Gel Electrophoresis By Andrew Gioe and Ben Berger.
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Transcript of Gel Electrophoresis By Andrew Gioe and Ben Berger.
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Gel ElectrophoresisBy Andrew Gioe and Ben Berger
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Electrophoretic Experiments
● Free Electrophoresis or Moving Boundary Electrophoresis○ Done in solution with no support Medium○ No longer widely used due to problems resulting
from the formation of convection currents in the solution from heating.
○ Was widely Used as a Structural Probe
● Steady-State Electrophoresis○ Membrane confined electrophoresis○ Allows for the calculation of Diffusion Coefficient and
macromolecular charge.
● Zonal Electrophoresis○ Done using a gel as support medium○ Valued as a Separation Technique
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● Charge is a fundamental property of a macromolecule that is linked to its structure solubility, stability and interactions.
● Therefore the force on a macromolecule with charge Q exposed to an electric field is given by:
F=QE
Moving Boundary Electrophoresis
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● So shortly after the application of the electric field, the particle reaches a steady-state velocity u with the particle moving towards one of the electrodes. At this velocity, friction forces are equal and opposite the applied force.
where f is translational coefficient of the macromolecule.
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Electrophoretic Mobility
so
Stated more commonly as the Huckel Equation
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● If the particle happens to be spherical, Stoke’ Law applies and we can write the electrophoretic mobility coefficient with the translational f in terms of spherical hydrodynamics :
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● In any aqueous solution there are counterions. ● Since electrophoresis involves the transport of a
charged macromolecule, these counterions associate with it and contribute to its net charge.
● In order to weaken the the effects of the counterion pairing on the macromolecule a large amount of electrolyte is introduced in the the solution.
● The electrolyte forms an ion atmosphere around the macromolecule and its associated counterions
Counterion and Ion Atmosphere Effects
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● Consequently a realistic description of the electrophoretic mobility of any macromolecule must take into account the effects of:
1. the electric field on the charge Q of the molecule
2. its associated counterions
3. the ion atmosphere surrounding it.
What really happens...
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Actual Force Diagram● In actuality there are 4 forces acting on a
macromole during free electrophoresis
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A More Realistic Model involving Effective Charge● Therefore, a more complete computation of the
macromolecule velocity u is of the form
u=Qeff *E/f
● However, there are no experimental methods to date to determine the effective charge independently of other macroion properties
● Since it is very difficult to determine the effective charge Qeff of a macromolecule in solution we will only be concerned with the idealized case of only 2 forces acting on the
macromolecule.
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“Simplified” Force Diagram
Forces of Interest:
1. Electrostatic force resulting from application of the electric field to the macromolecule.
2. The Hydrodynamic friction force associated with the the macromolecular flow in solution
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Steady-state electrophoresis (SSE)
● In SSE macroions are trapped in a small chamber whose top and bottom are sealed with semipermeable membranes.
● An Electric Field is applied along the chamber so that the macroions crowd up against one of the membranes
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SSE Continued
● Diffusion produces a macroion flux in the opposite direction of the applied electric field.
● When steady state is reached, the flux due to electrophoresis and the flux due to diffusion are balanced.
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● Therefore in SSE both the fluxes and the forces are balanced. At any point x in the cell, the flux due to electrophoresis Jeff is
C x u’
where C is the concentration of macroions at x and u’ is their velocity. the Flux Jeff is the effective flux resulting from all of the forces F1,F2,F3,F4. since:
feff/u’=QE
Similarly u’=QE/feff
where feff is the frictional coefficient produces by the forces F1,F2,F3,F4
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● Recalling that Jeff is C x u’ we can write:
Jeff=(QE/feff)C● Further, Recalling Fick’s first Law…
● and that Concentration Gradient produce flux due to Diffusion so:
JD= -D dC/dx. ● At steady state Jeff+ JD=0 hence adding JD to
Jeff and setting them equal to 0 yields:
(QE/feff)C=DdC/dx
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● The solution to (QE/feff)C=DdC/dx is
Ultimately Q=µf provides a simple way of determining the effective charge of the molecule directly from experimental measurements sigma, E and T unlike mobility measurements which also require knowledge of feff or Deff
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http://www.instructables.com/files/deriv/FSJ/0K9P/GQKLPCIB/FSJ0K9PGQKLPCIB.LARGE.jpg
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Gel_electrophoresis_apparatus.JPG
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http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/biological-engineering/20-109-laboratory-fundamentals-in-biological-engineering-fall-2007/labs/mod1_2_photo.jpg
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Gel_electrophoresis_2.jpg
Log scale
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Free Solution vs Mechanical Support
Free = bad● convection currents● diffusion
Early porous mechanical supports● filter paper and cellulose acetate strips● small molecules
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Gels = Better
Agarose Gel● linear polysaccharide from certain types of
seaweed● easy to make:
○ mix agarose w/buffer○ boil○ pour and let sit○ celebrate
● good for separating large amounts DNA by length (50-20,000 bp length wikipedia)
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Polyacrylamide (PAGE)
● polymerisation of acrylamide monomers in the presence of small amounts of comonomer (bisacrylamide)
● the pore size in the gel can be varied by changing the concentration of both the acrylamide and the bisacrylamide
● 5 to 2,000 kDa
http://www.bio-rad.com/en-us/applications-technologies/polyacrylamide-gels
● “Polyacrylamide is ideal for protein separations because it is chemically inert, electrically neutral, hydrophilic, and transparent for optical detection at wavelengths greater than 250 nm. Additionally, the matrix does not interact with the solutes and has a low affinity for common protein stains.”
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SDS-PAGE
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)● linearize proteins (reduces to primary
structure)● imparts a negative charge (even distribution
of charge per unit mass) → separation by mass
● denatured protein is a rod-shaped structure with negative SDS molecules attached
Beta-mercaptoethanol breaks disulfide bonds
Urea used to break down nucleic acids
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/SDS-PAGE_sample.png
Preparing the sampleHeating and reducing agents may be added to help with the denaturation process
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Preparing the acrylamide gelThe acrylamide concentration of the gel can also be varied, generally in the range from 5% to 25%. Lower percentage gels are better for resolving very high molecular weight molecules, while much higher percentages are needed to resolve smaller proteins.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/SDS-PAGE_acrylamide_stock.png
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Casting the gel
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/SDS-PAGE_Acrylamide_gel.png
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Stains
silver stain
Coomassie Brilliant Blue (need to destain
polyacrylamide gel w/acetic acid)
Ethidium bromide - fluoresce for nucleic acids
under UV light
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Applications
Paternity test
Crime forensics
Determining size of protein
Determining length of nucleic acid (base pair length)