Games at RomeGames at Rome

ludiludi

Types of Roman GamesTypes of Roman Games

Ludi CircensisLudi Circensis (Circus Games) – Chariot (Circus Games) – Chariot races – est. ca. 616-579 BCE races – est. ca. 616-579 BCE

What myths are associated with the What myths are associated with the Circus games? Circus games?

Ludi scaeniciLudi scaenici = Theatrical = Theatrical PerformancesPerformances

Munus/MuneraMunus/Munera – Gladiatorial contests – – Gladiatorial contests – est. 264 BCEest. 264 BCE

VenatioVenatio – Wild-Beast Hunt – est.? – Wild-Beast Hunt – est.?

Circus Maximus – where Circus Maximus – where ludiludi heldheld

Chariot Race in the Circus Chariot Race in the Circus MaximusMaximus

Colosseum - where most Colosseum - where most muneramunera were heldwere held

Roman Festivals and EntertainmentsRoman Festivals and EntertainmentsDuring the Republican PeriodDuring the Republican Period

Roman games (Roman games (ludiludi) elements of ) elements of Roman religious festivals (Roman religious festivals (feriaeferiae))

Acts of thanksgiving to the gods for: Acts of thanksgiving to the gods for: 1.Fertility, 2.Victories, 3.Deliverance 1.Fertility, 2.Victories, 3.Deliverance from crises, 3.Funerary from crises, 3.Funerary

Roman games characterized by Roman games characterized by spectaclespectacle

Ludi CircensisLudi Circensis

Origins uncertain – Evidence for both Origins uncertain – Evidence for both Greek and Etruscan origins Greek and Etruscan origins

The Circus Maximus inaugurated by The Circus Maximus inaugurated by the Etruscan king, the Etruscan king, Tarquinius Tarquinius Priscus Priscus (619-579 BCE)(619-579 BCE)

Tarquinius Priscus and the Circus Tarquinius Priscus and the Circus Maximus Maximus

““Tarquin’s first campaign was against the Latins. He Tarquin’s first campaign was against the Latins. He captured Apiolae, and returned to Rome with more captured Apiolae, and returned to Rome with more plunder than what report had led people to expect, plunder than what report had led people to expect, he celebrated public games on a scale more he celebrated public games on a scale more elaborate and opulent than any of his predecessors. elaborate and opulent than any of his predecessors. It was on this occasion that our Circus Maximus was It was on this occasion that our Circus Maximus was originally planned. On the ground marked out for it originally planned. On the ground marked out for it special places were assigned to senators and knights special places were assigned to senators and knights to erect their stands in – or ‘decks’ as they were to erect their stands in – or ‘decks’ as they were called. These decks were supported on props and called. These decks were supported on props and raised twelve feet from the ground. Horses and raised twelve feet from the ground. Horses and boxers, mostly from Etruria, provided the boxers, mostly from Etruria, provided the entertainment. From then onward the games became entertainment. From then onward the games became an annual institution, and were called the Roman, or an annual institution, and were called the Roman, or Greek, Games.” Greek, Games.” (Livy. 1.35. )(Livy. 1.35. )

MuneraMunera and the Sacred and the Sacred

Origins of gladiatorial games – funerary Origins of gladiatorial games – funerary contextcontext

341 CE – Desacralization of 341 CE – Desacralization of munermunera by a by ConstantiusConstantius

Comments of Christian apologistsComments of Christian apologists The importance of blood sacrifice to The importance of blood sacrifice to

Roman religion AND politicsRoman religion AND politics

The nature of gladiatorial gamesThe nature of gladiatorial gamesmunera (munus)munera (munus)

munusmunus = means duty, tribute, obligation – Not included in = means duty, tribute, obligation – Not included in ludiludi

First gladiatorial combat held in 264 BCE by the sons of D. First gladiatorial combat held in 264 BCE by the sons of D. Junius Brutus in honor of their dead father (included 3 pairs Junius Brutus in honor of their dead father (included 3 pairs of gladiators)of gladiators)

Held in the Held in the Forum BoariumForum Boarium Originally paid for by a private individual(Originally paid for by a private individual(editoreditor), usually in ), usually in

a funerary context; a funerary context; Private individuals could own troops of gladiators – trained Private individuals could own troops of gladiators – trained

by the by the lanistalanista (gladiator trainer) (gladiator trainer) muneramunera increased in frequency, organization, variety, and increased in frequency, organization, variety, and

scale over timescale over time Examples: 216 BCE (22 pairs of gladiators); 200 BCE (25 Examples: 216 BCE (22 pairs of gladiators); 200 BCE (25

pairs); 183 BCE (60 pairs) – By 65 BCE Julius Caesar planned pairs); 183 BCE (60 pairs) – By 65 BCE Julius Caesar planned a show of 320 pairs of gladiatorsa show of 320 pairs of gladiators

Numbers and scale a direct consequence of Roman imperial Numbers and scale a direct consequence of Roman imperial expansion -expansion -

Other occasions for Other occasions for muneramunera

Military Triumphs, granted to victorious Military Triumphs, granted to victorious commander who had killed at least 5000 of the commander who had killed at least 5000 of the enemyenemy

Ludi magni votivi Ludi magni votivi games vowed to Jupiter by games vowed to Jupiter by generals before they set out on a military generals before they set out on a military campaigncampaign

Regular Regular ludi votivi ludi votivi put on after 82 B.C. in put on after 82 B.C. in honour of Sulla, after 46 B.C. in honour of Julius honour of Sulla, after 46 B.C. in honour of Julius Caesar = Caesar = ludi Caesarisludi Caesaris

Tertullian (ca. 150 – 230 CE)Tertullian (ca. 150 – 230 CE)on the Origins of on the Origins of MuneraMunera

““It remains for us to examine the "spectacle" most It remains for us to examine the "spectacle" most noted of all, and in highest favour. It is called a noted of all, and in highest favour. It is called a dutiful service (dutiful service (munusmunus), from its being an office, for it ), from its being an office, for it bears the name of "bears the name of "officiumofficium" as well as "" as well as "munusmunus." The ." The ancients thought that in this solemnity they rendered ancients thought that in this solemnity they rendered offices to the dead; at a later period, with a cruelty offices to the dead; at a later period, with a cruelty more refined, they somewhat modified its character. more refined, they somewhat modified its character. [2][2] For formerly, in the belief that the souls of the  For formerly, in the belief that the souls of the departed were appeased by human blood, they were departed were appeased by human blood, they were in the habit of buying captives or slaves of wicked in the habit of buying captives or slaves of wicked disposition, and immolating them in their funeral disposition, and immolating them in their funeral obsequies. obsequies. [3][3] Afterwards they thought good to throw  Afterwards they thought good to throw the veil of pleasure over their iniquity. Those, the veil of pleasure over their iniquity. Those, therefore, whom they had provided for the combat, therefore, whom they had provided for the combat, and then trained in arms as best they could, only that and then trained in arms as best they could, only that they might learn to die, they, on the funeral day, they might learn to die, they, on the funeral day, killed at the places of sepulture. They alleviated killed at the places of sepulture. They alleviated death by murders. death by murders.

continued [4][4] Such is the origin of the "Munus." But by  Such is the origin of the "Munus." But by

degrees their refinement came up to their degrees their refinement came up to their cruelty; for these human wild beasts could cruelty; for these human wild beasts could not find pleasure exquisite enough, save in not find pleasure exquisite enough, save in the spectacle of men torn to pieces by wild the spectacle of men torn to pieces by wild beasts. Offerings to propitiate the dead then beasts. Offerings to propitiate the dead then were regarded as belonging to the class of were regarded as belonging to the class of funeral sacrifices; and these are idolatry: for funeral sacrifices; and these are idolatry: for idolatry, in fact, is a sort of homage to the idolatry, in fact, is a sort of homage to the departed; the one as well as the other is a departed; the one as well as the other is a service to dead men. service to dead men. [5][5] Moreover, demons  Moreover, demons have abode in the images of the dead.” have abode in the images of the dead.” (Tertullian, De Spectaculis, 12.1-5. K.H. (Tertullian, De Spectaculis, 12.1-5. K.H. Weeber, 2002) Weeber, 2002) http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-09.htm#P890_35063009.htm#P890_350630

who was a gladiator?who was a gladiator? 3 types of sources: slaves including war 3 types of sources: slaves including war

captives; criminals ; volunteerscaptives; criminals ; volunteers War captives and criminals condemned War captives and criminals condemned ad ad

amphitheatrumamphitheatrum Citizens who volunteered as gladiators were Citizens who volunteered as gladiators were

frowned uponfrowned upon Suffered from an ambivalent image - both Suffered from an ambivalent image - both

from the stain of pollution from the stain of pollution ((infamisinfamis)) and and rock star – volunteers had to take an oath to rock star – volunteers had to take an oath to be burnt, chained, and killed by an iron be burnt, chained, and killed by an iron weaponweapon

Could survive to eventually win their Could survive to eventually win their freedomfreedom

The SamnisThe Samnis

Types of gladiators often represented enemy of the Romans

This one wears armor and weapons of a Samnite warrior

www.mediterranees.net/.../Samnis.html

The The VenatioVenatio

VenatioVenatio = Wild beast hunt = Wild beast hunt Bestiarius = The beast-hunterBestiarius = The beast-hunter Frequently held during Frequently held during muneramunera Regular programme develops: Regular programme develops: VenatioVenatio in the in the

morning, Execution of criminals at noon, morning, Execution of criminals at noon, Gladiatorial combats in the afternoonGladiatorial combats in the afternoon

Funded by a private Funded by a private editor editor – had to arrange for the – had to arrange for the capture, transport, and maintenance of the animalscapture, transport, and maintenance of the animals

Lucrative for provincials to hunt and capture Lucrative for provincials to hunt and capture animals on large scale to meet Roman demandsanimals on large scale to meet Roman demands

Ecological disaster – species of animals wiped out Ecological disaster – species of animals wiped out in many regions of the Mediterranean and beyondin many regions of the Mediterranean and beyond

Victorius Bestiarius – 2Victorius Bestiarius – 2ndnd Century CECentury CE

http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/nenning5.jpg

Animal Combats – 3Animal Combats – 3rdrd Century Century CECE

http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/nenning6.jpg

The First The First Venatio?Venatio? The Games of Marcus Fulvius Nobilior (186 BCE The Games of Marcus Fulvius Nobilior (186 BCE))

Livy 39.22.1-2Livy 39.22.1-2

““Then…for ten days and with a great show Then…for ten days and with a great show of wealth Marcus Fulvius Nobilior put on of wealth Marcus Fulvius Nobilior put on the the ludiludi which he had which he had vowed during the vowed during the Aetolian WarAetolian War. Many actors came from . Many actors came from Greece to pay honor to him. Then also Greece to pay honor to him. Then also for for the first timethe first time an athletic competition was an athletic competition was put on put on as a spectacleas a spectacle for the Romans, and for the Romans, and a a venatiovenatio of lions and panthers was also of lions and panthers was also given, and the festival was celebrated given, and the festival was celebrated almost as it is now with regard to the almost as it is now with regard to the number and variety of events.” (S.G. number and variety of events.” (S.G. Miller, 1991)Miller, 1991)

Executions in the ArenaExecutions in the Arena

Hierarchy of ExecutionHierarchy of ExecutionRomans Citizens: died a quick deathRomans Citizens: died a quick deathCriminals of low status and Slaves: Criminals of low status and Slaves:

suffered a lingering deathsuffered a lingering deathForeign Enemies = Foreign Enemies = captivicaptivi also slow also slow

deathdeathForms: Death by beasts, crucifixion, Forms: Death by beasts, crucifixion,

burning aliveburning alive

The Function of Ordinary The Function of Ordinary Roman SacrificeRoman Sacrifice

pietas pietas – a combination of duty and affection to the – a combination of duty and affection to the gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.)gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.)

Sacrifice demonstrates Sacrifice demonstrates pietaspietas Sacrifice cleanses both both Sacrifice cleanses both both vitiumvitium (intended (intended

transgression) and transgression) and impietasimpietas (unintended transgression) (unintended transgression) PietasPietas legitimized the right of individuals to govern; legitimized the right of individuals to govern;

Role of magistrates: to maintain the Role of magistrates: to maintain the paxpax deorumdeorum (peace of the gods)(peace of the gods)

pietaspietas as expressed in (expressed in public acts of as expressed in (expressed in public acts of sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the statestate

Roman Blood SacrificeRoman Blood Sacrifice

Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of the godsthe gods

Under exceptional circumstances this could Under exceptional circumstances this could include human victims - include human victims - devotiodevotio

devotiodevotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a a commander before a campaign in return for a victory.victory.

Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boariumalive in the Forum Boarium

Execution of Christian martyrs described as Execution of Christian martyrs described as sacrificessacrifices

Roman ambivalence about devotio

“why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and two women ..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two Gauls. ..Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her

devotio continued private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and

headdress scattered in different directions, her tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would become notorious; and that some outrage would extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian slave ..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all been corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men. The women were convicted and punished, but as it was such an appalling business, it was decided that the priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on the spot (Plutarch, Roman Questions 83).

The Martyrdom of SaturusThe Martyrdom of SaturusCarthage – 250 CECarthage – 250 CE

““Well washed! Well washed!….He is well Well washed! Well washed!….He is well washed indeed who is washed in this washed indeed who is washed in this way” (washing is part of ritual cleansing)way” (washing is part of ritual cleansing)

Martyr tales are filled with the language Martyr tales are filled with the language of sacrificial offeringof sacrificial offering

Associated with the expiatory qualities Associated with the expiatory qualities of bloodof blood

Gladiator’s blood was likewise thought to Gladiator’s blood was likewise thought to have certain magical propertieshave certain magical properties

Sacrifice ad Sacrifice ad muneramunera Gladiatorial games Gladiatorial games started started as one of the as one of the

highest expressions of personal pietashighest expressions of personal pietas The magical qualities of sacrificial blood, The magical qualities of sacrificial blood,

especially human blood, cleansed the state of especially human blood, cleansed the state of both both vitiumvitium and and impietasimpietas

Because Because impietasimpietas could occur unnoticed, could occur unnoticed, sacrificial blood had to be shed in a sacrificial blood had to be shed in a prophylactic way – prophylactic way – muneramunera helped in this helped in this functionfunction

When ritual sacrifice no longer served a When ritual sacrifice no longer served a religious function (religious function (by 341 CEby 341 CE) ) muneramunera discontinued – the fact that they had to be discontinued – the fact that they had to be ““de-sacralizedde-sacralized in first place underscores their in first place underscores their sacred qualitiessacred qualities

The Scape-Goat Ritual The Scape-Goat Ritual ancient Greeceancient Greece

Scape-goat = Scape-goat = pharmakospharmakosPurification ritual - expulsion of the Purification ritual - expulsion of the

Pharmakos:Pharmakos:The ritual: a man chosen for his ugliness is The ritual: a man chosen for his ugliness is

first feasted on figs, barley broth, cheese, first feasted on figs, barley broth, cheese, then whipped out of the community with then whipped out of the community with fig branches and sea onions, struck fig branches and sea onions, struck especially seven times on his genitals; in especially seven times on his genitals; in this way community is cleansed of any this way community is cleansed of any committed pollution known or unknowncommitted pollution known or unknown

Sacrificial Victims in RomeSacrificial Victims in Rome Ordinary Gladiator Ordinary Gladiator

Blood shed as offering to Blood shed as offering to godsgods

Victim had to be willingVictim had to be willing

The offering of victims = an The offering of victims = an act of act of pietaspietas

Victim must stand outside of Victim must stand outside of the communitythe community

Actual act of sacrifice Actual act of sacrifice presided over by a presided over by a magistrate, priest, or magistrate, priest, or emperor but carried out by a emperor but carried out by a slaveslave

Blood shed as offering to Blood shed as offering to deaddead

AuctoramentumAuctoramentum GladiatorumGladiatorum

Editor puts on games as an Editor puts on games as an act of act of pietaspietas

Gladiators suffer from Gladiators suffer from infamiainfamia

Actual death of a gladiator Actual death of a gladiator as victim carried out by as victim carried out by another gladiator who is another gladiator who is likewise a slavelikewise a slave

The Violence and the SacredThe Violence and the SacredRene GirardRene Girard

Dinka and Ndembu (tribes in Africa)– Sacrificial Dinka and Ndembu (tribes in Africa)– Sacrificial victims = receptacles for social and religious pollutionvictims = receptacles for social and religious pollution

Sacrificial victims must stand outside the communitySacrificial victims must stand outside the community Incwala – King = sacrificial victimIncwala – King = sacrificial victim Enthronement ceremony involves the king performing Enthronement ceremony involves the king performing

every kind of ritually and socially taboo actevery kind of ritually and socially taboo act Followed by a ritual combat with village warriorsFollowed by a ritual combat with village warriors King 1. Set outside the community, 2. Absorbs all the King 1. Set outside the community, 2. Absorbs all the

pollution of the community (similar to scapegoat ritual pollution of the community (similar to scapegoat ritual in early Greece)in early Greece)

Cow is substituted for the king as a victim – the victim Cow is substituted for the king as a victim – the victim is slain and communal pollution with itis slain and communal pollution with it

Function of Gladiatorial Function of Gladiatorial spectacles spectacles

Not just cruelty and bloodlustNot just cruelty and bloodlustSacrificial purpose Sacrificial purpose Important social functions in a status Important social functions in a status

conscious society, displaying of social conscious society, displaying of social hierarchyhierarchy

Display of boundaries between Display of boundaries between Insiders and outsidersInsiders and outsiders

Display of Rome’s Power and Conquest Display of Rome’s Power and Conquest of the Uncivilized of the Uncivilized

Transformation of Roman Transformation of Roman GamesGames

From funerary honors to From funerary honors to entertainmententertainment

Games came to be Games came to be expected/demandedexpected/demanded

Increasing variety, scale, and crueltyIncreasing variety, scale, and crueltyAttempts by individual powerful Attempts by individual powerful

Roman individuals to gain control of Roman individuals to gain control of GamesGames

From an “Obligation” to the Dead to an From an “Obligation” to the Dead to an “Obligation” to the People“Obligation” to the People

There were two things which Murena, in his campaign for the There were two things which Murena, in his campaign for the praetorship, suffered seriously from the lack of, but which were praetorship, suffered seriously from the lack of, but which were both of considerable benefit to him when he came to stand for both of considerable benefit to him when he came to stand for the consulship. One was games, the expectation of which had the consulship. One was games, the expectation of which had been brought about by certain rumors and by the deliberate been brought about by certain rumors and by the deliberate suggestion of his rivals for office…Both of these advantages suggestion of his rivals for office…Both of these advantages fortune held back for him until he stood for the consulship…as fortune held back for him until he stood for the consulship…as for his not having put on games, a factor which had hampered for his not having put on games, a factor which had hampered Murena in his campaign for the praetorship, this deficiency had Murena in his campaign for the praetorship, this deficiency had been made up for by the extremely lavish games he had put on been made up for by the extremely lavish games he had put on in the course of his year as praetor…It may be that you…attach in the course of his year as praetor…It may be that you…attach more weight to the urban vote than to that of the soldiers. But if more weight to the urban vote than to that of the soldiers. But if so, you can hardly show the same contempt for the high quality so, you can hardly show the same contempt for the high quality of Murena’s games and the magnificence of the spectacle, since of Murena’s games and the magnificence of the spectacle, since this was unquestionably of enormous help to him. Do I need to this was unquestionably of enormous help to him. Do I need to point out that the people and the ignorant masses adore games? point out that the people and the ignorant masses adore games? It is hardly surprising that they do.” (Cicero, Pro Murena, A. It is hardly surprising that they do.” (Cicero, Pro Murena, A. Futrell, 2006)Futrell, 2006)

Games as entertainmentGames as entertainment

Increasing demand for games resulted: Increasing demand for games resulted: 1.Increasing frequency, 2. Increasing 1.Increasing frequency, 2. Increasing scale, 3.Increasing varietyscale, 3.Increasing variety

Games become all about spectacleGames become all about spectacle Events are combined and merged Events are combined and merged

(Theater, Munera, Venatio, Executions, (Theater, Munera, Venatio, Executions, Athletics, Triumphs)Athletics, Triumphs)

Games celebrated outside of the regular Games celebrated outside of the regular calendar of games or outside of the calendar of games or outside of the funerary contextfunerary context

The Cruelty of GamesThe Cruelty of GamesSeneca, Seneca, Epistulae MoralesEpistulae Morales, 7. R. Campbell, 1969, 7. R. Campbell, 1969

““I happened to go to one of those shows at the time of the lunch-I happened to go to one of those shows at the time of the lunch-hour interlude, expecting there to be some light and witty hour interlude, expecting there to be some light and witty entertainment then, some respite for the purpose of affording entertainment then, some respite for the purpose of affording people’s eyes a rest from human blood. Far from it. All the earlier people’s eyes a rest from human blood. Far from it. All the earlier contests were charity in comparison. The nonsense is dispensed contests were charity in comparison. The nonsense is dispensed with now: what we have now is murder pure and simple. The with now: what we have now is murder pure and simple. The combatants have nothing to protect them; their whole bodies are combatants have nothing to protect them; their whole bodies are exposed to the blows; every thrust they launch gets home. A exposed to the blows; every thrust they launch gets home. A great many spectators prefer this to the ordinary matches and great many spectators prefer this to the ordinary matches and even to the special, popular demand ones. And quite naturally. even to the special, popular demand ones. And quite naturally. There are no helmets and no shields repelling the weapons. What There are no helmets and no shields repelling the weapons. What is the point of armour? Or of skill? All that sort of thing just makes is the point of armour? Or of skill? All that sort of thing just makes the death slower in coming. In the morning men are thrown to the death slower in coming. In the morning men are thrown to lions and bears: but it is the spectators they are thrown to in the lions and bears: but it is the spectators they are thrown to in the lunch hour. The spectators insist that each on killing his man shall lunch hour. The spectators insist that each on killing his man shall be thrown against another to be killed in his turn; and the be thrown against another to be killed in his turn; and the eventual victor is reserved by them for some other form of eventual victor is reserved by them for some other form of butchery; the only exit for the contestants is death. Fire and steel butchery; the only exit for the contestants is death. Fire and steel keep the slaughter going. And all this happens while the arena is keep the slaughter going. And all this happens while the arena is virtually empty.”virtually empty.”

Political Aspect of Gladiatorial Political Aspect of Gladiatorial showsshows

Display of importance and wealth of Display of importance and wealth of senatorial families senatorial families

122 BCE Gaius Gracchus put on 122 BCE Gaius Gracchus put on shows for free for all Romans – shows for free for all Romans – became customary for magistrates became customary for magistrates aiming for higher officeaiming for higher office

used to attract attention and support used to attract attention and support for elections to officefor elections to office

The facilitiesThe facilities

Pressure to create specialized facilities to Pressure to create specialized facilities to accommodate the scale and variety of accommodate the scale and variety of eventsevents

First gladiatorial events held in the Forum First gladiatorial events held in the Forum Boarium, Forum Romanum, or the Campus Boarium, Forum Romanum, or the Campus MartiusMartius

The Amphitheater would become the The Amphitheater would become the highest expression of Roman identity and highest expression of Roman identity and Roman imperialismRoman imperialism

Forum BoariumForum Boarium

http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/boarium.jpg

The Amphitheater The Amphitheater

Late development Late development Came to Rome from CampaniaCame to Rome from Campania Earliest amphitheater built in Pompeii in Earliest amphitheater built in Pompeii in

ca. 70 BCEca. 70 BCE First permanent (wooden) amphitheater First permanent (wooden) amphitheater

in Rome built by Statilius Taurus in 27 BCEin Rome built by Statilius Taurus in 27 BCE

Game Day Game Day

Night before the game = Public banquet for Night before the game = Public banquet for performersperformers

Game day begins with the Game day begins with the Pompa Pompa (procession)(procession) including Lictors, Editor, Performers, including Lictors, Editor, Performers, Musicians, Religious IconsMusicians, Religious Icons

VenationesVenationes = Wild Beast Hunts = Wild Beast Hunts MeridianiMeridiani = Public Executions = Public Executions MuneraMunera = Gladiators = Gladiators

The The pompapompa ““The “The “pompapompa” procession – which comes first, proves ” procession – which comes first, proves

in itself to whom it belongs, with the long line of idols, in itself to whom it belongs, with the long line of idols, the unbroken train of images, the cars and chariots the unbroken train of images, the cars and chariots and conveyances for carrying them, the portable and conveyances for carrying them, the portable thrones and garlands and the attributes of the gods. thrones and garlands and the attributes of the gods. Moreover, how many sacred rites are observed, how Moreover, how many sacred rites are observed, how many sacrifices are offered at the beginning, in the many sacrifices are offered at the beginning, in the course, and at the end of the procession, how many course, and at the end of the procession, how many religious corporations, furthermore, how many religious corporations, furthermore, how many priesthoods, how many bodies of magistrates are priesthoods, how many bodies of magistrates are called upon to march in it – each is known to the called upon to march in it – each is known to the inhabitants of that city where all the demons have inhabitants of that city where all the demons have gathered and take up their abode.” (Tertullian, gathered and take up their abode.” (Tertullian, De De SpectaculisSpectaculis, 7.2-3, A. Futrell, 2006), 7.2-3, A. Futrell, 2006)

Foundation Charter for Foundation Charter for Genetiva JuliaGenetiva Julia(44 BCE)(44 BCE)

““Let whosoever shall be aediles put on Let whosoever shall be aediles put on during their magistracy a gladiatorial during their magistracy a gladiatorial spectacle and theatrical shows in honor of spectacle and theatrical shows in honor of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva as far as possible Jupiter, Juno and Minerva as far as possible over a three day period for the greater part over a three day period for the greater part of the day and one day of shows in the of the day and one day of shows in the circus or in the forum in honor of Venus; circus or in the forum in honor of Venus; and on the said show and gladiatorial and on the said show and gladiatorial spectacles each of the said magistrates spectacles each of the said magistrates shall spend of his own money not less than shall spend of his own money not less than 2,000 sesterces, and out of public funds 2,000 sesterces, and out of public funds each Aedile shall be allowed to spend each Aedile shall be allowed to spend 1,000 sesterces. Let a duovir or a prefect 1,000 sesterces. Let a duovir or a prefect oversee the giving and the attribution of oversee the giving and the attribution of that money.that money.” (J.C. Edmondson, 2001)” (J.C. Edmondson, 2001)

ConclusionsConclusions The ambivalent image of the gladiator emerges The ambivalent image of the gladiator emerges

out of his status as sacrificial victim and his out of his status as sacrificial victim and his status as status as victimarius victimarius (carrying out the sacrifice)(carrying out the sacrifice)

Gladiatorial games increased in scale and Gladiatorial games increased in scale and importance under the principate because importance under the principate because emperors needed to legitimize their positionemperors needed to legitimize their position

Political legitimacy is a function of one’s Political legitimacy is a function of one’s demonstrable ability to maintain the demonstrable ability to maintain the Pax Pax DeorumDeorum

Maintaining the Maintaining the Pax DeorumPax Deorum was carried out was carried out through public displays of through public displays of pietaspietas, the highest , the highest expression of which was public sacrificeexpression of which was public sacrifice