois, Evrik, Frokor, Ghirlandajo, Harry Stoteles, HeartofaDog, History2007, JASpencer, Jaraalbe, Jfg284, Jim10701, Joey80, Johanthon, Kelisi, Kukini, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Känsterle, LIU,Leonvince, Leszek Jańczuk, Look2See1, MIKHEIL, MadGeographer, Markus.zhang, Markussep, Mattis, Mmounties, Myasuda, OwenBlacker, Pasquale, Pj44300, Polylerus, Postdlf, Ratzer, RichFarmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RxS, Srnec, Staffelde, Texture, Tirkfl, Tresckow, Ugncreative Usergname, Ulric1313, Urhixidur, Wetman, Windharp, ZRHwiki, Zoicon5, 34 anonymous edits

Carolingian art  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=509127377  Contributors: Algebraist, Angusmclellan, BD2412, Beadmatrix, Bjf, Boredzo, Charles Matthews, Dbachmann,Epierre, FangedFaerie, Fortdj33, Ghirlandajo, Grey Maiden, Herodotos, Hmains, JLaTondre, JNélis, Joanenglish, Johnbod, Keithh, Kleer94, Leszek Jańczuk, Look2See1, Lusitana, Mattis,Neddyseagoon, Noclador, Olivier, P3Pp3r, PKM, RekishiEJ, Ross Burgess, Sailko, Schneelocke, SchuminWeb, ShelfSkewed, Sparkit, Srnec, Stbalbach, UnHoly, Vran, Wimt, Wknight94,Ycdkwm, 13 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 148

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Partage de l'Empire carolingien au Traité de Verdun en 843.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Partage_de_l'Empire_carolingien_au_Traité_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Scan made by OlahusFile:Steuben - Bataille de Poitiers.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steuben_-_Bataille_de_Poitiers.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bohème, Bukk, FrankSchulenburg, Javierme, Joaquín Martínez Rosado, Kilom691, Kirill Lokshin, Labattblueboy, Mattes, Meithal, Seges, Trinquesfred, 3 anonymous editsFile:Charlemagne denier Mayence 812 814.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PHGCOMFile:Louis le Pieux sesquisolidus 814 840.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_le_Pieux_sesquisolidus_814_840.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PHGCOMFile:Western empire verdun 843.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western_empire_verdun_843.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cplakidas,Electionworld, Flamarande, Juiced lemon, Michail, OwenBlacker, TUBS, Tokle, TrasamundoFile:843-870 Europe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:843-870_Europe.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Electionworld, Fabartus, Flamarande, Frombenny,Jed, Mikhail Ryazanov, Neuceu, OwenBlacker, TUBS, Trasamundo, W!B:, Ævar Arnfjörð BjarmasonFile:Charles le Chauve denier Bourges after 848.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_le_Chauve_denier_Bourges_after_848.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PHGCOMFile:Stammtafel der Karolinger.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stammtafel_der_Karolinger.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex1011, CherubinoFile:Europe 814.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europe_814.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Charles Colbeck Corrected by Alex:DImage:Sacramenta Argentariae (pars longa).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sacramenta_Argentariae_(pars_longa).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:NithardImage:Sacramenta Argentariae (pars brevis).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sacramenta_Argentariae_(pars_brevis).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:NithardFile:Langues d'oïl.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Langues_d'oïl.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aaker 10:39, 14 April 2007 (UTC)File:Bram Bilo 1890.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bram_Bilo_1890.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Akinom, Man vyi, WstFile:Fosses-la-Ville JPG06W.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fosses-la-Ville_JPG06W.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Jean-PolGRANDMONTFile:Bilingual signage-Gallo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bilingual_signage-Gallo.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Flag of Spain.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Occitania blanck map.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Occitania_blanck_map.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Norrin strangeImage:SpeakFrenchBeClean.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SpeakFrenchBeClean.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PimPamPoomImage:Occitan and French language signs in Toulouse.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Occitan_and_French_language_signs_in_Toulouse.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: en:User:Kieron a mFile:Europe2005 bossost-aranes1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europe2005_bossost-aranes1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: IcmontrealImage:Dialectes de l'occitan selon Pierre Bec.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dialectes_de_l'occitan_selon_Pierre_Bec.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution3.0  Contributors: Domergue SumienFile:Bec supradialectal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bec_supradialectal.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Domergue SumienFile:Sumien supradialectal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sumien_supradialectal.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Domergue SumienImage:VirgendeLourdes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VirgendeLourdes.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke,GO69, Javierme, Jean-no, Man vyi, Manuel González Olaechea, Namayan, Ranveig, Tangopaso, Willemnabuurs, Wst, 1 anonymous editsFile:Felibre 1854.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Felibre_1854.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Walden69File:Felibrige latin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Felibrige_latin.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Walden69File:Carmina Cantabrigiensia Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: GDK, JackyR, Shakko, Str4nd, 1 anonymous editsFile:Europe 1000.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europe_1000.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bokpasa, Electionworld, Fabartus, Flamarande,GermanJoe, LX, Labant, Omar-Toons, Roke, 1 anonymous editsImage:MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jbribeiro1, Radagast3, ToobazFile:Prüfeninger Weiheinschrift. Pic 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prüfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: Herbert E. BrekleFile:ScanianLaw B74.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ScanianLaw_B74.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Reinh1File:PalazzoTrinci012.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PalazzoTrinci012.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: JoJanFile:Dante 3 Luca.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dante_3_Luca.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Catrin, Fernando S. Aldado, Micione, Sailko, ShakkoFile:Incunabula distribution by language.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Incunabula_distribution_by_language.png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Maximilian Dörrbecker (Chumwa)File:Minuscule caroline.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minuscule_caroline.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aristeas, Enzian44, Marv1N, Meithal, 2anonymous editsImage:Raban-Maur Alcuin Otgar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Copydays, GDK,Gryffindor, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Martin H., Skim, Symposiarch, Thomas Gun, Trockennasenaffe, 3 anonymous editsImage:Karolingischer Buchmaler um 820 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karolingischer_Buchmaler_um_820_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:AnRo0002, AndreasPraefcke, Batchheizer, Dsmdgold, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Mattis, Vol de nuit, 2 anonymous editsImage:St gall plan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_gall_plan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blaxthos, Fabien1309, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Pamri, Sailko,Saperaud, Silsor, TomAlt, WarburgFile:CarolingianMinuscule.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CarolingianMinuscule.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gusgus, Julien Demade, MeithalImage:Freising manuscript.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Freising_manuscript.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The photographer is Marjan Smerke,uploaded by User Fpga on en.wikipediaFile:Vaticana, Vat. lat. 3868 (4v-5r).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vaticana,_Vat._lat._3868_(4v-5r).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NeverDoING,Stullkowski, XiphophilosFile:Vaticana, Vat. lat. 3868 (2r).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vaticana,_Vat._lat._3868_(2r).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Smerdis of Tlön,StullkowskiFile:Ludwigslied.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ludwigslied.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mica, Pfold, 1 anonymous editsImage:Kloster Lorsch 05.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kloster_Lorsch_05.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Kuebi -Armin Kübelbeck

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Image:Aachener dom oktagon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachener_dom_oktagon.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AnRo0002,BLueFiSH.as, Dionysos, Maksim, Nordelch, Rüdiger Wölk, Sailko, Till.niermann, Timo Beil, TúrelioFile:Palais charlemagne.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palais_charlemagne.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:user:AliesinFile:AixGeneral.GIF  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AixGeneral.GIF  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kurpfalzbilder.de, UrbanFile:Construction d Aix-la-Chapelle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Construction_d_Aix-la-Chapelle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Diligent,Dsmdgold, Ec.Domnowall, Shakko, Yann, 1 anonymous editsFile:AachenKarlDerGrosse.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AachenKarlDerGrosse.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Darwinius,Gerardus, Maksim, Mogelzahn, Rüdiger Wölk, Sir Gawain, Timo Beil, WstFile:Empire carolingien 768-811-2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Empire_carolingien_768-811-2.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:vincde 15File:Eginhard écrivant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eginhard_écrivant.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: anonomousFile:Aix salle des assemblées.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aix_salle_des_assemblées.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Aliesin, Kurpfalzbilder.deFile:Trier Konstantinbasilika BW 1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_1.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Berthold WernerFile:Aachen Dehio 1887.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachen_Dehio_1887.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Fb78, Man vyi, Sailko, Sidonius, Sir Gawain,Till.niermann, Timo Beil, TomAlt, TúrelioFile:Königsthron Aachener Dom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Königsthron_Aachener_Dom.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Holger WeinandtFile:Aachener dom oktagon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachener_dom_oktagon.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AnRo0002,BLueFiSH.as, Dionysos, Maksim, Nordelch, Rüdiger Wölk, Sailko, Till.niermann, Timo Beil, TúrelioFile:Aachen capella.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachen_capella.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002, Head, LambaJan, Till.niermann, UrbanFile:Aix gallerie.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aix_gallerie.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Aliesin,Kurpfalzbilder.deFile:Aix thermes.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aix_thermes.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Aliesin,Kurpfalzbilder.deFile:Codexaureus 25.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Codexaureus_25.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Batchheizer, CristianChirita,ShakkoFile:San Vitale Ravenna.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Vitale_Ravenna.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: MadakiFile:Ottmarsheim 7.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ottmarsheim_7.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Rh-67File:Aachen1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachen1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jean TostiFile:Aachen2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachen2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Head, Kandschwar, Maksim, Ronaldino,Rüdiger Wölk, Sir Gawain, 1 anonymous editsImage:Aachener Dom Oktogon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachener_Dom_Oktogon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:LokilechImage:Königsthron Aachener Dom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Königsthron_Aachener_Dom.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Holger WeinandtImage:Aachen-cathedral-inside.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aachen-cathedral-inside.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AnRo0002,Conscious, Elisardojm, Maksim, Rüdiger Wölk, Sailko, Till.niermann, Timo Beil, Túrelio, WstImage:AaachenChapelDB.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AaachenChapelDB.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: derivative work: MaEr (talk)AaachenChapelDB.jpg: Original uploader was Wetman at en.wikipediaImage:Torhalle Kloster Lorsch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torhalle_Kloster_Lorsch.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Matthias HolländerFile:Sin escudo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sin_escudo.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Mainz Arms.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mainz_Arms.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: IpankoninFile:Coat of Arms of the Bishopric of Konstanz.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Bishopric_of_Konstanz.svg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Sir IainFile:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Lorsch church ruins.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lorsch_church_ruins.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: YaroslavBlanterImage:Codex Laureshamensis Initial-D.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Codex_Laureshamensis_Initial-D.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:AndreasPraefcke, Dsmdgold, Frank-m, GDK, Man vyi, Olivier2File:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Nicholas MoreauImage:St.-Michaelskirche-2284.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St.-Michaelskirche-2284.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: Sven Teschke, BüdingenImage:Michael ausschnitt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michael_ausschnitt.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Simon WebbFile:Milkau Das Kloster von Corvey 178-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Milkau_Das_Kloster_von_Corvey_178-2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User Luestling on de.wikipediaFile:Courtyard-monastery-Corvey.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Courtyard-monastery-Corvey.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Heinz-Josef LückingFile:Corvey 2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Corvey_2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: SpunkyFile:Wappen Michelstadt.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wappen_Michelstadt.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Inkerfile:Germany location map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Germany_location_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:NordNordWestFile:Red_pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieImage:Michelstadt-Fachwerkhaeuser.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michelstadt-Fachwerkhaeuser.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: Joachim KöhlerImage:Michelstadt-Rathaus-Wappen.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michelstadt-Rathaus-Wappen.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: Joachim KöhlerFile:Flag of France.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zscout370Image:Michelstadt Rathaus 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michelstadt_Rathaus_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AnRo0002,Berthold Werner, KandschwarImage:Michelstadt-Diebsturm.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michelstadt-Diebsturm.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Joachim KöhlerImage:Einhardsbasilika bei Michelstadt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einhardsbasilika_bei_Michelstadt.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Fristu at de.wikipediaImage:Schlossfuerstenau2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Schlossfuerstenau2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Palli at de.wikipedia

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Image:Schlossfuerstenau1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Schlossfuerstenau1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Palli at de.wikipediaImage:Justinuskirche Hoechst.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Justinuskirche_Hoechst.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: kgbergerImage:Justinuskirche Höchst Kapitell.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Justinuskirche_Höchst_Kapitell.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: 32X, EvaK, Kam Solusar, Kurpfalzbilder.deImage:Justinuskirche Höchst Mittelschiff.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Justinuskirche_Höchst_Mittelschiff.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: EvaKImage:Justinuskirche Höchst Nordportal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Justinuskirche_Höchst_Nordportal.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: ++gardenfriend++, 32X, EvaK, Kam Solusar, OkkiImage:Benediktinerkloster St. Johann.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benediktinerkloster_St._Johann.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: WladyslawFile:Benediktinerkloster St. Johann Skulptur.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benediktinerkloster_St._Johann_Skulptur.JPG  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: Original uploader was Wladyslaw Sojka at de.wikipedia (Original text : --Wladyslaw Disk.)File:St Johann - 18.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_18.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:Benediktinerkloster St. Johann.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benediktinerkloster_St._Johann.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: WladyslawFile:St Johann - 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_3.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:Muestair Kloster.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muestair_Kloster.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Roland Zumbühl, ArlesheimFile:Kloster Muestair.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kloster_Muestair.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: GeorgMitteneckerFile:St Johann - 6.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_6.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:St Johann - 7.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_7.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:Kreuzkapelle.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kreuzkapelle.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:MonasterosanGiovanniInterno.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MonasterosanGiovanniInterno.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:LlorenziFile:St Johann - 8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_8.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:St Johann - 10.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_10.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:St Johann - 11.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_11.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:St Johann - 17.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_17.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:St Johann - 21.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_Johann_-_21.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: James SteakleyFile:Meister von Müstair 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meister_von_Müstair_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: G.dallorto, Kurpfalzbilder.de,MRB, Sailko, 1 anonymous editsFile:Meister von Müstair 002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meister_von_Müstair_002.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: G.dallorto, Jdsteakley,Kurpfalzbilder.de, Sailko, ZorkNika, 2 anonymous editsFile:Benediktinerkloster St. Johann Relief.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benediktinerkloster_St._Johann_Relief.JPG  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: Original uploader was Wladyslaw Sojka at de.wikipedia (Original text : --Wladyslaw Disk.)File:Reichenau PeterPaul.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reichenau_PeterPaul.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploaderwas Ahoerstemeier at en.wikipediaFile:Hohenstaufen family arms.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hohenstaufen_family_arms.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: IpankoninFile:Wappen Bistum Konstanz.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wappen_Bistum_Konstanz.png  License: Attribution  Contributors: David LiuzzoFile:Reichenau (Baden-Württemberg) Wappen.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reichenau_(Baden-Württemberg)_Wappen.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Enslin, Frank-m, Leit, Magul, RosenzweigFile:Lage Reichenau Bodensee.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lage_Reichenau_Bodensee.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:AndreasPraefcke, OwenBlackerImage:sanktgeorgsundgemüsefelder.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanktgeorgsundgemüsefelder.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cmdrjameson, Jfg284File:InselReichenau 20090709 MartinSteiger CCBYSA 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:InselReichenau_20090709_MartinSteiger_CCBYSA_001.jpg  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Martin SteigerFile:InselReichenau 20090709 MartinSteiger CCBYSA 002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:InselReichenau_20090709_MartinSteiger_CCBYSA_002.jpg  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Martin SteigerImage:Reichenau Sued-West Ufer.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reichenau_Sued-West_Ufer.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Christoph WagenerImage:St. Georg Reichenau.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St._Georg_Reichenau.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Christoph WagenerImage:Oberzell.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oberzell.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Peter BergerImage:Deutsche Alleenstrasse Reichenau.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deutsche_Alleenstrasse_Reichenau.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: user:J.-H. JanßenFile:Musée Picardie Médiéval 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Musée_Picardie_Médiéval_01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VassilFile:DrogoSacramentaryFol71vAscension.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DrogoSacramentaryFol71vAscension.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Originaluploader was Epierre at fr.wikipediaFile:Ebbo Gospels St Mark.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebbo_Gospels_St_Mark.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Epierre atfr.wikipediaFile:Utrecht 15v 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Utrecht_15v_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Stbalbach at en.wikipediaFile:Codex Aureus Sankt Emmeram.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (French)File:Germigny Des Pres 2007 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Germigny_Des_Pres_2007_01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Manfred HeydeFile:Codexaureus 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Codexaureus_02.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bohème, CristianChirita, G.dallorto, Johnbod, WstFile:Lothair Crystal.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lothair_Crystal.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Fæ

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License 151

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