Gender roles and social code in eighteenth-century Britain as portrayed in Jane Austen's "Sense and...

Hallertau-Gymnasium Wolnzach Abitur 2011

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aus dem Leistungskurs Englisch

Gender roles and social code in eighteenth-century Britain as portrayed in

Jane Austen's "Sense and Sensibility" and "Northanger Abbey"

Verfasser: Sabrina Henne

Kursleiter: Frau Meister

Erzielte Note: _____ In Worten:

Erzielte Punkte: _____ In Worten:

Abgabe beim Kollegstufenbetreuer am ________________________

Unterschrift des Kursleiters: ___________________________________

Table of Contents

1. Introduction...............................................................................................4

2. About Jane Austen......................................................................................5

3. Synopses

3.1. Sense and Sensibility.............................................................................7

3.2. Northanger Abbey.................................................................................8

4. Gender roles and social code in Jane Austen's time

4.1. General facts.......................................................................................10

4.2. Social background

4.2.1. Revolution and wars....................................................................11

4.2.2. The Regency era.........................................................................11

4.3. The roles of men and women

4.3.1. Marriage and wealth...................................................................12

4.3.2 Education, professions and pastimes..............................................14

4.3.3. Laws of property and inheritance..................................................19

4.4. Social code

4.4.1. Politeness, manners and customs...................................................22

4.4.2. Propriety of male and female contact.............................................24

4.4.3. The cult of sensibility...................................................................26

5. Conclusion...............................................................................................29

6. Closing words..........................................................................................29

7. Works cited..............................................................................................30

8. Statement.................................................................................................32

4

1. Introduction

It is a sad truth, nevertheless universally acknowledged, that not so very long ago,

social and gender differences were great, freedoms were constricted, options were

limited and alternatives were not given. It was only over the course of the years

that, ever so gradually, the situation improved. Today we know all this, but in the

comfort of our freedom, dismiss it as past or as ridiculous.

Satirically portraying society as she observed it with her own eyes, Jane Austen's

timeless romantic fiction takes many a reader back in time and confronts them

with the obstacles laid in the way by strict codes of conduct, duty, and the

oppression of a social hierarchy.

This thesis presents and explains the gender roles and social code in Austen's time

as they are shown in her two works Sense and Sensibility and Northanger Abbey.

5

2. About Jane Austen

Jane Austen, born on 16 December 1775 in Steventon, was the sixth of seven

children and the second daughter of the Reverend George Austen and his wife,

Cassandra Austen (née Leigh).

Reverend Austen and his wife ran a small boys' boarding school at their home in

the rectory.1 As this boarding school was not seen proper for Austen's and her

sister Cassandra's education, they were instead sent to a boarding school at

Oxford, then to Southampton, where a typhus outbreak that nearly killed Austen

caused the girls to return home. Soon after, they were sent to the Reading Ladies

Boarding School for a year, after which they again returned home and continued

their education with the help of their father, their elder brothers and by reading.2

At the age of 12, Austen began writing "poems, stories and comic pieces for the

amusement of her family"3. In these writings some of Austen's characteristics are

reflected, such as her being a "tough and unsentimental child" and "drawn to rude,

anarchic imaginings and black jokes" 4. When she was 14, she wrote her first

novel, Love and Friendship, which she dedicated to her cousin Eliza.5

In 1811, thirteen years after its completion, Sense and Sensibility became her first

novel to be published. It was followed by Pride and Prejudice two years later.6 In

order to guard her privacy, her novels were published anonymously under the

alias "by a Lady"7, but "her authorship became an open secret"

8.

Because quite little of Austen's personal papers and documents have survived, if

many have ever existed, there has been much speculation about the

1 Cf. Dick, 86

2 Cf. Wang, 1

3 Wang, 1

4 Dick, 90

5 Cf. Dick, 90

6 Cf. Dick, 90

7 Cf. Harman, 1

8 Dick, 90

6

"uneventfulness"9 of her private life.

10 Still, there have been several attachments

to men in her life, though in the end, they all "came to nothing"11

. One of said

men was the Irishman Tom Lefroy, whom Austen had much in common with and

who she was openly attracted to. Still, it is supposed that he had been removed

from Steventon by his family, who did not want him to get involved with a

"clergyman's penniless daughter"12

.

When Austen was 26, her father retired and moved to Bath with his wife and

daughters. During this time, Austen and her sister undertook lots of visits, among

them a visit to Manydown. Here, Harris Bigg-Wither, who Austen had known all

her life, proposed to her. She agreed to his offer, but although she would have in

time become the mistress of a large estate, she regretted the decision the next day

and withdrew her acceptance.13

In 1805, Reverend George Austen died, leaving his widow and daughters without

a home and stopping Jane's writing activity. Their "endless round of visits"14

was

ended by the hospitality of Austen's brother Edward, who had been given away to

wealthy, childless relatives in his youth. He offered them a house to live in, in

which, once settled, Austen started writing again. By 1816, she had published

Mansfield Park and Emma. 15

The same year, she became ill with Addison's disease, resulting in her death the

following year and leaving her novel Sandition unfinished. Northanger Abbey,

which she had sold for publication in 1789, and Persuasion, completed in 1816,

were published posthumously.

Though her work received only little appreciation in her time, she has achieved

great popularity throughout the twentieth century, which is shown by the

numerous literary and film adaptations in existence today.16

9 Harman, 1

10 Cf. Harman, 1

11 Dick, 88

12 Dick, 88

13 Cf. Dick, 88

14 Dick, 89

15 Cf. Dick, 87ff

16 Cf. Wang, 2

7

3. Synopses

3.1. Sense and Sensibility

Upon Mr. Henry Dashwood's death, his wife and three daughters are at the mercy

of John Dashwood, Henry's son by his first wife. As John is by law the heir to the

estate the family had lived in, Henry, on his deathbed, had begged his son to

provide for his step-mother and sisters, which he agreed to do.

Despite this promise, his manipulative, greedy wife Fanny and his own mercenary

disposition lead him to deprive Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters of their home

as well as all money and status.

Elinor, the eldest of the Dashwood sisters, and Edward Ferrars, Fanny's brother,

spending lots of time together, soon become attached to each other.

Eventually, Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters move to a humble cottage, which a

relative, Sir John Middleton, offers to them at an affordable rent. Here, the second

of the Dashwood daughters, seventeen-year-old Marianne, meets Colonel

Brandon, a thirty-five-year-old friend of Sir John's, who is very attracted to her

and soon becomes sincerely attached to her. Marianne, who considers him

"impossibly ancient"17

meanwhile falls in love with the young and charming Mr.

Willoughby.

In the end, both girls are to be disappointed in love. Willoughby leaves the

neighbourhood without explanation and Elinor finds out that Edward has been

engaged to a Miss Lucy Steele for several years. Moreover, Willoughby soon

informs Marianne that he is engaged to the wealthy Miss Grey, leaving Marianne

heartbroken and making her fall ill. It is also revealed that Willoughby has

seduced, impregnated and left behind a young girl named Eliza, who is Colonel

Brandon's ward.

17

Dick, 9

8

When Lucy Steele's sister, Anne Steele, betrays the secret of Lucy's and Edward's

engagement to Edward's mother, Edward's younger brother Robert is made heir in

his place. In consequence, Lucy Steele shifts her affection to him and they soon

get married. This, in turn, leaves Edward free to propose to Elinor.

Colonel Brandon has been very attentively caring for the sick Marianne and after

her recovery, she agrees to marry him.18

3.2. Northanger Abbey

Catherine Morland, an innocent, young girl and fan of Gothic novels, who has

never left her home is invited to go to Bath with her wealthy and childless

neighbours, Mr. and Mrs. Allen. In Bath, she is introduced to the "social world of

balls and entertainments"19

.

At the first ball they attend, Catherine meets and dances with the young and witty

Henry Tilney. Also his sister Eleanor, who Catherine is yet to meet, is intelligent

and warm-hearted.

Soon after, she is introduced to Mrs. Thorpe, a friend of Mrs. Allen's, who has

three daughters around Catherine's age. The eldest, Isabella, shares Catherine's

passion for Gothic fiction and they quickly become friends.

As it turns out, Catherine's brother, James, and John Thorpe, Isabella's brother, are

friends from Oxford. When they come to visit Bath, the attachment between

Isabella and James becomes obvious and John, whose self-absorbed nature

Catherine cannot warm to, makes signs of courting her.

By lying to both Catherine and the Tilneys, John, Isabella and James repeatedly

hinder their scheduled walks, preventing Catherine from spending time with

Henry and Eleanor.

18

Cf. Dick, 9ff and The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm 19

Wang, 15

9

Before long, Isabella and James announce their engagement, but when it is

revealed that James will have only a very modest income, Isabella is disappointed

and gives in to the attentions of the handsome Captain Tilney, Henry's older

brother, ultimately breaking off her engagement.

Meanwhile, in hopes of marrying her, John Thorpe spreads rumours of the wealth

Catherine is to expect as a favorite of the rich and childless Mr. and Mrs. Allen.

This causes General Tilney, Henry and Eleanor's father, to invite Catherine to visit

them at Northanger Abbey for an extended period of time. While Catherine's and

Henry's bond deepens, General Tilney's "oppressive courtesy"20

abruptly stops

when he learns that Catherine is in fact penniless and he instantly turns her out of

the house.

Within two days, however, Henry comes to visit Catherine and proposes to her.

As Eleanor conveniently soon after marries a wealthy viscount, the now good-

humoured General gives Henry his consent in marrying Catherine.21

20

The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_na.htm 21

Cf. Wang, 15f and The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_na.htm

10

4. Gender roles and social code in Jane Austen's time

4.1. General facts

Gender roles

"a set of behaviors that indicates one's gender, specifically the image projected

by a person that identifies their femaleness or maleness; an overt public

presentation of gender identity"22

Social code

"a set of conventional principles and expectations that are considered binding

on any person who is a member of a particular group"22

These two terms, gender roles and social code, are therefore closely connected.

Gender roles are merely the reflection of the specific social code of each the male

and female sex in society.

As these codes of conduct are, be they established over time, through habit or

consciously set up, results of society, one must understand how said society has

come to be and how it functions in order to comprehend the social code that

always accompanies it.

22

http://dictionary.reference.com/

11

4.2 Social background

4.2.1. Revolution and wars

Although Austen gives her readers only very little information of the "events of

the day"23

, the time in which her novels are set is one of political difficulty. The

American War of Independence had just ended and England's war with

Revolutionary France was ongoing. In order to contrast with France's "destructive

spirit of innovation"24

, the British governing class held on to tradition and

conservatism. Due to the war, an atmosphere of patriotism and the "intimate

connection between family and state"25

, the general role of women was a

conventional one - they were to be wives and mothers.26

4.2.2. The Regency Era

The time around 1890 and the beginning of the French Revolution also marked

the beginning of the Regency era - a time of great economic and social change.

The beginning industrialisation gave way to a new middle-class of entrepreneurs -

a threatening prospect for the upper classes and reason for them to enforce a

"hierarchical structure"27

and strict etiquette in order to distinguish between the

classes.28

With the Regency era, also fashion changed. Powdered wigs, heavy

fabrics and rich colours were replaced with natural hair, light and simple fabrics

and "subdued"29

or dark and sober colours. The aim was a simple, yet elegant

outline.

23

Dick, 94 24

Jones, 286 25

Jones, 286 26

Cf. Jones, 286 27

University of Southern Queensland, https://www.usq.edu.au/artsworx/schoolresources/emma/theregencyperiod 28

Cf. https://www.usq.edu.au/artsworx/schoolresources/emma/theregencyperiod 29

Eras of Elegance, http://www.erasofelegance.com/history/regencylife.html

12

4.3. The roles of men and women

4.3.1 Marriage and wealth

In Austen's time, marriages were much like a business transactions. As incomes

were to be the first consideration, to marry for love was not common. Neither

were arranged marriages any longer, but due to the Marriage Act of 1753, parental

influence increased. It stated that a marriage was only valid if it was performed in

a church and the Banns, public announcements of an impending marriage which

the parents could forbid, were read. Hence, elopements were only possible if the

couple left the country, going overseas or to Scotland. This, along with the chance

of disinheritance if the parents' consent was not earned, posed a great deterrence.30

Fortunes were racked up through family alliances and as people defined

themselves mostly based on their material wealth, very often, unhappy alliances

came to be. Examples of these can be found in both novels - especially in Sense

and Sensibility, very many ill-matched pairs can be found. The first is Sir John

and Lady Middleton, who have nothing in common and who mostly ignore each

other: "Sir John was a sportsman, Lady Middleton a mother"27

. As well as Mr.

Palmer, who can barely be moved to talk to his wife and if he does, is very rude

while she pretends to laugh about his ill treatment of her: "he is so droll! He never

tells me anything!28

. Also in Northanger Abbey, Mr. and Mrs. Allen, the first

being a "sensible, intelligent man"29

and the latter having "neither beauty, genius,

accomplishment, nor manner"30

. Further, Henry hints at the marriage of his

mother and father not having been a very happy one, as his mother often "had (...)

much to bear" and his father's "temper [had] injured her"31

.32

Lack of fortune is

also the reason Eleanor and Henry think Frederick's "marrying Miss Thorpe not

30

Cf. Jane Austen's World, http://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/2007/09/13/eloping-in-jane-austens-day/ and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_Act_1753 27

Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 24 28


Austen, Northanger Abbey, 9 30



Cf. Wang, 9f

13

probable"33

, as neither his father, nor Frederick himself would be inclined to

consider marriage to a penniless woman tolerable.

On the contrary, General Tilney is, like very many characters in Austen's novels

and in her time's society, greedy and obsessed with wealth and status. Other

examples are Mrs. Thorpe and Mrs. Allen34

, John Thorpe, who spreads rumours

about Catherine's wealth in hopes of increasing his own reputation and social

status when marrying her35

, Isabella Thorpe, who breaks off the engagement with

James Morland when the richer Frederick Tilney makes signs of courting her36

,

Lucy Steele, who drops Edward after his disinheritance, as well as Fanny

Dashwood and John Dashwood, shown by their greedy and intolerable behaviour

towards Elinor, Marianne and their mother37

and Mrs. Ferrars, who expects both

her sons to "marry well"38

.

In the case of General Tilney, it is yet more extreme. He, like John Thorpe, had

"identified [Catherine] as an asset, a commodity"39

, an addition to the family's

wealth with no consideration of her character. This is further shown when,

although some days ago, he would have liked nothing better than for Henry and

Catherine to marry directly, he turns her out of the house without previous notice

and she is forced to travel back home by herself. Having turned out to be

penniless, he did not even consider her worth being accompanied by a servant.40

Society was, when it came to wealth, like an arena. General Tilney makes this

particularly evident when he repeatedly asks Catherine to compare his domestic

arrangements with those of Mr. Allen. For example at her first day in Northanger,

General Tilney states that she "must have been used to much better sized

33


Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 11 35

Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 180f 36

Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 147 37



Blair, XI 40

Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 164 and Austen, Northanger Abbey, 180

14

apartments at Mr Allen's"41

. When Catherine contradicts this, his "good-humour

increase[s]"42

.43

Simply the number of these types of characters is enough to show that these

mercenary dispositions were far from uncommon in society.

4.3.2. Education, professions and pastimes

Everything begins with education - and the education of men and women in

Austen's time is very different. Most sons of the gentry were given a professional,

intellectual education. This included "classical and biblical languages, analytical

and scientific discourses, controversial writing, theology and mathematics"44

. Men

in Austen's novels are usually either clergymen (i.e. Henry Tilney and Edward

Ferrars), in the navy or militia (i.e. Frederick Tilney) or landowners (i.e. Colonel

Brandon). As estates were usually given to the first son, it was commonly the

younger sons who had to take up a profession, while the eldest sons would spend

their days managing their estate.45

These are the professions men were educated to

take up.46

Women, on the other hand, were educated to be the wives of these men. This was

"itself considered a profession by many women"47

. Aside from the basic learning

to read and write, they were taught so-called 'accomplishments', which included

needlework, painting, drawing, dancing, singing, playing music and fashionable

languages such as Italian or French. Most parents demanded for their daughters to

be taught such accomplishments, as it showed cultural distinction and made

women more attractive on the marriage market. Also in Sense and Sensibility, all

the Dashwood girls have been taught these accomplishments. Marianne is

41



Cf. Blair, VIII ff 44

Kelly, 258 45

Cf. Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm 46

Cf. Kelly, 254 47

Kelly, 254

15

especially fond of singing and playing48

, Elinor likes to draw49

and both, as well

as their mother, do needlework.

In Northanger Abbey, on the other hand, Catherine struggles with her family's

expectations of her taking up these accomplishments. Though she has learned

them, she is not very fond of them and possesses no specific talents. Her mother

scolds Catherine when she has no "inclination for needle-work"50

: "I do not know

when poor Richard's cravats would be done, if he had no friend but you"51

. She

further tells Catherine, that there is "a time for work" and that she must "try to be

useful"52

. Needle-work was therefore generally referred to as a lady's 'work'.

There were, in general, three options for a woman: She could be either

'accomplished', meaning she had been taught the accomplishments, she could be

'notable', meaning that she knew of little more than domestic matters, or she could

be 'learned', meaning she had gone through the kind of education normally

reserved for the male sex. Being learned was to be avoided at all cost, as it made

women "unfit for the marriage market"53

.

Stupidity was a particularly attractive trait in females, as is especially criticized

and mocked in Northanger Abbey:

"She was heartily ashamed of her ignorance. A misplaced shame. Where

people wish to attach, they should always be ignorant. To come with a

well-informed mind is to come with an inability of administering to the

vanity of others, which a sensible person would always wish to avoid. A

woman especially, if she have the misfortune of knowing anything, should

conceal it as well as she can. (...) I will only add in justice to men, that

though to the larger and more trifling part of the sex, imbecility in females

is a great enhancement of their personal charms, there is a portion of them

too reasonable and too well informed themselves to desire anything more

in woman than ignorance."54

48






Kelly, 256 54

Austen, Northanger Abbey, 80

16

This shows that Catherine, who is presented to be "ill-informed", "anti-

intellectual" and "trivial"55

is merely a product of her society.56

Henry, as

Catherine's male counterpart, tries to educate Catherine and may even be

considered a feminist in his egalitarian views57

, but nevertheless represents male

authority, as she bows to his greater knowledge, "believ[ing] that Henry Tilney

could never be wrong"58

and, eventually, finds her "perfect happiness"59

in this

condition.60

Also the characters' reading, a common pastime for both sexes, shows certain

aspects of gender definition. It is, again, particularly thematized in Northanger

Abbey:

"'I am no novel reader - I seldom look into novels - Do not imagine that I

often read novels - It is really very well for a novel.' - Such is the common

cant. -'and what are you reading, Miss --?' 'Oh! it is only a novel!' replies

the young lady; while she lays down the book with affected indifference,

or momentary shame."61

Novels had, therefore, a bad reputation. Many of them were written by women

and about women. Thorpe even calls novels "the stupidest things in creation"62

,

while Henry defends it, saying that "the person, be it gentleman or lady, who has

not pleasure in a good book, must be intolerably stupid."63

Novels as a mostly

female pastime are contrasted with books of history, which Catherine finds "very

tiresome"64

, as there are "hardly any women at all"65

. Although this is commonly

interpreted to show her said anti-intellect, she is right. Women were not allowed

to partake in all the areas of life that history tells of - "war, politics and religious

55

Blair, XVI 56

Cf. Blair XVI 57




Cf. Blair XVI ff 61






17

conflict"66

. She can only think of a few men who enjoy to read history - her father,

Mr. Allen, two of her brothers and Henry.67

Female stupidity was therefore required to make men feel effortlessly superior -

something Catherine very easily fulfills which, as is made clear, also greatly

enhances her attractiveness to Henry.

Furthermore, there were so-called 'conduct books' for women, as "The Mirror"68

mentioned in Northanger Abbey might have been. They were different kinds of

works, often written by clergymen, focusing mostly on moral, ethical and social

education of women and aiming to prepare women for a domestic life. For

example An Unfortunate Mother's Advice to Her Absent Daughters (1774), which

advised "education for moral fortitude against the inevitability of female

suffering"69

in society and, especially in marriage.

Although these conduct books claimed to give advice to young women, their

"underlying concern was reproducing the dominant economic, social, cultural and

political order"70

. In other words, women were to be wives and mothers and it was

their duty to produce male heirs, as the upkeep of the world order meant the

upkeep of the male sex. 71

It was also believed that this kind of 'proper' education would deter women from

the one thing in their power to effectively endanger said male world order - the

production of illegitimate heirs.

That this concept, however, does not always work is shown by the character of

Isabella - had she been better educated and had the society she grew up in been

different, she would perhaps not have become the social climber that she has and

66

Blair, XVII 67

Cf. Blair XVII ff and Austen, Northanger Abbey, 79 68


Kelly, 253 70

Kelly, 253 71

Cf. Kelly, 253f

18

would not have betrayed one man for the chance of securing another more

wealthy.72

The incapability of taking up professions made women therefore dependent on

men and, were they to be widowed or to become 'old maids', dependent on the

kindness of relatives. To marry advantageously was therefore the only tolerable

way of obtaining financial security, which is why match-making was considered

an actual parental duty. In Sense and Sensibility, it is Mrs. Jennings who had seen

both of her daughters "respectably married"73

and now had "therefore nothing to

do but to marry all the rest of the world"74

.

As servants did most of the house work such as cleaning and meal preparation

(despite their very modest living conditions, the Dashwoods are still able to keep

three servants in their new home75

), members of both sexes had lots of time on

their hands.

While females stayed indoors most of the time, improving their accomplishments

or doing needle-work to make and mend clothing, men, if they were not managing

their estates or working, were mostly occupied outdoors, for much of the year

especially with sporting. There were a grouse-shooting season, a partridge-

shooting season, a pheasant-shooting season and a fox hunting season. Especially

Sir John Middleton is described as a "sportsman"76

, but also Willoughby77

, Henry

Tilney78

and John Thorpe.79

For men, also billiard, playing cards and gambling

were popular pastimes. Such things could be done for example at gentlemen's

clubs, which also General Tilney is a member of, as he says he cannot afford to

"fail attending the club"80

.

72

Cf. Kelly, 254f and Blair XVIff 73









19

There were, of course, balls and parties, at which young men and women danced,

played and where there was again the opportunity of gambling, as Mr. Allen

makes use of at the first ball they attend in Bath: "As for Mr Allen, he repaired

directly to the card-room"81

. 82

When the weather was fine, outdoor activities were not uncommon, but in damp

or cold weather, "it was not fit for a 'female foot' to venture out"83

unless the road

was paved, although the "well-booted men"84

were able to. This is especially

shown by Marianne's falling ill with a "violent"85

cold after taking a walk "not

merely on the dry gravel of the shrubbery, but all over the grounds, and especially

in the most distant parts of them"86

and afterwards failing to change her "wet

shoes and stockings"87

.

4.3.3. Laws of property and inheritance

That financial security even in marriage was not always given is shown very

vividly in Sense and Sensibility, where the unjustness of inheritance laws can be

seen.

Responsible for this was the so-called 'strict settlement', a practice not at all

uncommon. Its goal was to keep the estate intact by withholding it from younger

children and from it being sold in order to provide for daughters or younger sons.

In the case presented in Sense and Sensibility, the old gentleman, Elinor's and

Marianne's grandfather, makes this settlement. The first son is made tenant for life

and when he dies, the estate is entailed onto his first son. When this son, in turn,

dies, the estate is entailed onto his first son. This way, the estate is successfully

81


Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm and Gay, 337ff 83

Dick, 96 84

Dick, 96 85



Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 234

20

kept in the "patrilineal line"88

for three generations. The son finally in possession

of the estate was then expected to make another strict settlement.

The old gentleman left the girls £1,000 each, as he "meant not to be unkind"89

,

though it was custom in the English inheritance law that an estate of £4,000 a year

"could afford to grant between £3,000 and £4,000 each to three younger sisters

without any damage to itself"90

.

They were, therefore, denied their very basis of life on and "deliberately cut

out"91

, an, as said above, not at all uncommon practice. Though the inheritance

law had certain customs, they were not obligatory and it all added to the "general

economic disenfranchisement of women"92

.

Additionally, as men and women were by law considered to be one person - "the

legal existence of the woman was suspended and incorporated into the personality

of her husband"93

- , women lost all legal control of their possessions when

married. In order to prevent this from happening, again settlements were required.

By these, though the woman's control when married was not necessarily given, it

was possible to ensure that when the wife died, these possessions were given to

her children instead of her husband. Henry, for example was "by marriage

settlements [to be] eventually secure"94

of a fortune, even should his father

disinherit him to prevent his marrying Catherine.95

As women were in marriage, by law the property of their husbands, it is only to be

expected that when a man 'used' the wife of another man, she became "damaged

goods"96

. Despite Isabella Thorpe's and James Morland's not being married, it is a

similar case for them. Although it is not explicitly stated that Isabella slept with

Captain Tilney, it is to be supposed that she did so in an attempt to secure him.

88

Copeland, liii 89


Copeland, liii f 91

Copeland, liii 92

Copeland, liii 93

http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~awoodley/regency/legalwomen.html 94


Cf. http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~awoodley/regency/legalwomen.html 96

Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm

21

Despite James' income being too little for her liking and their engagement already

being successfully broken off, Isabella still tries to make Catherine convince

James that it was all just a misunderstanding97

, as, due to his credulity, he is likely

to be her "last hope of an honourable establishment"98

, This and Henry's reserve in

his replies to Catherine's questions concerning Frederick's conduct99

hint at the

event and show the social consequences of such misconduct.100

If James and Isabella had been married, he would have been able to sue Frederick

for such an act and might have gotten up to £10,000.

The keeping of a mistress, however, was in many circles common, and if her

husband ran away with his mistress, a woman could demand no such

compensation.101

97

Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 157ff 98

Blair, XI 99

Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 159f 100

Cf. Blair, X f 101

Cf. Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm

22

4.4. Social code

4.4.1. Politeness, manners and customs

Respectability was, in Austen's time, rarely determined by one's profession, but by

manners and behaviour, as they were an indication of social status. Austen

especially thematizes the difference between 'good breeding' and real 'manners

and politeness', as she believes that "sincerely good manners are bound up with

goodness of heart rather than social status."102

This can be seen especially well in the conduct of General Tilney and Lady

Middleton. Tilney, described by Mrs. Allen and even by Catherine, who he had

just turned out of the house, to be "so polite, so well-bred"103

, nevertheless is also

cold-hearted, cruel and calculating enough as to outdo all this.

On the one hand, Lady Middleton is, unlike her rather vulgar yet good-hearted

husband, well-bred. On the other, she is also cold, dull and cares for little beyond

her children. When they were to receive visitors unknown to them - the Miss

Steeles - Lady Middleton is very displeased and "with all the philosophy of a well

bred woman, content[ed] herself with merely giving her husband a gentle

reprimand on the subject five or six times every day"104

.

Good breeding and politeness, in society, it appears, are things that one was

taught, and had the ability to make use of, but whether one did or not, and with

what motives, determined whether one was truly 'well-bred' in Austen's eyes. It is,

therefore, a matter of theory and practice.105

102

Byrne, 300 103



Cf. Arkin, VI

23

There was a specific code of conduct for nearly everything106

. The code of

conduct for conversation with one's dance partner, for example, Henry mocks

when first dancing with Catherine:

"'I have hitherto been very remiss, madam, in the proper attentions of a

partner here; I have not yet asked you how long you have been in Bath;

whether you were ever been before; whether you have been at the Upper

Rooms, the theatre, and the concert; and how you like the place altogether.

I have been very negligent - but are you now at leisure to satisfy me in

these particulars? If you are I will begin directly.'"107

There are also some customs of daily life in Austen's time mentioned in Sense and

Sensibility and Northanger Abbey. There were, for example the so-called 'calling

cards', an "essential part of introductions, invitations and visits"108

. The lady

would wait in the carriage while the servant took the card and showed it to the

mistress of the house. She, in turn, would then decide whether she wished to

receive this visitor - if not, it was said that the mistress was not at home.

These cards were left on a "silver salver or in a bowl"109

. It was good manners to

call on a neighbour who had left a card. A call was to be "returned with a call, and

a card with a card within one week"110

.111

However, there were plentiful of these small customs and, as they were a rather

uncontroversial part of Austen's and the characters' everyday lives, they are not

thematized and rarely even mentioned in her novels.

106

Cf. Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm 107


Byrne, 299 109

Byrne, 300 110

Byrne, 300 111

Cf. Byrne, 299f

24

4.4.2. Propriety of male and female contact

In Austen's time, premarital sex was not to be thought of. Much less was required

to ruin a lady's reputation, and a respectable woman would never have considered

it if she hoped to ever find a husband in the future.

In order not to give occasion to such an event, 'chaperoning' was "of vital

importance"112

. Young, unmarried women were never to be left alone together

with a man, but always had to be accompanied by either a servant, a man who was

a close friend or another lady.113

In Sense and Sensibility, Mrs. Jennings chaperones the Dashwood sisters in

London, and also Mrs. Palmer makes them the offer:

"Not go to town!" cried Mrs. Palmer, with a laugh; "I shall be quite

disappointed if you do not. (…) You must come, indeed. I am sure I shall

be very happy to chaperon you at any time till I am confined, if Mrs.

Dashwood should not like to go into public."114

In Northanger Abbey, it is of course Mrs. Allen, who chaperones Catherine. On

her walks with the Tilneys, Eleanor might be considered the chaperone.

Private conversations were, of course, possible if the two fell behind the group.

The function of chaperoning was only to ensure that nothing untoward took place.

It was also not considered proper for a young woman to travel by herself, which is

why General's Tilney's forcing Catherine to travel seventy miles by post without

sending someone else to travel with her115

was not only dishonourable, but also a

great danger to her reputation and her person.

Marianne breaks several rules in her conduct towards Willoughby. The first is, as

Elinor observed, that they got to know each other too quickly, Marianne having

112

Byrne, 300 113

Cf. Byrne, 300ff and Cf. http://chuma.cas.usf.edu/~runge/MasonJA1.html 114


Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 164

25

already "ascertained Mr Willoughby's opinion in almost every matter of

importance"116

in only "one morning"117

. Elinor's mild reproach shows that this is

not a grave breach, but it nevertheless shows how Marianne and Willoughby lose

sight of decorum. As they spent so much time together and "had no eyes for

anyone else"118

, they were "most exceedingly laughed at"119

.

Marianne had also, "without hesitation"120

, accepted the gift of a horse from

Willoughby. This was imprudent not only because of the effort and cost

connected, but especially because of the doubtful "propriety of her receiving such

a present from a man so little, or at least so lately known to her"121

- a rather

heavy breach of decorum.

His use of her Christian name 'Marianne'122

instead of 'Miss Marianne' further

hints at an intimacy - which, in order to be justified, would have required them to

be at the very least engaged.

Marianne's conduct this far and the revelation of Willoughby's having "a lock of

her hair"123

, a token of affection, convinces her family that they are soon to be

married.124

Both Marianne and Catherine commit a breach when they ride alone in a carriage

with a man they hardly know - be it, as it is in Catherine's case, involuntary or not

- without someone to properly chaperone them.125

Marianne's going to see the house Willoughby is to inherit is again a very severe

violation of decorum. Their having been alone and unattended together for a

rather long time is something that might very badly damage Marianne's

116










Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 49f and Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 41f

26

reputation. This, however, as Willoughby at this point appears to have every

intention of marrying her, both of them seem to care nothing for.

One might say that Marianne was 'punished' for her misconduct - she lost her

love, fell ill and, in the end, marries Colonel Brandon, who she before despised

and ridiculed.

Willoughby's 'proneness' to misconduct can of course best be seen at the example

of the young Eliza, whom he seduced, impregnated and afterwards abandoned.126

Though Willoughby is disinherited when this is revealed, it is still Eliza who is

the most affected by it. Now living in the country with her baby, she is yet more

dependent on Colonel Brandon than before and her honour and reputation are

ruined. Willoughby's marrying a wealthy heiress removes all the discomfort he

suffered from the affair with Eliza, but even he is punished, in not being able to

marry the woman he loves.127

4.4.3. The cult of sensibility

During the time Austen wrote Sense and Sensibility, it had become fashionable,

so to say a cult, to show excessive emotion as a sign of a "superior character"128

.

Today, sensibility does not mean what it meant then - 'sense' and 'sensibility'

would today be translated to 'common sense' and 'sensitivity'. It was the

sentimental novel that brought on this fashion. 129

In McKenzie's Man of Feeling

(1771), for example, "the hero identifies so completely with the feelings and

sufferings of others that he spends his days weeping for them."130

Feelings were

believed to only be true if they were shown to the extreme. In Sense and

126

Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 151f 127

Cf. Byrne, 300ff; Arkin, VII ff; Dick, 49ff; Blair XI ff (related to entire chapter) 128

http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm 129

Cf. The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm 130

Arkin, VII

27

Sensibility, Austen parodies and criticizes this concept. With Elinor as a

representative for 'sense' and Marianne incorporating 'sensibility', the reader can

observe and judge both types of characters. A very common example is when

Marianne, deliberately fallen ill because of Willoughby's abandon, perhaps even

intended to die from her grief, receives all the attention - from her mother, Mrs

Jennings, Elinor - while the latter is badly suffering herself because the man she

fell in love with had turned out to be engaged to another woman. Nevertheless,

not wishing to trouble those around her, to neglect her social duties and trying to

make life possible for all of them, keeps it to herself and, on top of it all, is

accused by her sister of not feeling enough and perhaps not being in love with

Edward after all.

"'What! - while attending me in all my misery, has this been on your heart?

and I have reproached you for being happy!'

'It was not fit that you should then know how much I was the reverse.'

'Four months!' cried Marianne again. 'So calm! so cheerful! How have you

been supported?'

'By feeling that I was doing my duty. My promise to Lucy obliged me to

be secret. I owed it to my family and friends not to create in them a

solicitude about me, which it could not be in my power to satisfy.'"131

The irony of this clearly shows Austen's opinion on the subject: Excessive

sensibility is an egocentric social pretension. As much as one feels for another,

and as sincere and true one's feelings are, one creates unnecessary inconvenience

for everyone else and is blind to how the people around them who are not

excessively emotional feel.

Another point is the negligence of social duties. While Elinor believes that

everyone plays a part in society and thinks it necessary to tell white lies when

propriety requires it, Marianne refuses to be polite to people she dislikes. She "had

never had much toleration for anything like impertinence, vulgarity, inferiority of

parts, or even difference of taste from herself"132

and therefore shows an

131

Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 196f 132

Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 96

28

"invariable coldness"133

towards people such as the Miss Steeles134

or Colonel

Brandon: "'It is Colonel Brandon!' said she, with vexation. 'We are never safe

from him.'"135

Elinor is quite the opposite. When Fanny Dashwood, at the news of Edward's

being engaged, claims to have fallen ill, Elinor "began to feel it necessary to pay

her a visit"136

despite Marianne, who was "not contented with absolutely refusing

to go herself", hence being "very urgent to prevent her sister's going at all"137

.

When it is revealed that Lucy has broken off her engagement, Elinor "burst[s] into

tears of joy, which at first she thought would never cease"138

. She is, therefore,

very capable of showing her feelings, if she thinks it appropriate.

Austen neither says that emotion should be disposed of, nor that sense is the cure

to everything because, as it so very often is, a combination of both is required to

live.139

133







Cf. http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm ; Cf. Arkin, VIIff ; Cf. Dick, 92

29

5. Conclusion

In this conservative and strict time, there was only a very little array of options

available. Women were made economically dependent on men, unable to earn an

income of their own and even by law, the odds were against them. Men, though

they presided over the women, were also bound by strict codes of conduct,

conceived by a hierarchical society determined to distinguish between classes on

the basis of behaviour and wealth. In order to be attractive on the marriage

market, one was to follow these codes of conduct.

Women were to take up their traditional role of loyal wives and mothers, whose

main function it was to produce male heirs. Women's education was mostly

focused on domestic and artistic work and to a large extent pointless, while an

intellectual and scientific education was denied them.

Men were to provide for their wives, as only they had any means of earning

money. It was for them to take up professions and to produce a male heir in order

to keep their estate in the patrilineal line.

All in all, it was a strict, male world order and as women were required for its

upkeep, they were subordinated by the structures and values of society.

6. Closing words

As much as Austen's novels have drawn in many of their readers, they also show

them that living conditions then are not to what they are now. Enjoying our

freedom, we dismiss this as past or ridiculous - but we should not.

We are no contemporaries of hers - we can neither completely understand the

world Austen lived in, nor can we correct the social evils of her time. But to learn

of them means to learn to prevent them in the future, and perhaps they even teach

us to appreciate this freedom of ours a little more.

30

7. Works cited

1. Text

- Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. Woodsworth Classics. Hertfordshire 1992.

- Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey. Woodsworth Classics. Hertfordshire 1993.

2. References

- Arkin, Stephen. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility.

Woodsworth Classics. Hertfordshire 1992.

- Benedict, Barbara and Le Faye, Deirdre. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane.

Northanger Abbey. Cambridge University Press. New York 2006.

- Blair, David. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey. Woodsworth

Classics. Hertfordshire 1993.

- Byrne, Paula. "Manners". In: Todd, Janet (ed.). Jane Austen in Context. New

York 2005.

- Copeland, Edward. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility.

Cambridge University Press. New York 2006.

- Dick, Delia. Sense and Sensibility. London 2001.

- Gay, Penny. "Pastimes". In: Todd, Janet (ed.). Jane Austen in Context. New

York 2005.

- Harman, Claire. "Jane Austen". In: Parini, Jay (ed.). British Writers:

Retrospective Supplement II. Farmington Hills 2002.

- Jones, Vivien. "Feminisms". In: Johnson, Claudia L. and Tuite, Clara. A

Companion to Jane Austen. N.p 2009.

- Kelly, Gary. "Education and accomplishments". In: Todd, Janet (ed.). Jane

Austen in Context. New York 2005.

31

- Maletzke, Elsemarie. Jane Austen für Boshafte. Sinzheim 2009.

- Student's Academy. An Approach to Jane Austen's Novels - Three - Northanger

Abbey. N.p 2010.

- Wang, Mai. Northanger Abbey. N.p 2010.

Internet

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[accessed 10.12.2010]

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- http://dictionary.reference.com/ [accessed 23.10.2010]

- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_Act_1753 [accessed 02.12.2010]

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[accessed 12.12.2010]

- Jane Austen's World.

http://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/2007/09/13/eloping-in-jane-austens-day/

[accessed 02.12.2010]

- The Jane Austen Society.

http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm

[accessed 19.11.2010]

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http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_na.htm

[accessed 19.11.2010]

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https://www.usq.edu.au/artsworx/schoolresources/emma/theregencyperiod

[accessed 10.12.2010]

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13.12.2010]

32

8. Statement

Ich erkläre hiermit, dass ich die Facharbeit ohne fremde Hilfe angefertigt

und nur die im Literaturverzeichnis angeführten Quellen und Hilfsmittel

benutzt habe.

_________________, den ______________ __________________

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