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TOPIC BOOKLETRoute C: Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe

Route C: Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe

This topic booklet has been written to support teachers delivering Route C of the 2015 AS and A level History specifications. We’re providing it in Word so that it’s easy for you to take extracts or sections from it and adapt them or give them to students. For the route as a whole and for each topic within it, we’ve provided an overview which helps to provide contextual background and explain why we think these are fascinating topics to study. These overviews could be used, for example, in open evening materials or be given to students at the start of the course. You’ll also find a student timeline, which can be given to students for them to add to and adapt, a list of resources for students and for teachers, and – where possible – information about overlap between these topics and the 2008 specification. For more detail about planning, look out for the Getting Started guide, Course planner and schemes of work.

ContentsRoute C: Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe 1Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe 1

Overview 1Paper 1, Option 1C Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement 2

Overview 2Content guidance 3

Themes 3Historical interpretations: How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89? 4

Student timeline 5Mapping to 2008 specification 8Resources and references 9

Paper 2, Option 2C.1: France in revolution, 1774–99 15Overview 15Content guidance 16Student timeline 18Mapping to 2008 specification 20Resources and references 24

Paper 2, Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution, 1894–1924 28Overview 28Content guidance 29Student timeline 31Mapping to 2008 specification 33Resources and references 36

Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe

Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe

OverviewThe Chinese revolutionary leader Mao Zedong declared that: ‘A revolution is not a dinner party. A revolution is an insurrection, an act of violence by which one class overthrows another.’ Mao’s dictum might help in explaining several twentieth-century revolutions, including his own, but it is only a partial explanation for the revolutions within this route.The role of individuals is central to an understanding of revolutions. Charles I, regarded by some as the worst monarch since Henry VI, was a king who firmly believed in his divine right to rule and, even after his defeat in the civil wars, refused to compromise with his opponents. His son, James II, lacked most political skills and was forced from the throne after just three years. Louis XVI of France was intent on maintaining the country’s ancien regime and was duly swept away by revolution. On his accession to the Russian throne Nicholas II declared that a constitutional monarchy was a ‘senseless dream’ and that he intended to maintain ‘the principle of absolute autocracy’. Alexander Kerensky possessed neither the support nor the vision to establish a popular government in Russia. However, these weaknesses among rulers would not have been fatal without determined opponents. Cromwell, Robespierre and Danton, Lenin and Trotsky, were all powerful personalities who drove the process of change within their respective countries.Revolutions are also driven by ideologies and beliefs. The rulers of England, France and Russia tried to maintain their personal rule at a time when new ideas on government were increasing in popularity. Many English politicians opposed the Stuart kings’ support of Catholicism in a largely Protestant country, believing that the Stuarts favoured absolute monarchy on the lines of the Catholic king Louis XIV. French absolutism was challenged by the rationalism of the Enlightenment, while Tsarism and democratic rule in Russia proved powerless in the face of socialist and communist ideas.Three of the revolutions in this route happened very quickly. James II was rapidly dispatched following William of Orange’s invasion in 1688: the storming of the Bastille in Paris in 1789 signalled the fall of the old order in France; and Tsarism was overwhelmed after a week of demonstrations in Petrograd in 1917. While the fall of the Provisional Government in Russia was also a speedy affair, some historians regard the Bolshevik seizure of power as more of a coup d’état than a popular revolution. The English Revolution was a different affair, dividing the whole country and involving widespread civil conflict from 1642–49. In simply political terms, most revolutions disappoint their supporters. The English republican experiment lasted just eleven years before the Stuart monarchy was restored, while the French revolution, after collapsing into Bonapartism and Empire, ended with the Bourbon restoration in 1814. Lenin’s communism was supplanted by Stalinist totalitarianism before entering a prolonged decline until its collapse in 1991. Perhaps the only successful revolution in this route is the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 which established limited monarchy once and for all, and developed government institutions which allowed for the rapid rise of England (and Britain) to the status of a world power.

In this route, students study:Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement

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with either France in revolution, 1774–99

or Russia in revolution, 1894–1924

© Pearson Education Ltd 2014. Copying permitted for purchasing institution only. This material is not copyright free.2

Paper 2, Option 2C.1: France in revolution, 1774–99

Paper 1, Option 1C Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlementOverview

Paper 1 is a study in breadth of monarchical and republican rule in England during the troubled period of Stuart rule between 1625 and 1688. The interpretation considers the nature and effects of the Glorious Revolution of 1688–69, which removed James II from the throne. The Tudor dynasty ended with the death of the childless Elizabeth I in 1603. She was succeeded by another of Henry VII’s descendants, James VI of Scotland. James had reigned in Scotland for 36 years, and would rule both kingdoms for a further 22 years until his death in 1625. James firmly believed in the religious dimension of monarchy, though he had to temper his divine right views by ruling through parliament. His successors were less skilful. Charles I argued constantly with parliament, ruled alone for 11 years, and when parliament met in 1640, divisions ran so deep that civil war was the only solution. Between 1649 and 1660, England experimented with republican forms of government influenced by radical Protestant beliefs, before this expedient was abandoned with the Stuart restoration in 1660. Charles II and his brother James II proved unable to rule with parliament, and so a further solution was attempted in 1688–89. William of Orange and his Stuart queen Mary both ruled with the support of parliament; and this limited monarchy finally established a stable system of government.Disputes over religion were an important feature of seventeenth-century life. Elizabeth had devised a successful religious formula of the ‘middle road’ between Catholicism and Protestantism, but the Stuarts sought to position the Church of England more closely with Catholic practices. This policy, promoted at a time of growing Puritan sentiment and religious radicalism, was an important reason for the outbreak of the civil war in 1642. The later Stuart kings continued to sympathise with Catholicism, and bitter divisions over religion were not settled until long after 1689.The term ‘revolution’ in the title of this paper also refers to the extraordinary flowering of ideas in the seventeenth century. Political thinkers such as Hobbes and Locke promoted radical ideas which included the equality of all people and the rights of the individual. Both believed that political power should be based on the consent of the governed, which challenged Stuart beliefs in divine right. There were also advances in scientific ideas, fostered by the Royal Society, including the promotion of the experimental method.This was also an age which saw a changing identity for the English state as it began to expand beyond its territorial boundaries. Colonies were first established in America in 1607, and these grew in size and importance throughout the century. Catherine of Braganza brought Bombay to England as part of her marriage dowry for Charles II. Combined with the growth of the navy begun by Cromwell, and of commercial institutions under William, these developments were to lead to the creation of the first British Empire.The option is divided into the following four themes, though students need to appreciate the linkages between themes, as questions may target the content of more than one. Theme 1 The quest for political stability, 1625–88Theme 2 Religion: conflict and dissent, 1625–88



Theme 3 Social and intellectual challenge, 1625–88

Theme 4 Economy, trade and empire, 1625–88The historical interpretations focus is: How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89?

Content guidanceThis section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.OverviewThe four themes identified require students to have an overview of political, social, economic and religious change in England over the period. Students need to have knowledge of the specified themes and be able to analyse and evaluate cause, consequence, key features and change and make comparisons over and within the period studied in dealing with factors which brought about change.

Themes

Theme 1: The quest for political stability, 1625–88In studying Theme 1, students need to understand the nature of Stuart and republican rule and the reasons why neither system provided a stable system of government in the given period. They should understand Charles I’s political ambitions and the extent of parliamentary opposition to the king. Detailed knowledge of the events of the civil wars is not required, but students should understand the growing political and military power of parliament in the years to 1646, and Charles’ unwillingness to compromise his royal authority. Detailed knowledge of each of the republican systems introduced in the years 1649–60 is not required, but students should understand the reasons for the unpopularity of these experiments and the factors which led to the end of republican rule and the restoration of the monarchy. They should be aware of military involvement in politics and the extent to which it influenced political stability in the years 1646–60. Students should understand the shortcomings of the Restoration Settlement and the reasons why conflict between crown and parliament led to the collapse of the Stuart monarchy in 1688.

Theme 2: Religion: conflict and dissent, 1625–88In studying Theme 2, students should be aware of the diversity of religious beliefs and opinions during the given period. They should understand Laud’s attempts to impose Arminian practices and beliefs, and the opposition to religious uniformity in both England and Scotland. They should be aware of changes imposed on Anglicanism during the Commonwealth and Protectorate, and the reasons for the church’s dominance under Charles II. They should understand the extent of religious radicalism during republican rule. Detailed knowledge of laws against dissenters during the Restoration is not required, but students should be aware of the extent of persecution and its effects during these years. They should understand the significance of Catholic influence over the Stuart monarchs during the Restoration period to 1688.

Theme 3: Social and intellectual challenge, 1625–88In studying Theme 3, students should be aware of key changes in society and cultural life during the given period. They should understand the extent of

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population growth and its effects on poverty and vagrancy. They should understand

the increasing urbanisation of the period including the growth of London and other towns and cities. They should be aware of the impact of radical political ideas in challenging both the monarchy and the confessional state. They should understand the spread of new scientific ideas in society and in education.

Theme 4: Economy, trade and empire, 1625–88In studying Theme 4, students need to be aware of significant changes in agriculture and in trade. They should understand the trend towards specialised farming as new markets developed, and the impact of major capital investments in agriculture. They should be aware of changing trade patterns including those developments driven by imperial expansion in North America and the Caribbean. They should understand the impact on the British economy of mercantilist ideas and Britain’s control of the triangular trade.

Historical interpretations: How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89?The four issues identified in the specification highlight key aspects of the debate.This topic focuses on the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 which led to the fall of James II and the accession of William and Mary as joint sovereigns. Students will need to understand the revolutionary ideals which led to the overthrow of James II. The significance of the Bill of Rights of 1689 and the Act of Settlement of 1701 should be understood, and the extent to which these acts confirmed the end of divine right and established a constitutional monarchy. Students should be aware of the importance of the Toleration Act and of those who were excluded from the Act’s provisions. They should note the extent to which the supremacy of the Anglican Church, and of a confessional state, were both undermined. The importance of the role of parliament in the years 1688–1701 should be understood, and students should be aware of how far parliament had become a partner with the monarchy, in the government of the country. They should be aware that William III’s war with France led to a restructuring of government finances, public scrutiny of government income and expenditure and the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694. Students should understand the significance of the change from royal control of finance to parliamentary oversight.



Student timelineWhether the content for Paper 1 is taught mainly chronologically or primarily through themes will be the decision of individual teachers. However, whatever the approach taken to teaching, it will be important that students develop a secure grasp of the chronology. The timeline below could be given to students for them to use and amend. Students may find it useful to colour-code events, for example highlighting the different Paper 1 themes in different colours.Inclusion of dates and events in this timeline should not be taken as an indication that these are prescribed or that students must know them all: the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.

1625 Charles became King of BritainCharles’ first parliament. Granted two subsidies and tonnage and poundage for one year; Lords refused to accept so Charles collected the customs revenues without parliamentary consent throughout reignDue to outbreak of plague, parliament met in Oxford. Criticisms of Buckingham led Charles to dissolve parliamentBuckingham led an expeditionary force to Cadiz

1626 York House Conference on religion between different factions in the churchAttempt to impeach Buckingham. Commons complained about collection of tonnage and poundage without parliamentary consentCharles dissolved parliamentThe Privy Council decided to raise a forced loan from all taxpayers. Lord Chief Justice Carew refused to endorse the legality of the loan and was dismissed

1627 Buckingham led an expedition to the Isle of Re, off La Rochelle: this ended in defeatArchbishop Abbot suspended after refusing to license a sermon defending the forced loanThe ‘Five Knights’ imprisoned without being put on trialLaud appointed to the Privy Council

1628 Charles’ third parliament; Petition of Right; five subsidies granted; attacks on ArminianismFirst session of parliament endedBuckingham assassinatedWentworth appointed president of the Council of the NorthLaud appointed bishop of London

1629 Second session of Charles’ third parliamentSpeaker of the Commons prevented from dissolving parliament until three resolutions passedCharles dissolved parliament: beginning of the ‘personal rule’

1630 King’s right to levy knighthood fines supported by exchequer judgesTreaty of Madrid ended war with Spain

1631 Book of Orders issued1632 Wentworth appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland

Death of Sir John Eliot in the Tower of London1633 Charles crowned in Scotland

William Laud appointed Archbishop of CanterburyFeoffees for impropriations (Puritan sympathies) dissolved on Laud’s initiativeBook of Sports of 1618 reissued

1634 William Prynne sentencedShip money writs sent to coastal, maritime countiesCharles negotiated with Spain for a treaty against the Dutch

1635 War between France and SpainShip money extended to inland counties

1636 William Juxon, bishop of London, appointed Lord Treasurer1637 Common law judges asked to give opinion on legality of ship money

Burton, Bastwick, Prynne and Lilburne mutilated for attacks on Laudian bishopsRiots in St Giles Church, Edinburgh, against the new prayer book

1638 Scottish National Assembly issued the National CovenantExchequer Chamber decided 7–5 in favour of the king in Hampden’s case challenging ship moneyScottish National Assembly abolished bishops

1639 First Bishops’ WarWentworth returned from Ireland and advised Charles to recall parliament



‘Taxpayers’ strike’ 1639–401640

Wentworth created Earl of Strafford and Lord Lieutenant of IrelandShort Parliament metSecond Bishops’ WarTreaty of Ripon Long Parliament metStrafford imprisonedRoot and Branch Petition Laud impeached

1641 Debates on Root and Branch PetitionTriennial Act passedTrial and execution of StraffordMay: First Army Plot revealedThe Ten Propositions August: Ship money declared illegal Charles concluded settlement with the ScotsOutbreak of the Confederate WarSecond Army Plot revealedThe Grand Remonstrance

1642 Charles failed to arrest five MPs Charles replied to the Nineteen Propositions Charles raised his standard at Nottingham: beginning of the Civil WarBattle of Edgehill Royalist headquarters established at Oxford

1643 Failure of peace talks Solemn League and Covenant

1644 Battle of Marston Moor1645 Laud executed

Failure of peace talks at UxbridgeCreation of New Model Army Battle of Naseby

1646 Charles surrendered to the Scots: end of First Civil War1647 Charles handed over to parliament

Army protested against disbandmentArmy presented Heads of the Proposals to CharlesPutney DebatesCharles escaped to Carisbrooke Castle Charles signed agreement with the Scots

1648 Outbreak of Second Civil WarCromwell’s victory at Preston: end of Second Civil WarPride’s Purge

1649 Trial and execution of Charles IAbolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords: establishment of the CommonwealthCromwell in Ireland

1650 Cromwell defeated royalists at Dunbar1651 Charles II crowned king in Scotland

Royalists defeated at WorcesterNavigation Act

1652 First Anglo-Dutch War1653 Rump Parliament dissolved: Nominated Parliament (July–December)

Instrument of Government. Cromwell appointed Lord Protector1654 First Anglo-Dutch War ended

First Protectorate Parliament1655 First Protectorate Parliament dissolved

Penruddock’s RisingRule of the Major-Generals

1656 Second Protectorate Parliament1657 Rule of the Major-Generals ended

Humble Petition and AdviceCromwell refused the throne: became Lord Protector for life

1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell: Richard Cromwell becomes Lord Protector1659 Third Protectorate Parliament

Recall of Rump Parliament



1660 General Monck’s army arrived in London

Rump Parliament dissolved itselfDeclaration of Breda. Convention Parliament metReturn of Charles II

Act of Indemnity and OblivionWorcester House Declaration

Convention Parliament dissolved1661 Venner’s (Fifth Monarchist) Rising

Savoy House conferenceCavalier Parliament met (to 1679)Militia Act, Financial Settlement, Corporation Act

1662 Charles married Catherine of BraganzaAct of Uniformity; Quaker Act; Hearth TaxCharles issued Declaration of Indulgence

1663 Charles forced to withdraw Declaration of Indulgence1664 Triennial Act; Conventicle Act1665 Second Anglo-Dutch War

Plague in London; Five Mile Act1666 Great Fire of London1667 Clarendon’s resignation1670 Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles and Louis XIV1672 Stop of the Exchequer

Second Declaration of Indulgence. Third Anglo-Dutch War1673 Charles withdrew Declaration of Indulgence1674 End of Third Anglo-Dutch War1675 Secret agreement between Charles and Louis XIV1677 Princess Mary married to William of Orange1678 The Popish Plot1679–81 Exclusion Crisis 1681 Whigs purged from local office1683 Rye House Plot1685 Death of Charles II and accession of James II

Monmouth’s rebellionRevocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIVJames issued dispensations to Catholics

1686 Godden v. Hales case 1687 Declaration of Indulgence1688 Declaration of Indulgence reissued, to be read in all churches

Trial of the seven bishopsBirth of the Prince of WalesSeven peers issued an invitation to William of Orange William landed at Torbay and marched towards LondonJames fled to FranceWilliam called the Convention Parliament

1689 Nine Years’ War Toleration ActBill of Rights

1690 Convention Parliament dissolvedBattle of the Boyne

1694 Bank of England establishedDeath of Queen Mary Triennial Act

1695 Recoinage Act1697 Peace of Rijswijk 1698 Civil List established1700 Death Anne’s only surviving son1701 Act of Settlement

Oath of Abjuration 1702 Death of William III and accession of Queen Anne



Mapping to 2008 specification There is overlap between this option and the following topics from the 2008 specification. Unit 1, Option B, Topic B7: Crown, Conflict and Revolution in England, 1660–89:

overlaps with the later years of themes 1 and 2 of this topic, including the debate topic on the revolution of 1688–89.

Unit 3, Option A, Topic A2: Revolution, Republic and Restoration: England, 1629–67: overlaps with the earlier years of the topic, mainly with themes 1 and 2.

There is also some overlap between theme 4 and Unit 1, Option C, Topic C1: The Origins of the British Empire, c1680–1763 in the 2008 specification.



Resources and referencesThe table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published. Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others — may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.A new textbook for this route is expected to be published by Pearson in 2015.

Resource Type For students and/or teachers?

Angela Anderson, An Introduction to Stuart Britain, 1603–1714 (Hodder Education, 1999)

Textbook For students. Clear and detailed overview of Stuart Britain.

Barry Coward, Stuart England 1603–1714 (Longman Advanced History, Longman, 1997)

Textbook Written for students.Very readable, less detailed. Covers economic and social developments and the full period of the topic.

Barry Coward, The Stuart Age (Routledge, fourth edition, 2011)

Textbook Written for students.Detailed and up-to-date surveys; covers the full period of the topic and deals with economy and society as well as political developments. With good summaries of recent debate it is potentially very helpful for the third and fourth themes in this topic.

Barry Coward and Christopher Durston, The English Revolution: A Source Book (Hodder Education, 1997)

Textbook Written for students.Contains excerpts from many of the key articles and texts of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, with source exercises and sample essays.

Dale Scarboro, England 1625–1660: Charles I, the Civil war and Cromwell (Hodder Murray, 2005)

Textbook Written for students.In the SHP series with charts, activities, sources and clear narrative. Good basic textbook, but avoids covering debates.



Very clear narrative, written for OCR’s 2001 specification.

David L Smith, A History of the Modern British Isles 1603–1707 (Blackwell, 1998)

Textbook Written for students.Very clear narrative and analysis from a leading historian. Much-used by students and covers the full period of this option.

John Adamson, The Noble Revolt (Orion, 2007)

Academic For teachers.Important new interpretation – but see books by Miller and Cust for more accessible work.

Michael Braddick, God’s Fury, England’s Fire: A New History of the English Civil Wars (Penguin, 2008)

Academic For teachers.Detailed new interpretation; draws on a lot of recent work on the ‘public sphere’ and print especially.

Andrew Bradstock, Radical Religion in Cromwell’s England: A Concise History from the English Civil war to the End of the Commonwealth (I B Tauris, 2010)

Academic For teachers.Has a concise chapter on each of the radical groups mentioned in the topic.

Barry Coward (editor), A Companion to Stuart Britain (Blackwell, 2003), including:- Jason Peacey, ‘The Outbreak of

the Civil Wars in the Three Kingdoms’, pages 290–308

- David Scott, ‘The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1642–1649’, pages 311–30

- David L Smith, ‘Politics in Early Stuart Britain 1603–1640’, pages 233–52

- Tom Webster, ‘Religion in Early Stuart Britain 1603–1642’, pages 253–70

Academic For teachers.In addition to the chapters listed there are thematic chapters focused on society, the economy and ideas which would also be relevant to the specification content.

Effectively summarises views of the period c2003 reflecting on ‘revisionism’ and the challenges to it since the 1970s and early 1980s.

David Cressy, England on Edge: Crisis and Revolution 1640–42 (Oxford University Press, 2006)

Academic For teachers, but excerpts could be used by students.Highly entertaining and evocative account of the years leading up to the Civil War.



Set of essays, including key articles by Russell on the ‘British Problem’, and Morrill on the religious context of,

Richard Cust, Charles I: A Political Life (Pearson, 2005)

Academic For teachers and students.Reliable and up-to-date biography which summarises much of the important work of recent decades.

Richard Cust, Charles I and the Aristocracy 1625–1642 (Cambridge University Press, 2013)

Academic For teachers.Chapters 4 and 5 in particular draw on and summarise more accessibly Adamson’s The Noble Revolt (2007), described by Cust as a ‘ground-breaking study’ (page 5), both confirming (e.g. page 222) and modifying (e.g. page 220) his conclusions.

Peter Gaunt, Oliver Cromwell: British Lives (British Library, 2004)

Academic (but designed for general readership)

For teachers and students.Exceptionally readable biography. Very accessible to students.

Ian Gentles, Oliver Cromwell (Palgrave, 2011)

Academic For teachers and students.Most recent biography which summarises recent work and provides a clear narrative and analysis.

Ian Gentles, The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms (Pearson, 2007)

Academic For teachers and students.Excellent, detailed, up-to-date overview by a leading authority on the period.

Tim Harris, Restoration: Charles II and his Kingdoms (Penguin, 2006)

Academic For teachers

Anna Keay, The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power (Bloomsbury, 2008)


Patrick Little (editor), Oliver Cromwell: New Perspectives (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)

Academic For teachers.Up-to-date essays on Cromwell.

John Miller, The Stuarts (Hambledon Continuum, 2004)

Academic For teachers and students.Very readable; nice overview of Charles II.



John Miller, A Brief History of the English Civil War: Cavaliers, Roundheads and the Execution of the King (Constable & Robinson, 2009)

Academic For teachers and students.A really valuable, readable overview which draws on recent research; chapter 3 summarises the important work of Adamson in 2007 succinctly.

Jonathan Scott, England’s Troubles: Seventeenth-Century Political Instability in its European Context (Cambridge University Press, 2000)

Academic For teachers.Important recent interpretation emphasising the influence of European events and continuities across the period covered by the topic.

John Spurr, The Post-Reformation: 1603–1714 (Pearson, 2006)

Academic For teachers and students.A clear narrative history which works through the period chronologically and covers the full period of this topic; contains additional chapters focused on religious developments, helpful for the second theme.

Edward Vallance, A Radical History of Britain (Abacus, 2009)

Academic For teachers.Useful on the levellers and radical groups.

Austin Woolrych, Britain in Revolution 1625–60 (Oxford University Press, 2002)

Academic For teachers. In-depth narrative.

Blair Worden, The English Civil Wars 1640–60 (Orion, 2009)

Academic For teachers.Concise overview by a leading historian.

Blair Wordern, God’s Instruments: Political Conduct in the England of Oliver Cromwell (Oxford University Press, 2012)

Academic For teachers.Chapters 5–8 contain important recent articles on Cromwell by Worden; chapters 1–3 present earlier influential pieces of work on religion and Cromwell.



Jenny Wormald (editor), The Seventeenth Century (Short Oxford History of the British Isles, Oxford University Press, 2008)

Academic For teachers.Chapter on the Economic and Social Context by J A Sharpe particularly useful for themes 3 and 4 of the topic; for more see the same author’s textbook of 1987, Early Modern England: A Social History (Arnold, 1987).

Richard Cust, Charles I, History Review, December 1995, pages 15–19

Article Written for students.

Historical Association Podcast on Cromwell, including the execution of Charles I:www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/e/289

Podcast Accessible to students.

National Archives Site on the English Civil Wars: www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/civilwar/

Website Accessible to students.

BBC English Civil War website:www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/

Website Accessible to students.Readable articles from leading historians such as John Morrill, Richard Cust, Ann Hughes, Ronald Hutton and Mark Stoyle. Includes articles on figures such as Charles I and II, Cromwell and the Levellers.

BBC/Open University, 2002The English Civil War, presented by Tristram Hunt

Documentary series

Accessible to students.Clear overviews from c1640–49: four episodes.

Channel 4, 2005Blood on our Hands – the English Civil War

Documentary series

Accessible to students. Also available on YouTube.

Channel 4Monarchy, presented by David Starkey

Documentary series

Useful episodes on Charles II and the Glorious Revolution in particular, but also on Charles, the civil wars and Cromwell.


http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/civilwar/

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/civilwar/

http://www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/e/289

http://www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/e/289


How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89? This table lists additional resources that may be useful for the historical interpretations section of this topic.


Barry Coward, The Stuart Age (Routledge, fourth edition, 2011)

Textbook For students.Clear narrative of era with concise summaries of debates.

Robert Beddard, The Revolutions of 1688 (Oxford University Press, 1991)

Academic For teachers.(Only available in expensive hardback edition, though.)

Eveline Cruickshanks, The Glorious Revolution (Macmillan, 2000)

Academic For teachers, but excerpts could be used by students.Summarises debates within a clear narrative.

Jonathan Israel (editor), The Anglo-Dutch Moment (Cambridge University Press, 1991, paperback edition 2003)

Academic For teachers.Set of essays.

Mark Knights, ‘Public politics in England c1675–c1715’ in Nicholas Tyacke (editor), Politics, Religion and Communities (Manchester University Press, 2007)

Academic For teachers.A brief accessible summary of the arguments in his book of 2005. Examines the role of the voting public as arbiter in the wake of the Glorious Revolution.

Steve Pincus, 1688: The First Modern Revolution (Yale University Press, 2009)

Academic For teachers.A detailed narrative and analysis. Part IV on Revolutionary Transformations is particularly relevant to the question in the interpretations section.

Edward Vallance, The Glorious Revolution (Abacus, 2007)

Academic For teachers and students.




OverviewThis option comprises a study of the causes and course of the French Revolution 1774–1799; a tumultuous period of change for the French people as they experienced a maelstrom of revolutionary activity, war and constitutional experiment, and one that would inspire revolutionary movements around the world. For most historians, 1789 is seen as the year in which the history of modern Europe began. It was year which saw a popular revolution from below overthrow the autocratic power of the French monarchy and aristocracy. This political earthquake sent shock waves across Europe and its aftershocks continue to affect the continent right up to the present.In 1774, Louis XVI inherited from his grandfather, Louis XV, one of the most powerful monarchies in the world. Louis ruled over a political system which is referred to as the ancién regime. This meant that although he needed the aristocracy (the nobles) to help maintain control over such a large country, Louis was an absolute monarch who could rule practically as he wished. Indeed with such power, it seemed there was little threat to the privileged world of Louis and his Austrian-born wife, Marie Antoinette.However, underneath the apparent stability of the ancién regime lay the seeds of revolution. Europe was experiencing the Enlightenment. Philosophers and political thinkers were beginning to question European systems of government and society. Scientists and inventors were making discoveries which would see economic wealth made from manufacturing industry rather than the land. French politics and society, in particular, were ripe for Enlightenment criticism. France was a country of about 28 million people and all the privilege, power and wealth lay in the hands of about 500,000 people. Writers such as Rousseau and Voltaire challenged the right of the few to tell the many what to do. When combined with the poor living standards, high taxes and frequent harvest failures experienced by ordinary people these ideas were potentially revolutionary.In the late 1780s, these factors combined further with the financial incompetency of Louis XVI and his ministers to create a recipe for revolution itself. In 1789, asked to finance France’s bankruptcy with greater taxation, the French people chose instead to revolt – much in the same way as the North American colonists did against the British a decade before. The storming of the Bastilles fortress to release its prisoners on 4 July symbolised the outbreak of revolution.The next decade would see extraordinary upheaval and bloodshed, as the revolutionaries searched for the most stable and workable form of popular government for France. This turbulent period of democratic experimentation included rule by constitutional monarchy, republican assembly, National Convention, twelve-man committee and a five-man Directory interspersed with periods of ‘terror’ in which thousands died. This was finally brought to end by the coup d’état of Brumaire (1799) but only to be replaced by the equally tumultuous and influential rule of Napoleon Bonaparte (1799–1815).The legacy of these revolutionary years has been revolutionary in itself. It can be seen in the great ‘-isms’ of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: liberalism, radicalism, socialism, communism, conservatism and nationalism. It influenced — along with developments in the USA and Britain — the ‘model’ of the liberal-democratic state championed by western nations today; not least in its reminder of the ‘terror’ that political fanaticism can bring. It inspired other revolutions across



the world, including in Russia (1917), and millions of ordinary people to fight for

rights and freedoms.The option is divided into the following four key topics, though students need to appreciate the linkages between topics, as questions may target the content of more than one key topic.Topic 1. The origins and onset of revolution, 1774–89 Topic 2. Revolution and the failure of constitutional monarchy, 1789–93Topic 3. The National Convention and the Terror, 1793–94Topic 4. From the Directory to Brumaire, 1795–99

Content guidanceThis section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.Overview The focus of this unit is on the key developments in France from the accession of Louis XVI in 1774, through the years of growing unrest, revolution, terror and the turbulent search for stability in the years after 1785 to the military coup of 1799.Students will be required to place documentary extracts in their historical context, but the knowledge they will need to have will be central to that specified in the topics. Although the unit topics are clarified separately below, students need to appreciate the linkages between them since questions, including document questions, may be set which target the content of more than one topic. For example, students might draw on elements from Topics 2, 3 and 4 to show understanding of the evolution of support for a republic, or they might draw on content from Topics 1 and 2 to consider significance of Louis XVI in the collapse of the monarchy.

Topic 1: The origins and onset of revolution, 1774–89The topic covers both the contingent and conditional causes of the outbreak of revolution in France from the accession of Louis XVI to the storming of the Bastille. Students should be aware of both the challenges inherited by Louis XVI in 1774 and the consequences of actions taken by Louis and his ministers during his reign. Students should understand the impact of the American Revolution on France was both political and financial. They should also understand the extent to which the problems facing France deteriorated considerably in the years leading up to 1789.Students should understand the significance of the decision to call the Estates-General in 1789 and the rapidity with which revolutionary activity took hold.

Topic 2: Revolution and the failure of constitutional monarchy, 1789–93The topic covers the period from 1789–93 when attempts to create a constitutional monarchy under the rule of Louis XVI were undermined by the radicalisation of the revolution and the actions of the king and his supporters.Students should be aware of the often chaotic nature of events during this period and the competing political pressures on the National Assembly and the Legislative Assembly from above, from within and from below. They should understand the role of both key political groups, including the Feuillants, the Girondins and the Jacobin, and individuals in creating a revolutionary environment.Students do not need detailed knowledge of the French military involvement in war but should be aware of the impact of war on the domestic situation in France.



Topic 3: The National Convention and the Terror, 1793–94The topic covers the period in the aftermath of the execution of the king as the revolutionaries attempted to create a viable republic rule and the descent into ‘terror’. Students should understand the extent to which the Terror was affected by a fear of the consequences of external threat from the supporters of the French monarchy and other European powers, particularly after the creation of the First Coalition, 1793.Students should be aware of the impact of both the fast-moving pace of events and the institutional and organisational machinery used by the revolutionaries on the nature of the Terror. Reference to the legalisation of terror and centralisation refers to laws passed in 1794 to define the enemies of the state and centralise revolutionary justice in Paris. Students should understand the role of Robespierre in the radicalisation of events and the reasons for his downfall.

Topic 4: From the Directory to Brumaire, 1795–99The topic covers the period of the longest lasting of the revolutionary governments as attempts were made to implement a more moderate republican constitution for France. The topic ends with the failure of the Directory and the establishment of military rule under Bonaparte as First Consul.Students should be aware of both the external and internal pressures on the government of the Directory and the extent to which it was undermined by legacy of the previous years of revolutionary activity. With regard to the significance of war in the years 1795–99, students do not need to have detailed knowledge of military actions but they should be aware of the key events in Europe and Egypt and should understand the impact of these events on the domestic situation in France.



Student timelineThe timeline below could be given to students, and could be further edited and added to by them. Inclusion of dates and events in this timeline should not be taken as an indication that these are prescribed or that students must know them all: the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Italicised text is outside the dates of the specification but has been included as useful background context.

1756–1763 Seven Years War1774 Accession of Louis XVI1776 Outbreak of American War of Independence

Necker published account of royal finances1778 France joined American War of Independence1781 Necker resigned1783 End of War of Independence

Calonne became Finance Minister1784 The Diamond Necklace Affair 1786 Calonne warned that France was on the verge of bankruptcy 1787 Meeting of the Assembly of Notables

Calonne replaced by de BrienneJuly: Paris Parlement rejected financial reforms15 August: Parlement of Paris exiled to Troyes

1788 The Parlement of Paris established itself as the representative body of all FranceResignation of Brienne 16 August: Payments suspended from TreasuryCalonne reappointed to deal with the financial crisisSeptember: Necker reappointed as Finance MinisterWinter: The cahiers de doléances27 December: Third Estate representation doubled

1789 5 May: Opening session of the Estates-General17 June: Abbe Sieyes proclamation that the Third Estate constitutes the National Assembly The Tennis Court Oath23 June: Royal Session11 July: Necker dismissedStorming the BastilleLate July–August: Attacks on nobles’ property4–11 August: The National Assembly abolished feudal rights and privilegesDeclaration of the Rights of Man and CitizenThe march to Versailles 2 November: The nationalisation of church propertyFirst issue of assignats

1790 19 June: Abolition of the Second Estate12 July: The Civil Constitution of the ClergyAugust: Parlements abolished27 November: The clerical oath of loyalty to the state administered

1791 April: Pope condemned Civil Constitution20–21 June: The Flight to VarennesThe Champs de Mars massacreAustria and Prussia declared their support of Louis XVI14 September: The King accepted the constitutionSeptember: Constituent Assembly dissolvedThe Legislative Assembly

1792 20 April: France declared war against Austria27 April: Banishment of refractory priests 8 June: Camp of fédérés established 12 June: The King dismissed the Girondin Ministry20 June: The sans-culottes invaded the Tuileries Palace11 July: The Legislative Assembly called on all French men and women to defend the revolution25 July: The Brunswick ManifestoLouis XVI taken prisonerThe September Massacres



Meeting of the National Convention

Abolition of the monarchy 6 October: French won the Battle of Jemappes

1793 21 January: The Execution of Louis XVI

1 February: The National Convention declared war on Great Britain11 March: A counter-revolutionary revolt began in La VendeeFormation of the Committee of Public SafetyFederalist Revolt in Lyons 4 May: The Law of MaximumSans-culottes rising against the Girondin governmentJacobins took power from the Girondins Constitution issued13 July: Marat assassinated27 July: Robespierre took over the Committee of Public Safety23 August: The levee en masse decree28 August: British troops take Toulon4–5 September: Rebellion of the sans-culottes in Paris 5 September: Formation of the Revolutionary Army29 September: The Law of General Maximum5 October: Introduction of the revolutionary calendar 9 October: Fall of Lyons to the Jacobins16 October: Marie-Antoinette executed31 October: The Girondins executed10 November: The Festival of Reason4 December: Law of Frimaire19 December: Toulon recaptured from the British22 December: Last Vendéan army defeated

1794 24 March: Execution of the Hébertists5 April: Execution of the Dantonists8 June: Festival of the Supreme Being10 June: The Law of Prairial26 June: Defeat of the Coalition Army at Fleurus27–28 July: Execution of Robespierre August–December: Thermidorean ReactionAugust: Revolutionary Tribunal purged and powers of committees reduced12 November: The closure of the Jacobin ClubDecember: Maximum price controls from Terror abolished and Girondin deputies reinstated

1795 April: Rising of hungry Parisians put down8 June: Death of Louis XVII24 June: Declaration of Verona by Louis XVIII22 August: Constitution of Year III5 October: Royalist rising put down2 November: Directory established

1796 February: Assignats abolished10 March: Babeuf’s Conspiracy put down11 April: Napoleon invaded Italy

1797 4 September: Coup of Fructidor1798 11 May: Coup of Floréal 1799 9 October: Napoleon lands in France

9–10 November: Coup of Brumaire



Mapping to 2008 specification There is overlap between this topic and the following topic from the 2008 specification: Unit 3, Option B, Topic B1: France, 1786–1830: Revolution, Empire and Restoration.

2015 specification 2008 specificationThe origins and onset of revolution, 1774–89

The ancién regime and its challenges in 1774: absolutism and court faction; the parlements; the three estates; rights of nobles and church privilege; the impact of the Enlightenment and the spread of new ideas.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the political and social structure of France and the criticisms of both, current in the 1780s.

Problems facing France in the 1780s: rural poverty and urban food prices; taxation and crown debt; corruption at court; impact of the American Revolution.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the political and social structure of France and the criticisms of both, current in the 1780s.

The failings of Louis XVI and his ministers: Louis’ character; financial reforms of Turgot, Necker and Calonne; attitudes to Marie Antoinette; opposition in the Paris Parlement; the Assembly of Notables and the revolt of the aristocracy.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered Louis XVI and his court and the financial problems of the crown and various attempts at reform.

The onset of revolution in 1789: summoning and breakdown of the Estates-General; declaration of the National Assembly; significance of the Tennis Court Oath; revolt in Paris and the significance of the storming of the Bastille.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the summoning of the Estates General; the loss of royal control over both Paris and the Estates General and the evolution of the latter into the National Assembly.



Revolution and the failure of constitutional monarchy, 1789–93

Attempts to create a constitution, 1789–91: the Great Fear and the abolition of feudalism; the Declaration of the Rights of Man; the October Days and the impact of the march on Versailles; the reforms of the National Assembly. Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the

significance of the decrees of August abolishing feudalism and the promulgation of the Rights of Man, and the return of the king and royal family to Paris in October.

The political environment, 1789–93: key political groups; the role of individuals including Mirabeau, Brissot, Robespierre and Danton; popular protest and the sans-culottes; royalist support; revolutionary culture.

The first controversy: Centres will have covered the breakdown of constitutional monarchy of Louis XVI between October 1789 and January 1793. Groups and individuals likely to have been taught anyway.

Breakdown of relations with the king, 1791–92: flight to Varennes and counter-revolutionary activity; divisions in the Legislative Assembly; the emergence of Republicanism; the impact of war with Austria and Prussia.

The first controversy: Centres will have covered the debate surrounding whether Louis’ personality and the flight to Varennes were central to the breakdown, as opposed to the impact of war or the accelerating economic crisis.

The revolution radicalised, 1792–93: the invasion of the Tuileries; the impact of the state of national emergency; the journée of 10 August; revolutionary government and the September massacres; the creation of the National Convention; the trial and execution of the king.

Content likely to have been taught.



The National Convention and the Terror, 1793–94

Preconditions for ‘terror’: the significance of external threat; the impact of the Vendée revolt; economic pressures; political pressures, including the Girondin purge, Federalist revolt and Marat’s death; the power of the sans-culottes and the Paris Commune.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the domestic impact of the changing fortunes of war.

Organising the Terror: the Committee of General Security; the Revolutionary Tribunal; the Committee of Public Safety representatives on mission; Watch Committees; the Laws of 19 March, Suspects and Frimaire.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered how the Jacobin terror evolved and the work of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety in securing the revolution against its internal foes and invading foreign enemies in 1793–94.

The Great Terror 1794: the purge of the Hébertists and Indulgents; religious radicalism; the legislation of terror and centralisation; the extent and nature of the Terror in Paris and the regions; the role of Robespierre and St-Just.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the bitter divisions within the new Republic between its supporters and opponents in 1793.Aspects of new content likely to have been taught.

The coup of Thermidor: growing economic and political fear; Robespierre under pressure; the arrest and execution of Robespierre and supporters; Thermidorean government established.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the reasons for the downfall of Robespierre and St-Just.



From the Directory to Brumaire, 1795–99

Problems facing the Directory: political violence, including the White Terror; political divisions; economic and financial pressures; popular protest.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the establishment and instability of the Directory.

The work of the Directory: the 1795 constitution; economic and financial reforms; martial law; attempts to control factionalism; Directorial terror; the extent of popularity and success.


Dealing with internal and external threats: the Verona Declaration and the émigrés; Parisian unrest; revolt in the provinces and reaction to conscription; the significance of war for the domestic situation, 1795–99.


The coup de Brumaire 1799: the Directory under threat; the role of Sieyés; the significance of the return of Bonaparte; the coup of November and establishment of the Consulship.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the coup of Sieye and Bonaparte in 1799.


Paper 2, Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution, 1894–1924

Resources and referencesThe table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published. Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others — may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.A new textbook for this route is expected to be published by Pearson in 2015.


Andrew Matthews, Revolution and Reaction: Europe 1789–1849 (Cambridge University Press, 2001)

Textbook For students.Written to support OCR’s 2001 specification. First three chapters provide a clear narrative of the Revolution and Napoleonic Era.

D Murphy et. al., Europe 1760–1871 (Flagship History series, Collins, 2000)

Textbook For students

A Stiles, Napoleon, France & Europe (Access to History series, Hodder, third edition, 2009)


Duncan Townson, France in Revolution (Access to History series, Hodder, fourth edition, 2008)


Sally Waller, France in Revolution 1776–1830 (Heinemann, 2002)

Textbook For studentsWritten for 2000 specifications. Mostly chronological chapters but with thematic essays in the ‘A2’ section.

Jocelyn Hunt, The French Revolution (Questions and Analysis in History series, Routledge, 1998)

Textbook (essays and sources)

Selection of sources useful for paper 2, and analytical essays addressing key questions briefly. Chapter on the Terror is particularly helpful.

Nigel Aston, The French Revolution 1789–1804: Authority, Liberty and the Search for Stability (European History in Perspective series, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)

Academic For teachers, but excerpts could be used by students.

Richard Ballard, A New Dictionary of the French Revolution (L B Tauris, 2011)

Academic (reference)

For teachers



Gregory S Brown, Cultures in Conflict – The French Revolution (Greenwood Press, 2003)

Academic For teachers and students.‘Historical Overview’ in first chapter could be particularly useful; also includes a timeline, glossary and study questions.

Malcolm Crook, Napoleon Comes to Power: Democracy and Dictatorship in Revolutionary France 1795–1804 (University of Wales Press, 1998)

Academic For teachers.Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Directory that may be of use to students. Includes a set of 28 documents useful for paper 2 preparation and an introduction to the debate.

Malcolm Crook, Elections in the French Revolution: An apprenticeship in democracy, 1789–1799 (Cambridge University Press, 1996)

Academic For teachers.Key work on an important area of focus during the 1990s; provides a chronological survey of elections.

William Doyle, Origins of the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, third edition, 1999)

Academic For teachers.First section reviews the historiography; subsequent sections mix chronologically-focused and thematic chapters.

William Doyle, The French Revolution: a Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2001)

Academic (but for general readership)

For teachers and students.Concise, readable overview with helpful chronology and suggestions for further reading.

William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, second edition, 2003)

Academic For teachers and students.Follows a chronological approach from c1776–1802 and could be an accessible form of further reading for students.

William Doyle and Colin Haydon (editors), Robespierre (Cambridge University Press, 1999)

Academic Series of essays; chapter 10 by Norman Hampson on ‘Robespierre and the Terror’ is particularly relevant.

Geoffrey Ellis, Napoleon (Profiles in Power series, Pearson, 1997)

Academic For teachers and students.Early chapters helpful on Napoleon’s rise to power.

Alan Forrest, The French Revolution (Historical Association Studies, Blackwell, 1995)

Academic For teachers.Thematic chapters (with chapter 4 on society particularly helpful) and a chronology 1787–99.

© Pearson Education Ltd 2014. 27


Hugh Gough, The Terror in the French Revolution (Studies in European History series, Palgrave, 1998)

Academic

For teachers and students. Readable and brief (79 pages). Analysis of a key episode, with a detailed chronology of 1789–96.

C Jones, The Longman Companion to the French Revolution (Longman, 1988)

Academic (reference)

For teachers.Includes short biographies of figures in the Revolution.

P M Jones, Reform and Revolution in France: The Politics of Transition, 1774–1791 (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Academic For teachers.Thematic overview and guide to debates, with more chronologically focused chapters on 1787–91.

James Livesey, Making Democracy in the French Revolution (Harvard University Press, 2001)

Academic For teachers.Thematic survey focused on the conscious establishment of democratic, republican ideals and how the new ideas of citizenship were implemented in practice.

Colin Lucas (editor), Rewriting the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 1991)

Academic For teachers.Bicentennial collection of essays.

J M Roberts, The French Revolution (Oxford University Press, second edition, 1999)

Academic (but for general readership)

For teachers and students.Short introduction.

Simon Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (Viking, 1989)

Academic For teachers and students.Evocative, illustrated in-depth narrative of the Revolution. Can be used to bring colour to the topic as well as for additional detail. Emphasises the violence inherent in the Revolution. Typical are the vivid narratives of the fall of the Bastille (pages 399–406) and its commemoration (pages 406–19), and of the September Massacres of 1792 (pages 624–39).

John Hardman, Louis XVI (Yale University Press, 1993)

Biography For teachers.Adopts a chronological approach, useful for detail on key episodes and political developments before the revolution.

John Hardman, Robespierre (Longman, 1999)

Biography For teachers



Napoleon’s Letters, selected, translated and edited by J M Thompson (Prion, 1998)

Documents For teachers and students.Selection of documents.

Malcolm Crook, ‘The Resistible Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte’, 1998:http://history.org.uk/resources/student_resource_510.html

Web article Written for students.Examines the Directory. Article version of book listed above.Historical Association subscription required (£).

History Today and History ReviewJohn Dunne, The Unpredictable Past: French Revolution, History Review, March 1998, pages 8–12Published online as ‘Fifty Years of Rewriting the French Revolution’: www.historytoday.com/john-dunne/fifty-years-rewriting-french-revolution

Articles For teachers and students. Note that a subscription is required to read the online articles (£).

Douglas Johnson, On Second Thoughts: Winds of Change, History Today, May 1989, pages 3–9:www.historytoday.com/douglas-johnson/winds-change John Hardman, Louis XVI and the French Revolution, History Review, September 1996, pages 37–41:www.historytoday.com/john-hardman/louis-xvi-and-french-revolution Marisa Linton, The Origins of the French Revolution – two-part article: The Last Years of the French Revolution, Modern History Review, February 1997, pages 8–11The Final Crisis, Modern History Review, April 1997, pages 2–5Nigel Aston, Turbulent Priests? The Church and the Revolution, History Today, May 1989, pages 20–25Published online as ‘Turbulent Priests? The French Church and the Restoration’: www.historytoday.com/nigel-aston/turbulent-priests-french-church-and-restoration


http://www.historytoday.com/nigel-aston/turbulent-priests-french-church-and-restoration

http://www.historytoday.com/nigel-aston/turbulent-priests-french-church-and-restoration

http://www.historytoday.com/john-hardman/louis-xvi-and-french-revolution

http://www.historytoday.com/john-hardman/louis-xvi-and-french-revolution

http://www.historytoday.com/douglas-johnson/winds-change

http://www.historytoday.com/douglas-johnson/winds-change

http://www.historytoday.com/john-dunne/fifty-years-rewriting-french-revolution

http://www.historytoday.com/john-dunne/fifty-years-rewriting-french-revolution

http://history.org.uk/resources/student_resource_510.html

http://history.org.uk/resources/student_resource_510.html



Overview This option comprises a study in depth of the causes, course and consolidation of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which had a momentous effect on twentieth-century Russia and throughout the modern world. Nineteenth-century Russia stood outside the mainstream of European nations. Already immense in size, its borders were extended by Alexander II (1855–81) deep into central Asia and to the Pacific in the Far East. The country was as much Asiatic in character as it was European, and this was reflected in its society and government. Russia was an overwhelmingly agricultural economy: 80 per cent of the population worked the land, and there were only a few pockets of industrial development. Limited industrialisation meant that there was only a tiny middle class: the population was essentially divided between a large and multi-national peasantry and a smaller, but very powerful, nobility. The Enlightenment and modern political ideas had all passed Russia by: it remained an absolute monarchy with the Orthodox Church playing a central role in national life. The Romanov dynasty, which had ruled since 1613, were unwavering in their belief that they had a divine right to rule the country. The autocratic system worked with determined and powerful Tsars, but began to break down under Nicholas II (1894–1917). Scorned by his own father as a ‘girlie’, Nicholas was a weak-willed man who confused obstinacy with firmness. As Russia industrialised through the reforms of his finance ministers, notably Witte and Stolypin, Nicholas did not try to understand the reasons for growing social unrest, especially in the towns: his simple answer was to repress it.Revolution in 1905 forced Nicholas to compromise with opposition to his rule by introducing a very limited form of constitutional government through the dumas. This concession appeased some opposition groups for a time, though the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolsheviks continued to work for the overthrow of Tsarism. But it was the disasters of the First World War rather than revolutionary activity that brought about the collapse of Tsarism in February 1917 and the creation of a republic. This Provisional government lasted for just eight months before it, too, was swept away by the Bolsheviks with their seizure of power in October.Many were convinced that, like its predecessors, the Bolshevik government would be temporary, but the firm leadership of Lenin and Trotsky helped ensure its survival. Lenin was a brilliant politician. He ended Russia’s involvement in the war, outlawed all other parties, and imposed Bolshevik rule by using Cheka violence. Trotsky organised and carried out the October seizure of power, and went on to create the large Red Army which defeated the Bolsheviks’ enemies in the civil war.When Lenin died in 1924 Bolshevik rule was firmly established and, after a struggle for power, Stalin became the leader of the country. Historians are divided over Stalin’s rule: some feel that the creation of a totalitarian state was Stalin’s own doing, but others believe that Stalinism was a natural development of Leninism. Whatever the answer might be, communist power dominated Russian life until it came to an end in 1991.The option is divided into the following four topics, though students need to appreciate the linkages between topics, as questions may target the content of more than one topic.Topic 1. The rule of Nicholas II, 1894–1905Topic 2. The end of Romanov rule, 1906–17



Topic 3. The Provisional government and its opponents, February–October 1917

Topic 4. Defending the Bolshevik revolution, October 1917–24

Content guidanceThis section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.OverviewThe focus of this unit is on key developments in Russia from the accession of Nicholas II in 1894, through years of growing unrest including the revolutions of 1905 and February 1917, to the October revolution and the consolidation of Bolshevik power under Lenin. Students will be required to place documentary extracts in their historical context, but the knowledge they will need to have will be central to that specified in the topics. Although the unit topics are clarified separately below, students need to appreciate the linkages between them since questions, including document questions, may be set which target the content of more than one topic. For example, students might draw on elements from Topics 1 and 2 to consider the reasons for growing revolutionary activity in the period 1905 to February 1917, or they might draw on content from Topics 3 and 4 to explore the contributions of Lenin and Trotsky to the October revolution and the establishment of Bolshevik power. Students need to be aware of the differences between the Gregorian and Julian calendars. Question papers will use the Julian dates for the February and October revolutions, but some source extracts may refer to the March and November revolutions.

Topic 1: The rule of Nicholas II, 1894–1905The topic covers the years 1894–1905, when Tsarism faced increasing challenges to its rule which culminated in the 1905 revolution. Students need to understand the nature of opposition to Tsarism and the different aims of opposition forces. With reference to the 1905 Revolution, students need to understand the nature of the threat which revolutionary activity posed to the regime.

Topic 2: The end of Romanov rule, 1906–17The topic covers the final years of Tsarist rule before its collapse in 1917. Students need to understand the political changes in the years 1906–14, and the extent to which the Tsarist system of government had been modified.Students should understand the impact of the activities of Alexandra and Rasputin in promoting instability in government during the war. Detailed knowledge of the military campaigns of the war is not required, but the impact on the Tsarist regime of Russia’s involvement the war should be understood.

Topic 3: The Provisional government and its opponents, February–October 1917The topic covers the brief months of freedom in Russia before the overthrow of the Provisional government in October 1917. Students should understand the difficult situation which faced the Provisional government in February 1917, the extent to which it responded to the country’s problems and the reasons for its overthrow.



With reference to the October Revolution, but students should understand the

central importance of Lenin and Trotsky in directing events.



Topic 4: Defending the Bolshevik revolution, October 1917–24The topic covers the period from the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917 to the death of Lenin in 1924. Students should understand the extent of popular support for the Bolsheviks, and the ways in which they imposed their rule by force. Detailed knowledge of the terms of Brest-Litovsk is not required, but students should understand the extent of Russia’s territorial losses.In considering the twin threats of the civil war and foreign intervention, students should understand the geography of the civil war the difficulties faced by the Bolsheviks’ enemies in fighting a war on extended and separate fronts and the reasons for the Bolsheviks’ success.



Student timelineThe timeline below could be given to students for them to use and amend. Inclusion of dates and events in this timeline should not be taken as an indication that these are prescribed or that students must know them all: the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Dates and events in italics are outside the dates of the specification content, but have been included as useful background.

1861 Emancipation of the Serfs1881 Alexander II assassinated

Alexander III succeeds as Tsar1894 Nicholas II succeeded Alexander III as Tsar1897 Lenin exiled to Siberia1898 Formation of Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP)1900 Formation of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)

Lenin joined RSDLP1903 RSDLP split between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks

Communes no longer responsible for land tenureTrans-Siberian Railway completed

1904 Assassination of Interior Minister PlehveLiberal ‘Banquet Campaign’

1904–05 Russo-Japanese War1905 ‘Bloody Sunday’

Revolution: strikes, mutinies‘Union of Unions’ formed End of redemption payments; peasants seize landOctober ManifestoSt. Petersburg Soviet formedTroops returning from the war with Japan suppressed soviets

1906 Fundamental LawsParties legalised

1906–07 First and Second Dumas dissolved after a few months1906–11 Stolypin’s agricultural reforms1906–17 Lenin in exile abroad1906–07 Repression of Tsarism’s opponents1907 Stolypin’s ‘coup’: Electoral Law restricting the franchise1907–12 Third Duma1910 New wave of strikes 1911 Assassination of Stolypin1912 National insurance scheme

Lena goldfields massacre1912–13 Wars in the Balkans1912–14 Fourth Duma1914–18 Russia went to war against Germany and Austria1914 Suspension of Fourth Duma1915 Fourth Duma recalled

June: Kadets and Octobrists formed the Progressive Bloc August: Tsar appointed himself Commander-in-Chief of the armed forcesControl of the government in the hands of Alexandra and Rasputin

1916 Murder of Rasputin



1917 February: Strike began at Putilov factories in Petrograd

February RevolutionMarch: Abdication of TsarProvisional government set upMarch: Petrograd Soviet issues ‘Order No.1’April: Return of Lenin: April ThesesJuly DaysJuly: Failure of the Kerensky OffensiveAugust: Kornilov RevoltTrotsky joined BolsheviksBolshevik majorities in Petrograd and Moscow sovietsMilitary Revolutionary Committee establishedOctober: Bolshevik seizure of powerSovnarkom establishedRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic set upNovember: Constituent Assembly ElectionsNovember: Decrees on Land and Workers’ Control December: Cheka founded

1918 January: Bolsheviks disbanded Constituent AssemblyMarch: Treaty of Brest-LitovskAssassination attempt on LeninJuly: Tsar and imperial family murderedBolsheviks renamed (All-)Russian Communist Party (until 1925)

1918–21 War Communism1919 Communist International Founded1920 Russo-Polish War: Loss of western Ukraine1921 Kronstadt Rebellion

Tenth Party Congress – ban on factionsIntroduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP)

1921–22 Famine1922 Cheka renamed as GPU

Stalin became General Secretary of the Central Committee USSR established

1922–23 Lenin suffered series of strokes1923 ‘Scissors Crisis’1924 Lenin’s death

USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) constitution agreedGPU expanded into OGPU



Mapping to 2008 specification There is overlap between this topic and the following topic from the 2008 specification: Unit 1, Option D, Topic D3: Russia in Revolution 1881–1924.

2015 specification 2008 specificationThe rule of Nicholas II, 1894–1905

The nature of autocratic rule: the Tsarist principles of autocracy, nationality and orthodoxy; the oppression of nationalities; anti-semitism; the Okhrana.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the nature of the autocracy and the use of repression.

Opposition to Tsarism: unrest among peasants and workers; middle-class opposition and the League of Liberation; the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Social Democrats; reasons for the lack of success of opposition groups.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the growth of reformist/revolutionary groups such as the Kadets, Social Revolutionaries and the Social Democrats.

The 1905 Revolution: the impact of the Russo-Japanese war; Bloody Sunday; the spread of revolutionary activity among peasants, workers and national minorities; the St. Petersburg Soviet.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the causes of the 1905 Revolution, including the impact of the Russo-Japanese War and the nature, extent and significance of that revolution.

Nicholas II’s response: the failure of the August Manifesto; the October Manifesto and the response of opposition groups; the crushing of the Moscow Uprising; the extent of the recovery of Tsarist power.

Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the nature, extent and significance of the 1905 Revolution.Additional detail likely to have been taught.

The end of Romanov rule, 1906–17

Change and continuity in government: the Fundamental Law; the radicalism of the first two dumas; Nicholas II’s relations with the dumas, 1906–14; the nature of Tsarist government and royal power in 1914.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered constitutional developments and how far autocracy was modified.Additional detail likely to have been taught.



Repression and reform, 1906–14: Stolypin’s repression and the restoration of stability; actions against revolutionary parties; reform of agricultural landholdings and emigration to Siberia; the Lena goldfields massacre 1912. Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered how far

Stolypin transformed rural Russia before 1911. Additional detail likely to have been taught.

The impact of the First World War: the state of the armed forces in 1914; economic problems including inflation and supplies for cities; Nicholas, Alexandra and Rasputin; the Progressive Bloc and Zemgor.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the importance of the First World War in undermining Tsarism.Additional detail likely to have been taught.

The February Revolution: growth of unrest in towns and countryside; International Women’s Day and the Petrograd general strike; the creation of the Provisional Committee and the Petrograd Soviet; the abdication of Nicholas II.

Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered what precipitated the February Revolution.

The Provisional government and its opponents, February–October 1917

The nature of dual power: the political complexion of the Provisional government; the extent of its power and support; the aims and membership of the Petrograd Soviet; early political reforms.

Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered the nature of the Provisional government and the problems it faced.

Opposition to the Provisional government: conflicting attitudes on the continuation of the war; Lenin’s return to Russia and the April Theses; the Milyukov crisis; the June Offensive and the July Days.

Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered the importance of Lenin’s return in April and his influence thereafter and the July Days.Additional detail likely to have been taught.

The second Provisional Government, July–October: Kerensky as Prime Minister; the membership of the new government; problems in industry and agriculture; the Kornilov affair and its impact on the government and the Bolsheviks.

Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered the impact of events such as the renewed Russian offensive in the summer and Kornilov’s attempted coup.Additional detail likely to have been taught.



The October Revolution: Lenin’s influence on the Central Committee; the Constituent Assembly elections; Trotsky and the Military Revolutionary Committee; the events of 24–26 October; the formation of the Bolshevik government.

Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered Trotsky’s role and the Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd and Moscow.

Defending the Bolshevik revolution, October 1917–24

Consolidating Bolshevik power: the closing of the Constituent Assembly; making peace at Brest-Litovsk; the formation of the Cheka; attacks on Bolshevik opponents; the Red Terror.

Bullet point 4: Centres will have covered the evolution of the Bolshevik dictatorship, the creation of a police state and the dominance of three key institutions: the Party, the Red Army and the secret police.Additional detail likely to have been taught.

Bolshevik economic policies: state capitalism; War Communism; the Tambov rising and the Kronstadt mutiny; economic and political results of the New Economic Policy; the ban on factions 1921.

Bullet point 4: Centres will have covered the flexibility in economic policy. Additional detail likely to have been taught.

Defeat of domestic enemies: the Social Revolutionaries, national minorities and the Whites; Trotsky and the Red Army; the geography of the civil war; the defeat of Kolchak, Denikin and Yudenich.

Bullet point 4: Centres will have covered the military victories of the Red Army and the persecution of any rivals. Additional detail likely to have been taught.

Foreign intervention in Russia: reasons, nature and extent of intervention; the impact of war weariness and the lack of support in the west for intervention; the end of intervention.

New content (although arguably implicit in military victories).



Resources and referencesThe table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published. Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others —may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.A new textbook for this route is expected to be published by Pearson in 2015.

Resource Type For students and/or teachers?Peter Callaghan, Russia in Revolution (1881–1924) (CGP, 2011)

Revision textbook

Aimed at AS students. Written for Edexcel 2008 specification.

Chris Corin and Terry Fiehn, Communist Russia under Lenin and Stalin (John Murray, 2002)

Textbook Written for students.Covers period from 1917; includes sources useful for paper 2 and introduction to debates via excerpts from historians as well as clear narrative, charts and activities.

Graham Darby, The Russian Revolution: Tsarism to Bolshevism 1861–1924 (History in Depth series, Longman, 1998)

Textbook (topic book)

Written for students.

David Evans and Jane Jenkins, Years of Russia, the USSR and the Collapse of Soviet Communism 1855–1991 (Hodder, second edition, 2008)

Textbook Written for students.Despite being an overview of a much broader period, is very detailed on episodes such as the 1905 Revolution.

Michael Lynch, Reaction and Revolution: Russia 1894–1924 (Hodder, third edition, 2005)

Textbook Written for students.A detailed textbook which covers the exact period of the paper 2 topic

Andrew Mitchell, AS History – Edexcel – Unit 1: Russia in Revolution, 1905–17 (Philip Allan Updates, 2006)

Textbook Written for students.Designed for 2001 specification but has useful content summaries and sources useful for paper 2 nonetheless.

Derrick Murphy, Russia in Revolution 1881–1924: From Autocracy to Dictatorship (Pearson, 2009)

Textbook Written for students.Designed for Edexcel’s 2008 specification.



Derrick Murphy and Terry Morris, Russia 1855–1964 (Flagship History series, Collins, 2008)

Textbook Written for students.Chapters 3 and 4 cover the period of the paper 2 topic.

Peter Oxley, Russia 1855–1991: From Tsars to Commissars (Oxford University Press, 2001)

Textbook Written for students. Covers the full period and based on a wealth of research. Despite publication date is less obviously tailored to previous specifications than some.

Anthony Wood, The Origins of the Russian Revolution 1861–1917 (Lancaster Pamphlets series, Methuen, third edition, 2008)

Textbook (topic book)

Written for students.

Anthony D’Agostino, The Russian Revolution, 1917–1945 (Praeger, 2011)

Academic For teachers and students.Short chapters should be accessible for students; useful up-to-date overview for teachers.

Vladimir Brovkin, Russia after Lenin: Politics, Culture & Society 1921–1929 (Routledge, 1998)

Academic For teachers, but excerpts can be used by students.First three chapters contain relevant useful material (drawing extensively on contemporary sources).

Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924 (Pimlico, 1997)

Academic For teachers, but excerpts can be used be students.Evocative, in-depth narrative of the full period covered by the topic.

Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution (Opus, 1994)

Academic For teachers and students. Concise overview.

Gregory Freeze, Russia, A History (Oxford University Press, 2009)

Academic For teachers.Covers history of Russia from 1450.

Robert Gellately, Lenin, Stalin and Hitler: the Age of Social Catastrophe (Vintage, 2007)

Academic For teachers and students.Very readable; emphasises violent methods of Lenin.

Abbott Gleason (editor), A Companion to Russian History (Wiley Blackwell, 2014)

Academic For teachers.Covers a much broader period but relevant chapters offer up-to-date commentary.



Mark von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship: The Red Army and the Soviet Socialist State, 1917–1930 (Cornell University Press, 1990)


Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia’s Continuum of Crisis 1914–1921 (Harvard University Press, 2002)

Academic For teachers.Sets Revolution in the context of war, with a particular focus on the Don Cossacks and issues of food supply.

Peter Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End (Cambridge University Press, second edition, 2006)

Academic Accessible for students as well as useful for teachers. Offers a clear and concise overview of the period from 1917.

Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution (Vintage, 1990)

Academic For teachers.Detailed, chronological and important account.

Richard Pipes, Three Whys of the Russian Revolution (Vintage 1997)

Academic For teachers.Short book (84 pages) of essays addressing why Tsarism fell, why the Bolsheviks won and why Stalin succeeded Lenin.

Chris Read, The Making and Breaking of the Soviet System (History in Perspective series, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001)

Academic For teachers, but early sections could also be used be students. Particularly strong on the role of the party in society and the state in the 1920s.

Aaron B Retish, Russia’s Peasants in Revolution and Civil War: Citizenship, Identity and the Creation of the Soviet State 1914–22 (Cambridge University Press, 2012)

Academic For teachers.Recent work on the period.

Robert Service, The Russian Revolution 1900–1927 (Studies in European History series, Palgrave, fourth edition, 2012)

Academic For teachers.Up-to-date summary of debates within a chronological structure.

Robert Service, A History of Modern Russia: From Tsardom to the Twenty-First Century, Robert Service (Penguin, third edition, 2009)

Academic For teachers and students.Includes an overview of historiography of Russia since 1900 in the introduction.



Robert Service, Spies and Commissars: The Early Years of the Bolshevik Revolution (Public Affairs, 2012) (Previously published as Spies and Commissars: The Bolshevik Revolution and the West)

Academic For teachers.Recent work from one of the leading writers in the field, focused on espionage.

Ronald Grigor Suny (editor), The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume III – The Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Academic For teachers and students.Chapters 2–6 cover the period of the paper 2 topic and provide concise, readable up-to-date overviews.

Rex A Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (Cambridge University Press, 2000)

Academic but designed to be accessible to the general reader

For teachers, but excerpts could be used by students. Detailed overview of 1917 and early 1918.

Alistair Kocho-Williams (editor), The Twentieth-Century Russian Reader (Routledge, 2011)

Academic reader (reprinting a series of selected, influential essays)

For teachers.Chapters 1–8 include recent and older influential essays on the Revolution by writers such as Leopold Haimson, Edward Acton, Sarah Badcock and Sheila Fitzpatrick.

Richard Sakwa, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union 1917–1991 (Routledge Sources in History, Routledge, 1999)

Academic – sources and commentary

For teachers.An extensive collection of source material, useful for practising source aspects of paper, chapters 2–4.

Ronald Kowalski, The Russian Revolution 1917–21 (Routledge Sources in History, Routledge, 1997)

Academic – sources and commentary

For teachers.In depth selection of sources on part of the period for this topic, useful for practising paper 2 source analysis skills.

S A Smith, The Russian Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2002)

Academic (but written for general readership)

For teachers and students.Concise overview by a leading writer on the period.

Orlando Figes, The Russian Revolution: A Pelican Introduction (Pelican, 2014)

Academic (but written for general readership)

For teachers and students.Concise, very recent overview.

Robert Service, Lenin: A Biography (Macmillan, 2000)

Biography For teachers.Follows a detailed chronological structure.



Graham Darby, The October Revolution, New Perspective for Modern History Students, 1997

Article Written for students, good on the position of the Bolsheviks in October 1917.

John Morison, Russia’s First Revolution, History Review, December 2000, pages 28–33:www.historytoday.com/john-morison/russias-first-revolution


Andrew Hannah, Peter Stolypin: The Tsar’s last hope?, Modern History Review, September 1998, pages 31–33


Peter Waldron, Why did the Imperial Russian government fail to learn the lessons of the 1905 revolution?, New Perspective for Modern History Students, Volume 6, Number 3, March 2001, pages 22–25


James D White, The Russian Revolution of February 1917: The Question of Organisation and Spontaneity, New Perspective for Modern History Students, 1997


Harold Shukman, Causes of the Russian Revolution: Tsars, Peasants and Revolutionaries, Modern History Review, September 1995, pages 2–5


Sam Merry, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: Doctrinaire Revolutionary, Modern History Review, September 1991, 30–32


Christopher Read, Interpreting Lenin in the Post-Leninist World, New Perspective for Modern History Students, Volume 4, Number 1, September 1998, pages 21–25



http://www.historytoday.com/john-morison/russias-first-revolution




Sarah Newman, Alexandra and Rasputin, The Historian, Winter 2010


Maureen Perrie, The Fall of the Romanovs, New Perspective for Modern History Students, 1997



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