Gendered View on Social Movements

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Hot Movements, Cold Cognition: Thinking about Social Movements in Gendered FramesAuthor(s): Myra Marx Ferree and David A. MerrillSource: Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 29, No. 3 (May, 2000), pp. 454-462Published by: American Sociological Association

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454 Symposia

Hot Movements, Cold Cognition: Thinking about SocialMovements in Gendered Framese

MYRAMARXFERREE- DAVIDA. MERRILLUniversity of Connecticut

edited yAldonMorris nd CarolMueller. ewHaven,CT: Yale Universityress.

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Snow, David and RobertBenford. 992. "MasterFrames nd Cyclesof Protest." p. 133-55 inFrontiersn SocialMovementheory, ditedbyAldonMorrisndCarolM. Mueller. ewHaven,CT: YaleUniversityress.

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. 1999. "Gender and Social Movements:

Gender Processes in Women's Self-HelpMovements."ender Society 3: 8-33.Tilly, harles. 978.FromMobilizationoRevolution.

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Behavior.nglewoodliffs, J: rentice-Hall.Walker, ev.Wyatt ee. 1978. nterview.eptember

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Movement rganizations:rowth, ecay, andChange." ocial orces 4: 327-41.

Zald, Mayer and John McCarthy. 980. "SocialMovement Industries: Competition andCooperation mongMovement rganizations."Pp. 1-20 n Researchn SocialMovements:onflictand Change, ol. 3, editedby Louis Kriesberg.Greenwich,T: JAIPress.

Framingheorieseginromhe ssumptionhatlanguage attersolitically.nalysesfgenderhave uggestedhat anguageftenarries as-culinistssumptionsndnormativeudgmentsthat ass s neutraloncepts.n this aper, econnecthesewo erspectives.nparticular,e

suggesthatgender-conventionalonceptionsobscuremportantlementsf understanding

8 The authorsspecially ant o thankMaritaMcComiskyor er mphasisver he earsn hepassionateide fprotest,s well s William .Gamson,avita ilfen lasberg,arolMcClurgMueller,nd he ditorsf ontemporaryociologyfor heir elpfulommentsn arlierrafts.

politicalhoughttmultipleevels f nalysis,swell s biasingheprocessfframingesearchquestionsbout ocialmovements.e arguethat ncoveringhe enderimensionnpoliti-cal discourseould otonly o bring omenmore ullynto he ictureut lso orrectar-tial and politicallyiased nderstandingsf

"political an." he questions e raisehereabout he uturefframinghus rise romurfeministoncernsbout he isciplinef ociol-ogy s a whole.

Our pecificbjectiven this ssays to usecriticaldeas bout enderoaddresshe itera-ture nframingn ocialmovements.y nves-tigatinghe often-unexaminedssumptions







Symposia 455

abouteoplend hinkinghatomeogethernthis iterature,ehope o clarifyothwhatframingnalysesave oofferesearchersnter-estedngendernd ocialhangendwhaten-der nalysesave ooffertudentsfpoliticalideas.We contendhat endertudiesouldbenefitromheconceptual ork hathasalreadyeen one nframesnd ramingngen-eral,whilewe can enrichocialmovementresearchyrecognizinghen ndhowtheirmodels aylip enderedonceptsnthroughthebackdoor.We particularlyant ofore-groundoncernshatweseeasbeingframedout" f he tandardpproacheso ocialmove-ments.onsequently,eseek oplacegender

andgenderoliticsna centralositionnourthinkingboutocialmovementsndframing,insteadf ddingn concernith omenndwomen's ovementsnd"stirring"hese itsintohemale-definedwhole."

Framings centralonceptn urrentocialmovementsesearch.he 990shave een hedecadefbringingdeas acknto he tudyfsocialmovements.s Oliver ndJohnston(1999) rgue,ecentesearchnmovementsre-quentlyastaken he onceptfframingsacentraloint fdeparture,ven hough hatframingeansndwhatframenalysisanbeused ornalyticallyre till ery uchointsfdebate.Wedonot ttemptoreviewhe ntireliteraturen framing,task lreadyccom-plishedell othy liverndJohnston1999)and yBenford1997).nstead,e ake p er-tain ointsaisedntheirxcellenteviewsndrelatehemoanexpanded odelfpoliticalthinking.e suggesthat hismodel ould

enrichur apacityoanalyzeenderoliticsandalsochallengeome enderedimitationsimbeddednthe onceptsfdiscourses,deolo-gies,nd rames.

Framing ModelofFramingRecent eviewsf theframingiterature

expressoncernver esearchers'endencyouse ramingsanall-encompassingonceptndtoproduceongistsf deastvaryingevelsfgeneralityhat re llcalledframes"Benford1997).OliverndJohnston1999) urtherug-gesthatn mportantistinctionxistsmongframes,raming,nd deology. e agreewithOliverndJohnstonnthe sefulnessf epa-ratingheseoncepts,ut lso dd fourthna-lyticategoryhatsalsooftenollapsedntothe onceptf frame:iscourse.efindtuse-

ful othinkf heseonceptss nterrelatednbothontentnd pecificity.

Usinghe magef n nvertedyramidorillustration,e placediscoursest thetop.Discoursesre road

ystemsf ommunicationthatinkonceptsogethern web f elation-shipshroughnunderlyingogice.g.,medicaldiscoursesa way ocommunicatebout heconditionsf he odyhatocusesn pecifying"diseases"nd cures"spartf ts undamentallogic).Discourseslsoare nherentlyiddledwithonflict,ontroversy,ndnegotiationverthemeaningf pecificordsnddeas,ecausetheyncludevarietyf peakersith ifferentinterestsnd rientationsho re ommunicat-

ingwithachotherGamson992; teinberg1999).Discoursesay lsohave genderog-ic thats,theyanbeorganizedroundndthroughheirocusn pecifyingnd xplainingthe elationshipetweenenndwomen, as-culinitynd femininity.ender iscoursesincludeebatesboutqualitynd ower,ightsand rivileges,amenessnddifference.enderdiscoursesre husnherentlyolitical discourses,notonlybecause heyncludeonflictnddiversetandpointsall discourseso) butbecauseheyebate hat aroldasswellncedefinedsthe ore uestionsfpolitics:whogets hat, henndhow?"1958).

Ideologiesre at thenext ower evel.Ideologiesre onsiderablyoreoherenthandiscoursesecauseheyre rganizedroundys-tematicdeasndnormativelaims.liverndJohnstonefinedeologys "any ystemfmeaninghat ouplesssertionsndtheoriesabouthenaturef ocialifewith aluesnd

norms elevanto promotingr resistingchange"1999: ).Theytressow ramingan-guageailso cknowledgehe oliticalnterestsconnectedobeliefystemsrtheextensivethinkingnd earninghat ointo deologies,turningovementdeationalorknto ome-thinghatmoreesemblesellingia ounditethanhe ichnd eep rocessesf uildingde-ologicalcommitmentshatcarry ctiviststhroughheir ntireives.We particularlyemphasizenotherf heirdeas:hathe on-cept f deologycknowledgesot nly cogni-tive ut lso normativervalue imension.Adherentsfan ideologynderstandocialeventsn ightf heireneralheoryf ocietyand ct, eel,nd hinksa resultf he aluestheyink othesenderstandings.herere, fcourse,multipleenderdeologiesvailable,







456 Symposia

rangingromheTaliban's estrictiveodesthroughprahWinfrey'sarmnd uzzyictureof ex oles odeconstructionisteministheory.The importantointhere s that deologies

alwaysncludealuesswell s deas,nd on-sequentlymplyeelingsnd ctions,otonlyabstracthinking.

Atthe ottomf he yramidre rames.orus, frames a cognitiverderinghat elateseventsoone nother:t s wayf alkingndthinkingbouthingshatinksdea lementsinto ackages.ny neparticularrameanbeseizedpon ymultipledeologies,ut, sOliverandJohnstonrgue,edescriptionf deologynframinganguagebscuresow ndwhyramesareused.Animportantistinctionliver ndJohnstonighlightetweenramesnd deolo-gies s he alueomponentn heatter:ramesspecifyow o hinkbout hings,ut heyon'tpoint owhytmatters.rames,nlikedeolo-gies, onot roundhinkingnwhatsnorma-tivelyood rbad bouthe ituation,or otheymplyoals nd bjectives.rames erelyprovidecertainognitiveocusnd hus utcertainlementsr deas in he icture"rnot.

As cognitiveocial sychologistsave hown,someuch electivettentionsalwayseededtomakeensefwhatWilliamamesalled th-erwiseablooming,uzzingonfusion"f enso-rynput. hetherendersframedsbiologicalsexdifferencesr as social oles,or xample,doesnot nswerhe uestionfwhetherhisframingsbeing sed osupportfeministrantifeministdeology.

Wealsodistinguishramesromhe ramingprocess,rtheongoingognitivectivityfpickingdeasfromiscoursesnd thesocialnegotiationsnvolvednwriting,peaking,ndcomposingommunicationshat elatevents,ideas,nd ctionsoeachother.he framingprocesss themechanismywhich iscourses,ideologies,nd framesre all connected.Framingsthus oth trategicnd ocial. heoutcomef llthemultiplectivitiesfpeopleandgroupsngagednframingrocessess theproductionf discourse.hileramingscon-

tinual rocesss important,e concurwithOliverndJohnstonhat ftent s the snap-shot" f he ramestanypecificointntimethat smostmenableo study. owever,nregardogender raming,uch napshotsrerarelyorehannventoriesf endereliefsrnormativealuesnthe ormf ttitudecales.Amoreomplex odel fhow eoplerganize,

use, ndchangeheir rames,iscourses,ndideologiesboutenders orelyackingbut eePratto999 or sketchfwhatuch nonlin-earmodel f ognitionightook ike pplied

tothinkingboutace).Attentiono he ifferencesmongiscours-es, deologies,ndframesanhelp harpenuranalysisfhow ulture,olitics,nd ocial sy-chologyre inkednthe roductionfgender,as the bovexamplesndicate.ut onsideringthe overtenderiasesneach f hese on-cepts andoevenmoreo larifyhe nalysisfhow deasmatternsocialmovementsnd npolitics oreenerally.elow, e onsiderowgenderias peratest ach f hesehreeevelsaswell s inthe ramingrocesshat onnectsthem.

Gender Challenges to Social MovementFrames

Beginningtthe ottomf his yramid,heconceptf "frame"tselfuffersromenderedlimitationsn theway hat ocialmovementtheorizingasdeveloped.ramingnalysisasdevelopedromocial sychologicalraditionsthatmodel ognitions "cold," sing hedetachednd ispassionatebserversthe tan-dard ctorseecritiquesnFiske 981; awlerand hye 999). ontemporaryocial sycholo-gistshavechallengedhis"coldcognitionapproach"o ryobetterncorporatealuesndemotionsnto heirmodels,ndresearchersnthis raditionave espondedSchwarz998).Social sychologists,speciallyhoseoncernedwithtudyingace ndgenderppression,avebegun o"warmp" heirognitive odelso

includehe ole f motionsn hapingercep-tion or oth ominantnd ubordinateroups(e.g., idaniusnd ratto999).

Concern ithntegratingmotionnd val-uationntonalysisf erceptionas een spe-ciallyloquent hen oupled ith iscussionsabout he eparationf reason"rommotionsexpressingnandrocentricoliticalias,whichtakes certain istoricallypecificmage f"man" s thedefinitionfwhat s "normal"humanehavior.ven houghctualmen re

farmoreariedntheirognitivend motion-al life, he qualities ssociated ithmen(unemotional,alculating,ndividuallyelf-interested,ominant,ierarchical)aveoftenbeenframedncriticallys "rationality"ndthenpreferreddeologically.s philosopherAlison aggar1989) ointedut, efiningatio-nalitysthe ppositef motionalityets p







Symposia 457

genderedichotomyhatanbeusedo ransfertoemotionshe owertatusfwhatsseen sfeminine.hisow tatusisallowshe cknowl-edgment f valuesand feelingsn both

researchersndmovementarticipantsbutdoesnot liminateheirctualignificanceorboth).Men, f ourse,ave aluesnd motionsand ringhemntoheiroliticalork,ut hegenderias ttachedothe onceptf motiontendso see t as loweringhequalityfdis-coursend nterferingith he dealpoliticalprocess.aggarrgues hat motionan alsoenrich erception,acilitatehediscoveryfvalues,nd ecurenterpersonalommunicationthroughts xpressionstrust.

The emphasisn recentocialmovementtheoriesnframes,he urelyognitivelementinpoliticaliscourse,mplicitlyxcludeshe"hotter"onceptsfemotionndvalues romanalysis,venwhentudiesf he ctiverocessofframingake lear hat assionateeelingsareoftennvolvedn talkingboutnjustice(Gamson992). heverydea f ocialmove-mentctivistssemotionalumaneingsasbeenquitecontroversial.ocialmovementresearchersromhe ollectiveehaviorchoolofthe 1950s nd theresource obilizationschool fthe1970s greedhat ood oliticalbehaviorhoulde"rational,"nd heyvaluat-edmovementsnthat asis. heformerendedtodiscreditovementsor hatheyerceivedastheirack f ationality,nd heattero red-it themwith urelyationalehavior. . O.Hirschman'snderappreciatedook ThePassionsnd henterests1977) xploreshe is-torical rocess fdevelopingapitalismhat

allowedself-interest"obereframedromeinga socially angerousassion o being hebedrockf llvirtuesnd he eryefinitionfwhattmeanso ct ationally.

Importedntoocialmovementesearch,hemodel f"cold ognition"ombinesith heandrocentricalue n self-interesta nonpas-sionatend hus referredormfmotivation)toproduce anytudiesfframinghat reatsocialmovementdeas smerelyispassionatethought.his pproachhuseaves ntouchedthewhole roblemf onnectingdeasomoti-vationsorction.Withoutuch connection,the ctorsnvolvedn ocialmovementsreessactinghancted pon. huswefindtunsur-prisinghat o much fthecoldlyognitiveanalysisfframingakes top-downiew fideas eingresentedoactorsy rganizations

inanalmost anipulativeashion.ncontrast,studies,uch sGamson'salkingoliiics1992),that ocusnordinaryeople'shinkinghowclearlyotust cold"ognitionsuthot mo-

tions tworknpoliticaludgments,speciallyinforginginksmongxperiences,erceptions,and ctionstthe rassroots.

At its ore, heproblemhat ramingan-guage resentssthatt"cools"he nalysisfmovementhinkingy eparatingtfromhedeeplyeltassionsnd alueommitmentshatmotivatection. ocialmovementctors reactuallyhot,"rpassionateboutheirauses;and tudyingovementdeass f heyould eisolatedromherefiningeat f ngagementleadsocialmovementesearchersoneglectheeffectshat articipationnprotestventsason onsciousness,swellstounderestimateheimportanceffindingutwherendhow as-sionrises.ertaaylor1995)has eenmongthemostctivendeloquentncalling ormoreerioustudyf motionnsocialmove-ments,ut er ppealsftenave een een sapplyingnlyothewomen's ovementrtowomenn ocialmovementsecausemotions

conceptuallyendereds femalebut eealsoGoodwin,asper,nd olletta,orthcoming).Emotionsuniversallyart fbeing uman,

and t snotnecessarilyflaw r bstructionoreasonedction.t mayndeed e quite heopposite.sJaggar1989)demonstrates,mo-tionsndvalues recloselyntertwined.heemotionsf ocial ctorsre rousedreciselybecauseheirnderstandingf ventsonnectswith articularalueshey ossess,ndvalues

areformedna processfexperiencingmo-tional eactionsuch s attraction,evulsion,love, nger,ndfear.motionsre ntimatelyconnectedith oth hevaluesnd deas fmovementctors.hus,he eparationf ogni-tionnd motionsrelatedothe eparationfobjectivityndvalues,tselfartf n deologyof"value-neutrality"n cience.he eparationof ognitionnd motionecomesart f hewayofpresentingociologys science hatwouldllow ttoevade undamentaluestionsaboutwhose erspectivesndneeds hapetsparticularelevancescf. mith999).Part f"warmingp" ur deasboutognitionnthecontextf ocialmovements,herefore,aylsodemandhat e akeome f he ntiemotionalchill romowwe s ociologistshinkbouthescience edo.







458 Symposia

Values, Ideology, and Self-reflexiveScience

As Oliver ndJohnstonistinguishhem,ideologies nlike rames-arexplicitlybout

values.deologiesonnect ovementsndpeo-ple nthe asis f heirharedommitmentsocertain alues.However, alueshave beenabsent romrportrayeds irrelevanto mostsocial movementesearch. ne importantinsightromeministritiquesf"objectivity"sthat oncepts,rganizations,nd nstitutions,not ust ndividualeople,arryender ean-ings. ot only s it mportanto considerhevalues fmovementctors,ut eministhink-ing lso ndicateshe eed oconsideraluesnthe researcherer/himself.he assumptionsamongocialmovementesearchersfteneflecthidden alues. oththe Americanesourcemobilizationodel f individualelf-interestand apitalist-likenterprisesnd he uropeannew ocialmovementpproachhat rivilegeclass-based ovementsre operatingrompremiseshat re eeplymbeddedn n andro-centric nd Western orldview.s CraigCalhoun 1994) demonstrates,he tension

betweenhe ndividualnd he ollectiveoodis not experiencedmong hinese tudentrebels n the ways hat ither uropeanrAmelicanocialmovementheoryredicts.

Calhoun 1995) also argueshat heverynotion f new" ocialmovements,ith dis-tinctiveonbureaucraticormnda stressncollectivedentitynd group olidarity,s anahistoricalersionfnewness.his dea f he"new" mergencef dentityssues rases heconstructionf masculineorking-classden-

tityn he ineteenthentury,hroughrocess-es of networkingnd self-assertionimilarothose een oday mong ifferentlyisadvan-taged roups.his llows he identityolitics"of odayo ppear niquelynd roblematicallyemotionalncontrastothe rational"nterestsof lass-basedobilization.alhounrgueshateconomicrationality"s a value eld ymove-ment roupss part f historicalhiftf on-centrationfworking-classrganizationsotheshop-floorrganizationfmen t he xpensefcommunity-basedobilization.ndeed, emi-nism nd ocialismada conflictednd om-plex elationromhemid-nineteenthenturyonwardhat s made nvisiblehen lass ssuesaredefineds "old" nd rational"ndgenderpoliticss "new"nd identity-based."

Because hey re about alues, deologiesconnect ovementsith he eople ho tudy

them.t wasnot n accidenthat he ocialmovementheoriesrominentn he 950s nd1960s eflectedfear fNaziandcommunisttotalitarianism.ramedn the aftermathf

WorldWar I and n the ontextf he mer-gent oldWar, he uestionssked endedodenigratehe dherentsfmovementss irra-tional nd eetheir esponseso their oliticaland conomicituations "short-circuiting"hedeliberativerocessesf liberal emocracy.Similarly,t washardly coincidencehat hestudentstirredo action y hemovementsfthe 960s nd1970s ould ejecthese heoriesand seek o build lternativepproacheshat

would ccord etter ith heir xperiencesfpoliticalearning,etworking,nd rganizationbuilding.or houldt be surprisinghat hemovementheoriesf he 970s nd1980s hatresultedhowed n initiallyharp ivisionbetween he European-basednalyses hatstressedutonomousubculturesf dissidentyouthlienatedromhe old" lass oliticsftheir ocialistartiesNewSocialMovementtheories)nd heAmerican-basedodelshatemphasizedhe constructionf organizations

with esourceshat ould eused n he nterestgroupystemf epresentationhat haracterizesAmericanolitics.

In recent ears,he approchementetweentheAmericanndEuropeantrandsf heoriz-ing as ccelerated.e see his onvergencesdue n no small art o the ncreasingctualglobalizationf both cademiand of socialmovements,ven houghringingn theoriesgroundedn he xperiencef ocialmovements

intheThirdWorld as till eenmoreimited(but see Ray and Korteweg 999). BothAmericannd uropeanesearchersre ncreas-ingly art f he ame lobal ieldn whichspecificallyransnationalormf ocialmove-ment s becomingvermore rominent.hequestions eing sked n social movementresearch oday eflect he problemsacingactivistsn hese etworkso ess han he rob-lems ackled nd theoriesevelopedn the1950s nd1970s id, nd or he ame eason-

values eld n commonmong ctivistsndresearchers.

As Keck ndSikkink1998) demonstrate,the ise f he ransnationalssue dvocacyet-work n contemporaryoliticsnvolves othscholarsnd ctivistseld ogethery com-mitmento commonalues for ocial hange.Such etworksf ctivistsnd esearchersnves-







460 Symposia

practice,hiseads eministovementsnto ry-ing oprovehatwomenre s rationals menin male-definederms,r makingocial alueand itizenightsontingentn economicelf-

support.ordonnd raser1994), or xample,providecompellingistoryf he hiftsnthemeaningf dependence"nAmericaniscoursethat hape he rgumentsade y ll partici-pants, egardlessf heirpecificdeologies,nwelfareeformebates.

Thesehistoricalonstraintsn a discoursecan often e used gainst hemovementyinstitutionalctors,ince he atteremainhemore owerfulctorsn theoverall ield. n

analysisf ntireiscourses,atherhanmerelyseparaterames,ould elp smove eyondherelativeeparationf nstitutionaloliticsndsocialmovementss two ntirelyifferentieldsof tudy.his eparationasproducedfurtherbias n whichnstitutionaloliticss the renafor he tudyf ffectssocial oliciesnd heiroutcomes)nd ocialmovementsre tudiedntermsf heirriginsnd rganizations.s oci-ologistsave ong ecognized,oth nstitutionsand ocialmovementsre mportantor xplain-

ing ocial hange. owever,heactualworkbeing one n andby ocialmovementsftendoes ot esemblehework racticesf nstitu-tional olitics,nd he ctorsnvolved ay lsodiffer.nparticular,omenremuchmoreike-ly to be grassrootsoliticalctivists,nd theworkhat hey o nvolveskillsfnetworking,bridging,nd rganizingeople hat end obeoverlookedy frameworkn which oliticssdefineds a typicallyale ctivity.hegender-ing f he oliticalsmalemakesuthorityorevisiblehannfluencend aluespeech akingmore than organizationalridge-building(Robnett997).

While iscoursesboutocialmovementsreoftennvisiblyendered,ttentiono genderwould eonly he eginningf set f uestionsabout he political iscoursen which othactivistsnd academicsarticipate. hetherone s essentiallyympathetico the apitalistformrdeeplyriticalf t, he veralliscourse

about ocialmovementsevolvesroundues-tions hatflow rom ocialrelationst hasalreadyrofoundlyhaped. discoursembed-ded n apitalistocial elationss ikelyo on-structndividualss autonomous,elationships

. . . . .as commodltles,nd organlzatlonss persons.Theoriesboutmovementshat robehe imitsof heirwn eneralizabilitycrossime eriods,

as Charles illy's ork asdone, ecognizeowsociologicaliscoursetselfendsoprivilegehepresents the model f thepast.But ocialmovementheorieslsoneed o askhow heir

own iscoursesrelatedomodes f ction ndunderstandinghat low romhe ocial rgani-zationf ender,ace, ation,ge, nd exualityinany iven lace rperiod. he eparationfpublic romrivate,he elationf ormalrga-nizationsohouseholdsndgrassrootsobiliza-tions,henew warenessf ulturalhangeswell spolicy akingn heoriesf ocialmove-ments eflectnderlyingonnectionsetweendiscoursesnd power elations. aking hesequestionsxplicitatherhan n nvisibleack-groundor ocialmovementtudiess the hal-lenge hat enderheoryresentso politicaldiscoursenalysis.

Bringing he Pieces TogetherThis ringssto discussionfhow rames,

ideologies,nddiscoursesrerelated,nd husto our ourthnalyticimension,heframingprocesssa whole. his ramingrocesss boutaction, ot ust hought.ctors seframesoelicit n emotionalesponseromdherentsfparticularalue ositions,nd hus tirmotiva-tions o act.Theframingf n issuewill aveprofoundlyifferentmpactsntwo eople ithoppositionaldeologies:raminghe etuss aninnocentumanaby or xample,xertspow-erfulmotionalull n thosewith "pro-life"ideologicalommitments,ut an nragerdis-gust n activist ho values bortionights.Framesre onnectedo the motionshroughthe deologicaleliefsndnormativeommit-

mentsf he ctors,nd he rocessfmakingthese onnectionstselfeservesttention.When framing ork s understoods a

process,t s lsomoreasilyecognizedswork,and hus s somethinghat eal eople ave odo.Much f he cholarshipncareworkden-tifiesheways hat aringsframeds an emo-tional ctivityhat ecomesinvisible ork"(Daniels 987;Glenn 000).Managingmo-tions n social movementss also work.Constructingoalitionsnd earningo ee om-

mon nterestsas well s recognizingivergentidentities)sbuilt nthe motion ork one spart fframingn "old" s well s "new"ocialmovements.This bridge alled my back"describesotonly he fforto forgeonnec-tionsbetween ace and gender olitics ywomenf olortowhichhe hraseriginallywas pplied),ut lso he emandingut nvisi-







Symposia 461

ble abor hat nderlieshe treet-levelframe-bridging"orkhatsdone, ftenywomen,omake oalitionsappen.

Doing ramingorks also bout roducingfundamentalocial hange.ramings a processchallenges,ven s it s constrainedy, iscur-sive ogics. ovementsonfronteaningshatare embeddedn institutionaliscourses,utalso se nnovativeramingacticsochallengeand hangehem.uch new ords" ayead o"newworlds."uccessfuleframinghen on-strainshe ptionsf therctorsy ntroducinga newdiscursiveogic. or example,n theUnited tates,he uccessfulxpansionfthe"rightoprivacy"owomen'sodies hallenges

the elationshipetweenhe tatend bortion,but tdoesnothingochangehe rivatizationofchild arework ithinndividualamilies.Conversely,he xpansionf he state'sbliga-tion oprotectife" othe etusnGermanis-course ffers frameworkorfeministsodemand ettertate upportor hildrenndchild earing,ut loses S the ptionospeakof abortions a privatehoice see Ferree,Gamson, erhards,nd Rucht, orthcoming).Americanntifeministctivistsave uccessful-ly reframedhe ssues fgender oliticsrom"patriarchy"o "traditionalamilyalues" ndmade hewomen's ovementeem o longerrelevanto whathe ebates bout"oday.

Whileradical eframings rare, oliticalinstitutionshemselvesngagenframingorkon an ongoing asis.Feminist hilosopherNancy raser1989)proposestudyingelfarestate oliciess notmerelybout edistribution(ormeetingariouseeds hroughtate ction)

but lso s about eed efinitionhats,whatcountss being need t all.Fraserrgueshatrival eed nterpretationsre ransformednto"rival rogrammaticonceptions"nd specificpolicyroposalshat remore irectlyontestedin the oliticalrena. hen he oliciesmple-mentedprovide ore hanmaterialid.Theyalso rovidelients,nd he ublict arge, itha tacit ut owerfulnterpretiveap fnorma-tive, ifferentlyalued enderoles nd gen-dered eeds"1989:170).NeeddefinitionnFraser'sermsomesntriguinglylose o whatpoliticalcientistsave ong tudieds "agendasetting"hent omeso egislativerocess,ndto the key ondecisions"hatBachrachndBaratz1962) ong go dentified.hequestionthat hepolicy tudiesiteraturekips n dis-cussinghe ramingf uestionsor he olitical

agendaasDeborahtone1997] oes ery ell)is how uch nstitutionaleed efinitionorkintersectsith he ocial hangework eingdone utsideormalolitics,ndhow oth re,as Fraseruggests,eeplyendered.

In sum, ooking t framings a processrevealsttobe genderedork.t s work ftenmadenvisiblen hemovementshat re oingit andhidden ithinhepolicy rocessn theform f nstitutionaliscourses.akinguchframingork ore isibleould eginounder-mine hediscursiveistinctionetweenublicand privatehat cts deologicallyo excludewomenrompolitics"ndmake enderppres-sion ppearobeprivate,omestic,nd ndivid-

ual ratherhan art f politicalulturehatcanbechallengednd hanged.

WhatNow?We ee hemove obringdeasnto central

positionn tudyingocialmovementss a veryimportantnd promisingtepfor he field'sfuture.ut pproachingll such deas nly nthe ubricf frames"tripshem f he mo-tional olor, alue ommitments,nd nstitu-tionalnchorshatmake hemo significantn

both ndividualndcollectivection. ramesare cooled" utofthepassionatection ndcommitmentf"hot" ocialmovements,ndacademictudiesf ocialmovementsremadeto appearmore eparateromhemovements'own ctivitieshan hey re n practice. ybeingttentiveo he enderedramingf mo-tion ndvalues s femininend hereforeus-pect, nd being ttentiveo the nstitutionaldiscourseshat rame omens apoliticalndgendersprivate,he nalysisf deas ould ot

only dd o ocialmovementtudiesut unda-mentallyransformhem.Howwouldtdo that? bviously,ethink

thatmakingendern explicitart f hedis-coursef oliticalociologys men racticet san mportantart f he nswer.f nly omenscholarsronly tudiesffeministovementsor fwomennotherocialmovementsctuallypay ttentiono gender, large iece f theactual enderingf socialmovementsheoryand esearchemainsntouched.ehave riedto how ow he deological asculinityn ci-entifichetoricnd ociologicaliscoursesvul-nerable o an analysishat akes iscourses,ideologies,rames,ndframingorkeriously.Butwehave lso riedodemonstratehat en-der eeplyermeateshe iscourses,deologies,andframeshat ocialmovementtudiesave





Gendered View on Social Movements

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