Gadamer and philosophical Ethics. Kenny

8/10/2019 Gadamer and philosophical Ethics. Kenny

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Man and Wo r ld 21 :32 7 -3 4 6 (1 988 )9 Kluwer Academ ic Publishers

G a d a m e r a n d p h i l o so p h i c a l et h ic s

MICHAEL KELLYBaruch College Ci ty Univers ity o f N ew Yo rk

P h i l o s o p h i c a l e th i c s u n d e r s t o o d a s a t h e o r y o f e t h ic a l r e f l ec t i o nh a s b e e n u n d e r t h e s h a d o w o f s k e p ti ci sm th r o u g h o u t m u c h o ft h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y. T h i s h a s b e e n t r u e i n t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a nt r a d i t io n b e c a u s e o f e m o t i v i s m a n d i n t h e C o n t i n e n t a l t r a d i ti o nb e c a u s e o f e x i s t e n t i a l i s m ? T h e e m o t i v i s t s c h a rg e t h a t e t h i c a lt h e o r y c a n n e v e r a t t a i n t h e o b j e c t i v i t y t h a t is r e q u i r e d f o r av a l id s c i e n t i f ic t h e o r y ; w h e r e a s t h e e x i s t e n t ia l i st s c l a im t h a t a n ye t h ic a l t h e o r y i s t o o f o r m a l o r a b s tr a c t a n d t h u s i n h e r e n t l yi m p r a c t i c a l . A b e l i e f s h a r e d b y t h e s e t w o t r a d i t i o n s is t h a t b e -c a u s e e t h i c a l t h e o r y i s e i t h e r i m p o s s i b l e o r im p r a c t i c a l p h i l o s o p h i -ca l e th ics i t se l f is impo ss ib le .

S i n c e th e 1 9 6 0 s h o w e v e r t h e r e h a s b e e n a r ev iv a l o f i n t e r e s ti n e th i cs b o t h w i t h i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o m m u n i t y a n d i n t h ep u b l i c a t l a rg e . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s r e v i v a l a r e v a r i e dt h e y a r e i n g e n e ra l e x t e r n a l t o p h i l o s o p h y p r o p e r. T h a t is o n eo f t h e r e a so n s is n o t t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e r e a c h e d a c o n s e n s u s

a b o u t h o w t o e s t a b li s h a n o b j e c t i v e a n d p r a c ti c a l e t h i c a l t h e o r y.T h i s i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n e t h i c s i s o f t e na c c o m p a n i e d b y a s k e p t ic i s m s im i la r t o t h a t w h i c h m a r k e d e m o -t iv i s m a n d e x i s t e n t ia l i sm . ~ T h e r e s u l t is th a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c ss ti ll s e e m s i m p o s s i b l e t o d a y.

W h a t c a u s e s t h is s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h ic s ? T h ea n s w e r is I t h i n k t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e b e e n u n c e r t a i n a b o u tw h a t e t h i c a l t h e o r y i s a n d w h a t i t c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o a c h i e v e .S i n ce t h e p r i n c ip a l w a y i n w h i c h p h i l o s o p h y c a n c o n t r i b u t e t oe t h i c s i s b y d e v e l o p i n g a n e t h i c a l t h e o r y t h a t e x p l a i n s t h e s t r u c -t u r e o f e t h ic a l r e f l e c t i o n a n d i t s r e l a ti o n t o e t h ic a l p r a c t i c e t h ec o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y i s t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e c o n -


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t r i b u t e d l it tl e t o e th i cs . M o r e o v e r, m a n y h a v e c o n v i n c e d t h e m -s elv es t h a t , i n p r i n c ip l e , t h e y c a n n o t c o n t r i b u t e .

H a n s - G e o rg G a d a m e r i s m o r e e n c o u r a g i n g a b o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t yo f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s . F o r t h i s a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r r e a s o n s , ] s h a l ld i sc u ss t h e r e le v a n c e o f h is p h i l o s o p h i c a l h e r m e n e u t i c s to t h eo v e r c o m i n g o f e t h i c a l s k e p t i c i s m . F i r s t o f a l l , h e p r o v i d e s a v e r yi n s ig h t f u l , i f s u c c i n c t, a c c o u n t o f w h y p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h ic s p r o v e ss o d i f f i c u l t. 3 A s e c o n d r e a s o n is t h a t h e p r o p o s e s a m o d e l o fe t h i c a l t h e o r y, b a s e d o n a p a r ti a l s y n t h e s i s o f A r i s t o t e l i a n a n dK a n t i a n e t h ic s , w h i c h w i ll h e l p t o r e s t o r e o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l e t h i c s . A f t e r e x p l a i n i n g t h i s s y n t h e s i s , I s ha ll r e t u r nt o t h e i s s u e o f s k e p t i c i s m i n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n . M y o v e r a ll p u r p o s eh e r e is t o d e s c r ib e , d e v e l o p , a n d d e f e n d G a d a m e r ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t op h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h ic s .

W h y, a c c o r d i n g t o G a d a m e r, is p h i lo s o p h i c a l e t h ic s s o v u l n er a b let o s k e p t i c i s m ? T h e p r o b l e m is th a t , w h i l e it is th e o r e t i c a l , e t h i c a lr e f l e c ti o n c a n n o t r e je c t t h e d e m a n d t h a t i t a ls o b e o f p r a c ti c a lr e l e v a n c e ;4 i t m u s t b e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l a t t h e s a m e t i m e .E v e n K a n t , b y r e p u t a t i o n t h e a r c h f o r m a l i s t , a c c e p t s t h i s d e m a n d- e v e n p u r e r e a s o n m u s t b e p r a c t ic a l . M a n y e th i c a l t h e o r i s t ss in c e K a n t h a v e s t r u g g l e d w i t h t h i s i ss u e . I t w a s p r o m i n e n t i nH e g e l ' s c r i t i q u e o f K a n t a n d l a t e r in K i e r k e g a a r d ' s c r i t i q u e o fH e g e l. A g a i n s t t h e p r i o r i t y g i v e n t o t h e c a t e g o r i c a l i m p e r a t i v e i n

K a n t ' s e t h ic s , H e g e l e m p h a s i z e d t h e c o n c r e t e , if u n i v e rs a l, f o r m so f e t h i c a l l if e ( t h e f a m i l y, civ il s o c i e ty, a n d s t a t e ) w i t h i n w h i c he t h i c a l la w s a re d e t e r m i n e d . A g a i n s t H e g e l , K i e r k e g a a r d i n t r o -d u c e d t h e n o t i o n o f c h o i c e , t h e c o n c r e te m o m e n t w h e n a n e th i-c al d e c i si o n h a s t o b e m a d e . A t s u c h a m o m e n t , b o t h g e n e r al l aw st e s t e d b y t h e c a t e g o r ic a l i m p e r a t i v e a n d t h e u n i v e r sa l f o r m s o fe t h i c a l l if e a r e t o o a b s t r a c t ; f o r t h e r e is a s in g l e i n d i v i d u a l m a k i n ga c h o i c e th a t i s m a r k e d b y b o t h i ts t r a n s i to r y n a t u r e a n d t h e a b -s o l u t e n e s s o f i ts r es o l v e : e t h i c a l c h o i c e is n o t a m a t t e r o f t h e o -

r e t ic a l k n o w l e d g e , b u t r a t h e r o f t h e c l a r i t y, s h a r p n e s s , a n d a f fl ic -t i o n o f c o n s c ie n c e . s

T h e b a si c p r o b l e m i n b o t h c r it iq u e s , w h i c h c o n t i n u e s t o e c h o


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i n m o r e r e c e n t d i sc u s s io n s a b o u t e t h i ca l t h e o r y , is t h e g e n e r a l i t yo f e t h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n : I n s o f a r a s e t h i c s is u n d e r s t o o d a s a k n o w l -e d g e o f t h e g e n e r a l , i t i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n a b l e n e s st h a t is c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f g e n e r a l la w s. ''~ H o w c a n ag e n e r a l e t h ic a l t h e o r y d o j u s t i c e t o t h e c o n c r e t e , p r a c t ic a l s i tu a -t i o n s o f e t h i c a l l if e, t h a t i s, t h e c o n t e x t o f d e l i b e r a t i o n a n d a c t i o n ?I t s e e m s e i t h e r t h a t a g e n e r a l t h e o r y c a n n o t h a v e a n y p r a c t ic a le f f i c a c y a t a ll , o r t h a t , i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h e c r i t e r i a o f o b j e c t i v i t ya n d i m p a r t i a l it y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s u c h a t h e o r y , w e h a v e t o a b -s t r a c t s o m u c h f r o m w h a t d e f i n e s u s a s c o n c r e t e i n d iv i d u a ls t h a t

w e s u f f e r f r o m w h a t h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n r e f e r re d to a s m o r a l a lie -n a t i o n , ''~ t h a t i s, w e h a v e t o a l i e n a t e o u r s e lv e s f r o m o u r s e l v e s a n df r o m o t h e r h u m a n s q u a i n d iv i d u al s i n o r d e r t o h a v e a n e t h i c a lt h e o r y. I n t h e f i rs t c a s e , t h e p r a c t i c a l v a l u e a n d u s e f u l n e s s o f e t h i -c al t h e o r y is v e r y d u b i o u s , w h i l e i n th e s e c o n d c a se t h e p r i c e w eh a v e t o p a y f o r t h e o r y is s i m p l y t o o h ig h . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i fw e a b a n d o n e t h ic a l t h e o r y b e c a u s e o f th e p r o b l e m s s t e m m i n gf r o m i t s g e n e r a l i t y, w e t h e r e b y f a I t i n t o d e c i s i o n i s m , t h e p o s i t i o nt h a t o u r e t h ic a l ch o i c es a re m a d e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e m a n d s o f

t h e m o m e n t , w h i c h m a y o r m a y n o t b e ra ti on a l, m a y o r m a y n o tb e c o n s is t e n t, m a y o r m a y n o t b e m o r a l.

G a d a m e r a rg u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e tw o p o s si b le w a y s t o r e s ol v et h e s e p r o b l e m s : o n e is A r i s t o t l e 's l in k b e t w e e n p h r o n e s i s a n de t h o s , a n d t h e o t h e r i s K a n t ' s f o r m a l i s m c o m b i n e d w i t h h i sn o t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l d i a l e c t i c i n e th i c a l r e f l e c t io n . 8 T h e t w ow a y s a r e n o t i n t e n d e d a s s e p a r a te p a th s , h o w e v e r. G a d a m e r s ug -g e st s t h a t a p a r t ia l s y n t h e s i s o f t h e s e t w o e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s m a yr e so l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t hi c s; f o r A r i s t o t le a n dK a n t b o t h a t t e m p t e d t o e s t a b li s h a c le a r c o n c e p t u a l r e l a ti o n s h i pb e t w e e n e t h i c a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e s o t h a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i csc a n a v o i d i rr e l e v a n c e , s k e p t i c i s m , a n d d e c i s i o n i s m .

T h e s u g g e s t i o n o f s u c h a s y n t h e s i s , h o w e v e r, is i n i ti a l ly a s p a r a -d o x i c a l a s t h e i s su e i t is s u p p o s e d t o r e s o l v e is p r o b l e m a t i c . F o rA r i s t o t l e ' s e t h i c s is b a s e d o n t h e n o t i o n o f p h r o n e s i s , a p r a c t i c a lr e a s o n t h a t i s c o n d i t i o n e d b y i ts e t h o s - t h e c u s t o m s , h a b i ts ,l a w s , e t c e t e r a , o f t h e p o l i t ic a l l i fe b y w h i c h i t i s f o r m e d a n d in

w h i c h i t o p e r a t e s . K a n t ' s e t h ic s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is b a s e d o na n i d e a o f p u r e p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n , w h i c h is a p r i o ri a n d t h u s u n -c o n d i t i o n e d b y e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r s ( e . g . , d e s i r e s , i n t e r e s t s , e t c . ) .


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H o w c a n t h e s e t w o e t hi c al t h e o ri e s b e c o m b i n e d w h e n t h e y a reb a s e d o n w h a t s e e m t o b e t w o o p p o s i n g n o t i o n s o f p r a c t ic a lr e a s o n ? H o w c a n t h e c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s a n d u n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s o fp r a c t ic a l r e a s o n b e r e c o n c i l e d ? O n t h e a n s w e r t o th i s q u e s t i o nd e p e n d s t h e p o s s ib i l it y o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h ic s .

G a d a m e r a r g ue s t h a t t h e c o n f li c t b e t w e e n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s sa n d u n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s is n o t s o m u c h a c o n f li c t b e t w e e n t w o c o n -c e p t i o n s o f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n a s o n e w i t h i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i ts e lf .

T h e a u t o n o m y o f e t h ic a l r e a s on c e r t ai n ly h a s th e c h a r a c t e r o f

i n te l li g ib l e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . B u t t h a t d o e s n o t e x c l u d e t h ee m p i r i c a l c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s o f a ll h u m a n a c t i o n s a n d d e c i s io n s ....T h e r e c o g n i t io n o f h u m a n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s is c o m p a t i b l e w i t ht h e s u b l i m e u n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s o f e t h i c a l la w. 9

T h e c o n f l i c t is b e t w e e n t h e l a w s t h a t p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n g iv e s t oi t s e lf a n d t h e c o n t e x t o f e t h i c a l d e l i b e r a t i o n a n d a c t i o n w i t hw h i c h t h e s e l a w s b e g in a n d to w h i c h t h e y m u s t t h e n b e a p pl ie d .T h e l aw s a r e u n c o n d i t i o n e d i n s o f a r a s t h e y a re e x p r e s s io n s o f

p r a c t i c a l re a s o n ' s s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , b u t d e l i b e r a t i o n a n d a c t i o na r e c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e r e s t r ai n ts o n t hi s s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n w h i c ha r e e m b o d i e d i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n 's e t h o s .

T h i s a c c o u n t o f a c o n f l i c t w i t h i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n m a y, a t f i r s t ,s e e m m o r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h A r i s t o t l e ' s e t h i c s t h a n w i t h K a n t ' s .B u t th e i n d e p e n d e n t o f e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h is t h e m e a n i n g o f

p u r e i n K a n t ' s i d e a o f p u r e p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n a p p li e s a s m u c ht o e t h i c a l l a w s a s t o p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i t s e lf . 1~ T h e s e l a w s a r e u n -c o n d i t i o n e d , i n e f f e c t , i f t h e y h a v e a u n i v er s a l f o r m , a n d t h e i rf o r m is u n i v e rs a l i f t h e y p a ss t h e t e s t o f t h e c a t e g o r i c a l i m p e r a -t iv e . A l t h o u g h t h e s e l a w s a n d t h e c a t e g o r ic a l i m p e r a t i v e m u s t b ed e r iv e d f r o m r e a so n , t h is r e a s o n c a n n o t a n d n e e d n o t b e c o m -p l e t e l y a p r i o ri . A c c o r d i n g t o K a n t h i m s e l f , i t is n o t p o s s ib l e f o rh u m a n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n t o b e c o m p l e t e l y p u r e , n o r is i t p o s si b let o p r o v e t h a t p u r e r e a s o n c a n b e p r a c t i c a l J ~ I f t h is is t r u e , t h e nt h e r e i s n o w a y t h a t p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n ' s l a w s c a n b e b a s e d s o l e l y( in K a n t ' s t e r m s , d i r e c t l y a n d s u f f i c i e n t l y ) o n a p ri o ri r e a s o n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n i f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n ' s u n i v e r s a l l a w s w e r e b a s e do n p u r e r e a s o n a l o n e , t h e y w o u l d b e r a t h e r u s e l e s s , b e c a u s e t h e yw o u l d l a c k c o n t e n t . I n s o f ar a s p r a c t ic a l r e a s o n ' s l a w s m u s t h a v e


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con ten t (which can be derived only from what Ka n t calls empiri-cal reason) and must be applied to moral deliberation and action(both of which are conditioned), they cannot be completelypure. 12 Moreover, we do not need a complet ely pure practicalreason. Kant's goal in the second Cri t ique -e th ica llaws withuniversal forms - can be attained by empirical practical reason,that is, by phronesis. There is no reason why a cond ition ed practi-cal reason cannot articulate and defend laws that have a universalform; for the conditionedness of practical reason affects only thecontent and practical application of its laws. To take an example

from the legal sphere, it is possible to formulate a legal principle- equa lity before the law - whose form is universal in the sensetha t its scope (i.e., its intended application) is universal, but whichis no t based on pure reason and which is no t necessarily carriedout in practice. Ethical laws have a similar status. They can beuniversal in form, but less than universal in content or actual ap-plication. As such, they are not products of pure reason alone,but, at best, of a practical reason whose pure and empirical mo-ments are inseparable. 13 Kant' s goal in the second Critique is toprevent the empirically conditioned reason from presuming to bethe only ground of deter mina tion of the will (KpV, p. 16 [PAE,V:16]). To reach this goal, he did not need to prove that purereason alone is capable of determining the will.

Thus, the attributes condit ioned and uncond itione d donot conflict, because they do not apply to the same thing (practi-cal reason) in the same respect. Rather, the attribute condi-tioned applies to the situatedness of ethical deliberation and

action; and the attribute unc ond iti one d to the laws establishedby practical reason. In the end, therefore, the conflict is reallywithin practical reason and, more specifically, between its un-conditioned laws and the application of these same laws to con-ditioned deliberation and action. T

Gadamer's proposed synthesis of Aristotelian and Kantianethics m ay still seem rat her one-sided, favoring Aristo tle overKant, phronesis over pure practical reason. But the synthesisremains compatible with Kant's philosophy. For example, the

problem of application just discussed is reminiscent of Kant'stheoretical problem in the first Critique where he had discoveredthe a priori laws of the understanding and was faced with the


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q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e y c o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o e x p e r i e n c e . A r e-l a te d , b u t m o r e p r a c ti c al p r o b l e m a ris es i n t h e s e c o n d a n t i n o m yo f t h e s a m e C ritiqu e. as H o w c an h u m a n a c ti o n s b e f r ee i f t h e yt a k e p l a c e in t h e e m p i r ic a l w o r l d o f n a t u r e , a n d if t h i s w o r l d isc a u sa ll y g o v e r n e d ( d e t e r m i n e d ) b y t h e la w s o f n a t u r e ? K a n t ' sp r o p o s e d s o l u t io n t o t h is a n t i n o m y b e tw e e n f r e e d o m a n d n a t u r eis w ell k n o w n : t h e n o u m e n o n / p h e n o m e n o n d i st in c ti on . A c t i o nis u n d e r s t o o d i n t w o s en s es : n o u m e n a l l y in t e r m s o f t h e la w o ff r e e d o m , a n d p h e n o m e n a l l y i n t e rm s o f t h e la w s o f n a tu r e . T h isd u a l i sm r e f le c t s t h e t w o s id e s o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e th i c s w h i c h w e

h a v e b e e n d i s c u s si n g h e r e ; it r e fl e c t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a ld i m e n s i o n s o f e th ic s : t h e n o u m e n a l u n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s o f et h ic a lla w s a n d t h e p h e n o m e n a l c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s o f e th i ca l d e li b e ra t io na n d a c t i o n .

B u t t h i s d u a l i s m , w h i c h i s v e r y c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f K a n t ' s p h i l o s o -p h y a s a w h o l e , is m e r e l y a n e x p r e s s i o n o f th e c o n f l ic t b e t w e e nf r e e d o m a n d n a t u r e o r b e t w e e n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s a n d u n c o n d i -t i o n e d n e s s ; it d o e s n o t r es o lv e t h e c o n f l ic t . T h is p o i n t w i ll b e c o m ec le a r, I t h i n k , i f w e e x a m i n e a re l a t e d c o n f l i c t (i n t h eG r o u n d -

w o r k w h i c h K a n t c a ll s t h e n a t u r a l d i a l e c t i c i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n :

M a n f e e l s w i t h i n h i m s e l f a p o w e r f u l c o u n t e r w e i g h t t o a ll th ec o m m a n d s o f d u t y, w h i c h ar e p r es e n t e d t o h i m b y r e as o n a sb e i n g so p r e - e m i n e n t l y w o r t h y o f r e sp e c t ; t hi s c o u n t e r w e i g h tc o n s i s t s o f h i s n e e d s a n d i n c l i n a t i o n s , w h o s e t o t a l s a t i s f a c ti o nis s u m m e d u p u n d e r t h e n a m e o f h a p p in e s s. N o w r e a so n ir re -m i s s i b l y c o m m a n d s i t s p r e c e p t s , w i t h o u t t h e r e b y p r o m i s i n gt h e i n c l i n a t io n s a n y t h i n g ; h e n c e i t d i s r e g ar d s a n d n e g l e c t s t h e s ei m p e t u o u s a n d a t t h e s a m e t im e s o s ee m i n g l y p l a u si b le cl ai m s( w h i c h d o n o t a ll ow th e m s e l v e s t o b e s u p p re s se d b y a n y c o m -m a n d ) . H e n c e a ris e s a n a t u r a l d i a l ec t ic , i .e ., a p r o p e n s i t y t oq u i b b l e w i t h t h e s e s t r ic t la w s o f d u t y, t o c a s t d o u b t u p o n t h e i rv a l i d i t y, o r a t l e as t u p o n t h e i r p u r i t y a n d s t r ic t n e s s , a n d t om a k e t h e m , w h e r e p o s s ib le , m o r e c o m p a t i b le w i t h o u r w i sh e sa n d i n c li n a ti o n s . T h e r e b y a re s u c h l a w s c o r r u p t e d i n t h e i r v e r yf o u n d a t i o n s a n d t h e i r w h o l e d i g n i ty is d e s t r o y e d - s o m e t h i n g

w h i c h e v e n o r d i n a r y p r a c ti c a l r e as o n c a n n o t i n t h e e n d ca llgo od . 16


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The natural dialectic is within practical reason: between practicalreason's recognition of its moral duties and laws, and the pressure

from its various desires, needs, and interests for it to refuse thecall of these recognized duties and laws. Gadamer refers to this asthe dialectic o f ex cep tio n : 17 practical reason acknowledges itsduties and even the laws that represent them, but it tries, at thesame time, to construe its own situation as an exception that isexempted from the otherwise universal scope of these duties andlaws. This is the familiar phenomenon of making one's situationseem exceptional so that the law does not apply to it. Accordingto Kant, the presence of such a dialectic in ordinary rationalknowledge of morality requires the transition to the philosophicalknowledge of morality (and, ultimately, to the metaphysics ofmorals and the Cri t ique O f Pract ical Reaso n . isMoreover, one ofthe main reasons why Kant insisted on the notion of the uncon-ditioned moral law is to offset this natural dialectic. Because thedialectic seems to be caused, in part, by empirical desires, inter-ests, etcete ra, the only way i t could be avoided entirely, Kantsuggests, is if ethical reflection were free of all empirical condi-

tionedness. But Kant does not argue that this dialectic could everbe comple tel y eliminated. 19 The ideas of good will, dut y, univer-sal law, etcetera, were introduced to represent and strengthen onehalf of the dialectic. So long as we remain human, our ethicalreflection and moral fr eedo m are limited by the other half of thissame dialectic. As Gadamer expresses it, although the idea of thepurity of practical reason represents the unconditionedness ofour d uty against the plea of our desires, it does not deter minethe whole of our ethical being. ''2~

The presence and persistence of this natural dialectic as astructural feature of ethical reflection establishes a clearer linkbetween Aristotelian and Kantian ethics; for the natu ral dialec-tic is similar to the dialectic betwe en phronesis and ethos. Inboth cases, the dialectic manifests itself within practical reasonas a dialectic between our ordinary moral consciousness (our rec-ognition of our moral duties, laws, rights, etc.) which is based onour ethos (our traditions, habits, institutions, etc.) but which also

is not completely or only moral in character, and our philosophi-cal-practical reason which tries to offset the empirical forces thatlead this moral consciousness astray and which criticizes the im-


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m o r a l a s p e c t s o f t h is c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d i ts e t h o s .T h e d i a l e c ti c is t h u s w h a t G a d a m e r e a r l ie r r e f e r r e d t o as a m i x -

t u r e o f t h e s u b s t a n c e o f e t h ic a l l i fe a n d t h e w a t c h f u l c o n -s c i e n c e . A r i s t o t l e r e p r e s e n t s t h e s u b s t a n c e o f e th i c a l l if e :

T h e p r o p e r c o n t e n t o f A r i s t o t el i a n e t h i cs is n o t t h e g r e a t k e yc o n c e p t s o f a h e r o i c - i m a g e e th i c s a n d i ts t a b l e o f v a l u e s :b u t r a t h e r i t is , t h e i n c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s a n d i n f a ll ib i l it y o f c o n -c r e t e e t h i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h f i n d s i t s e x p r e s s i o n i n i n -s i g n i f ic a n t a n d a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g c o n c e p t s s u c h a s: w h a t isp r o p e r , d e c e n t , g o o d a n d r i g h t ) 1

H e s h o w s u s t h a t t h e n e ce s s a ry l i m i t a t i o n [ o f c o n d i t io n e d n e s s ]t h a t u n d e r l i e s o u r i n s i g h t i n t o w h a t is e t h i c a l ly r i g h t o r j u s td o e s n o t n e c e ss a ri ly l e a d u s to a c o r r u p t m i x t u r e o f m o t i v e s ;22t h e d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n c o m p l e te l y p u r e a n d c o m p l e t e ly co r r u p t( c o r r u p t b e c a u s e e m p i r i ca l ) p r a c t ic a l r e a s o n is t o o e x t r e m e a n du n t e n a b l e ? ~ A n d K a n t r e p r e s en t s t h e w a t c h f u l c o n s c ie n c e w h i c hc a u t i o n s u s a b o u t t h e l i m i ts o f t h e s e i n s ig n i f i ca n t a n d a l l- e n c o m -

p a s si n g c o n c e p t s , b e c a u s e t h e y a re o f t e n p o w e r l e s s a g ai n st t h ec o u n t e r w e i g h t o f n a t u r a l, n o n m o r a l i n c l in a t i o n s t h a t le a d u st o w a r d e vil. 24 T h u s , .w h ile K a n t m a k e s u s a w a r e o f t h e l i m i t a-t i o n s o f a n e m p i r i c al ly c o n d i t i o n e d p r a ct ic a l r e a s o n , A r i s t o t led e m o n s t r a t e s h o w w e c a n b e s t d e v e l o p a n d u t il iz e t h is , o u r o n l yt y p e o f p r a c t ic a l r e a s o n , w h o s e p u r i t y is r e la t iv e t o i ts c o n d i -t i o n e d n e s s . T h i s s y n t h e s i s o f A r i s t o t e l ia n a n d K a n t i a n e t h i c s ,c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n p h r o n e s i s a n d e t h o s , u n -c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s a n d c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s , a n d d u t y a n d i n c l i n a t i o n ,is , a c c o r d i n g t o G a d a m e r, w h a t d e t e r m i n e s th e p o s s i b il it y o f p h i-l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s .

U

I n a r e c e n t b o o k a n d s e ve ra l r ev i ew s , G a d a m e r d i sc u s se s t h e s a m es y n t h e s is o f A r i s t o t e l ia n a n d K a n t i a n e t h i c s a n d c l a ri fi es s o m e o f

t h e c l ai m s m a d e a b o v e ? S O n t h e se o c ca s io n s , t h e s y n t h es is ism a d e t h r o u g h h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P l a t o 's e th i cs . F i r st , G a d a m e ra rg u es f o r a c e rt ai n c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n P l a t o a n d A r i s to t le o n t h e


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le v el o f e t h ic a l t h e o r y ; th e n , h e d r a w s a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e nP l a t o ' s a n d K a n t ' s e t h i c s ; a n d , f i n a ll y, a l t h o u g h n o t i n s u c h a s y l-l o g is t ic f a s h i o n , h e r e - e x a m i n e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n A r i s to -t e li a n a n d K a n t i a n e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s .

T h e l i n k b e t w e e n P l a t o ' s a n d A r i s t o t l e ' s e t h i c s is e s t a b l is h e dt h r o u g h t w o c la im s . T h e f ir st c la im is t h a t t h e y h a d a c o m m o ne n e m y - t h e s o p h is ti c c o n c e p t i o n o f m o r a l k n o w l e d g e a s s o m e -t h i n g t h a t c o u l d b e t a u g h t a s i f i t w e re a t e c h n e . F r o m P l a t o 'se a r l y d i a l o g u e s t h r o u g h h i s i n s i s t e n c e i n t h eProtagoras and e lse-w h e r e t h a t v i r tu e c a n n o t b e t a u g h t e v en t h o u g h i t is k n o w l e d g e ,

h i s e th i c s is c o n s i s t e n t , i n p a r t , w i t h A r i s t o t le ' s l a t e r d i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e n p h r o n e s is a n d t e c h n e ; f o r b o t h p h i l o s o p h e r s ar gu e t h a te t h ic a l k n o w l e d g e c a n n o t b e t a u g h t . G a d a r n er e l ab o r a t e s o n t h isc o m m o n en e m y :

S t a t e m e n t s l ik e v i r tu e is k n o w l e d g e d o n o t c o m e o u t o f t h eb l u e , r a t h e r , t h e i r s en s e is d e t e r m i n e d in p a r t b y w h a t t h e ya n s w e r o r r e s p o n d t o . S o c r a te s is r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c o n f u s i o ni n t h e m o r a l t r a d i t i o n , a t r a d i t i o n f o r w h i c h S o p h i s m p r o m i s e s

t h e n e w f o u n d a t i o n o f a b o g u s t ec h n e , a n e w k n o w l e d g e .P l a to a n d A r i s t o tl e s e e m t o h a v e b e e n i n c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n ti n t h e i r c o m m o n e f f o r ts t o f e n d o f f t h i s s o p h i s ti c t e c h n i c alc o n c e p t i o n o f [ m o r a l ] k n o w l e d g e . 26

T h e s o p h i s ti c c o n c e p t i o n o f v i r tu e i s p e r h a p s b e s t r e p r e s e n t e db y T h r a s y m a c h u s ' s i d e a o f j u s t ic e ( in t h eRepublic as the in-t e r e s t o f t h e s t r o n g e r ; f o r i t i s a n i d e a b a s e d o n c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l -

le g al c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e t i m e , a n d i t is n o n d i s c u r s iv e in t h e s e ns et h a t i t f o r e c l o s e s f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f j u s t i c e , t h a t i s , i t t r a n s f o r m st h e d i s c u ss i o n o f t h e m o r a l i d e a o f j u s t ic e i n t o a p o l it ic a l p o w e rs tr u g g le b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o h o l d p o w e r ( a n d d e f i n e j u s t ic e ) a n dt h o s e w h o a re p o w e r le s s ( a n d c o m p e l l e d to a b i d e b y t h e r e i g n in gd e f i n i t i o n o f j u s ti c e ). I n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f j u s t ic e ,P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e w e r e e q u a l l y c o n c e r n e d t o e s t a b li s h a n e t h i c a la c c o u n t o f t h e i d e a o f j u s ti c e . P l at o ' s c la im t h a t v i rt u e is k n o w l -e d g e is hi s w a y o f m o v i n g t h e d i s cu s s io n o f j u s t ic e t o a m o r a l ,

d i s c u rs i v e le v e l o n w h i c h r a t i o n a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y is g i v e n p r i o r i t yo v e r t h e a p p e a l t o p o w e r. A r i s t o t l e c r it ic i ze s t h i s e q u a t i o n ; b u th is c r it ic i sm is m o r e o f a m o d i f i c a t i o n (v i r tu e i n v o lv e s k n o w l e d g e )


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t h a n a t o t a l r e je c t i o n o f i t. T h e s h a r e d d e m a n d f o r r a t io n a l a c -c o u n t a b i l i t y i s, a c c o r d i n g to G a d a m e r, w h a t u n i f ie s P l a to a n d

A r i s t o t le a n d s e p a r at e s t h e m f r o m t h e S o p h i s ts w h o , i n r e je c t-i n g th e v e r y n o t i o n o f m o r a l d i s co u r s e , a b a n d o n e d t h e s e a rc hf o r a c c o u n t a b i l i ty a n d r e le g a t ed j u s t ic e a n d o t h e r m o r a l c o n -c e p t s t o t h e n i h i li s ti c s t ru g g l e f o r p o w e r.

G a d a m e r s s e c o n d c la im a b o u t a c o m m o n a l i t y b e t w e e n P l a toa n d A r i s t o t le c o n c e r n s t h e id e a o f t h e g o o d . T h e s u g g e s t io n o f ac o m m o n i d e a in t h i s i n s ta n c e s e e m s u n l i k e l y a t f ir s t b e c a u s e o fA r i s t o t l e s w e l l k n o w n c r it iq u e o f P l a t o s i d e a o f t h e g o o d . 27B u t , G a d a m e r a rg u e s , A r i s t o t l e c r i t i c i z e s p r i m a r i l y t h e t h e o r e t i c a la n d m e t a p h y s i c a l a s p e c ts o f t h is i d e a; a n d , e v e n w h e n h e d o e st h a t , i t i s n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r h e i n t e n d s t o r e j e c t o r m o d i f y t h e m .I n a n y c as e , w h a t is m o r e i m p o r t a n t h e r e is A r i s to t l e s c o m m e n t so n t h e r e le v a n c e o f t h e i d e a o f t h e g o o d t o e th i c s. In th i s r e s p e c t,a m a j o r p o i n t o f h i s c ri ti q u e is n o t t o r e j e c t t h e i d e a o f t h e g o o di n i t se l f, b u t t o c l a im t h a t i t i s n o t r e l e v a n t i n t h e p r a c t i c a l, m o r a ls p h e r e , a n d t h u s t o d i s ti n g u i sh it f r o m t h e i d e a o f t h e h u m a ng o o d . 28 A c c o r d i n g t o G a d a m e r, i t is t h is p o i n t w h i c h le d A r i s t o t le

t o i n t r o d u c e t h e n o t i o n o f p r a c ti c a l r e a s o n : p r a c ti c al r e a s o n ist o t h e i d e a o f t h e h u m a n g o o d w h a t t h e o r et ic a l r e as o n is t o t h ei d e a o f t h e g o o d i n i ts e lf . O n c e a g ai n, A r i st o t le t e m p e r s P l a to spo s i t ion . 29

T h e r e is s u b s t a n t i v e , t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e w i t h i n P l a t o s a n d A r is -t o t l e s w r i ti n g s f o r G a d a m e r s c la im a b o u t a P la t o n i c -A r i s t o te l ia ne f f e c t c o n c e r n i n g t h e i d e a o f t h e g o o d . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e d i s t i n c -t io n b e t w e e n t h e g o o d a n d t h e h u m a n g o o d is p r e s e n t, a lb e it inn a s c e n t f o r m , i n t h eRepublic i t t a k e s c o n c r e t e f o r m i n t h e d i s -t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s o m e t h i n g ( e .g ., j u s t ic e ) w h i c h is g o o d in it s e lfa n d s o m e t h i n g ( e. g. , h a p p i n e s s ) w h i c h is g o o d f o r i ts c o n s e q u e n c e sf o r h u m a n s ( 3 5 7 a - 3 5 8 a ) . M o r e ov e r, t h ePhilebus i s an exp l i c i ta n d p r o f o u n d d i al o g u e a b o u t t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n t h e g o o da n d t h e h u m a n g o o d . A n d , f i n a ll y, t h e c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h i n A r is -t o t l e s Ethics a b o u t w h e t h e r h a p p i n e s s is t h e e n d o f c o n t em p l a -t i o n o r a c t io n r e f le c ts h is r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e r o l e s o f b o t h t h e g o o d( q u a o b j e c t o f c o n t e m p l a t io n ) a n d t h e h u m a n g o o d in h u m a n

ethica l l i fe .T h e s e c o n d l i n k t h a t G a d a m e r d e sc ri be s in h is r e c e n t b o o k a n d

e s sa y s is b e t w e e n P l a t o a n d K a n t a n d i s b a s e d o n t h e s i m i l a ri ti e s


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between the beginning of Republic, Book II, and the transitionfrom Section I to Section II of the Groundwork. The fundamentalsimilarity is between Plato's goal of finding the idea of justice initself and Kant's rigorism in seeking an a priori basis for the com-mon rational knowledge of morality. The two philosophers werecombating the lure of sophistic and eudaemonistic ethical beliefs,respectively, which were at the center of the then traditionalmoralities. They were both trying to provide ethical reflectionwith an aut ono mou s basis from which it could secure itself againstthe seductions of power and pleasure. The rigorism of their ethicaltheories can be understood only against the background of thesophistic and eudaemonistic moralities which they were attempt-ing to overcome with the help of philosophy:

[Plato's]severance of the noetic from the sensory, of true in-sight fro m mere points of view - this chorismos, in othe r words- is the tru th of moral consciousness as such .. .. it is no coinci-dence that this insight of Plato's was dignified anew when theconcern was to give morality a transcendental foundation.

Kant's rigor is exceeded only by the rigor with which Plato,in the dialogue of the true state, compels his Socrates to sepa-rate the true essence of morality from what is held to be so-cially acceptable Republic, Book 2). 30

Thus, the common ground between Plato and Kant is that bothdefended the autonomy of ethical reflection vis-d-vis traditional,

socially acceptab le morality.Just as Plato's rigorism was tempered earlier by Aristotle,

Kant's rigorism can now be tempered in a similar fashion andagain by Aristotle. We thus retu rn to the original synthesis whichis based on the natura l dialectic in practical reason. Gadamerdiscusses this dialectic again, but now in relation to the links be-tween Plato, Aristotle, and Kant.

The clearest exposition of this theme [of the relation betweentheory and practice in ethics], which Aristotle was the first to

take up, seems to me to be Kant's Foundations o f a Metaphys-ics of Morals. There, at the conclusion of the first section ofthe so-called laying of the grou ndwo rk, Kant treats the

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t r a n si t io n f r o m c o m m o n r ea s o n a b le m o r a l k n o w l e d g e t o p h i-l o s oph i ca l k now ledge . He s t a r ts w i t h t h e con v inc in g th e s is

t h a t i n h u m a n n a t u r e t h e r e i s a p r o c l i v i t y a t w o r k : h u m a n b e -fla gs t end t o r e so r t t o a k ind o f d i a le c t i c i n o rde r t o evad e wh a tt h e i r c o n s c io u s n e s s o f d u t y, f o r in s t a n c e , m a k e s m o r a l l y e v id e n tt o t h em . Ka n t c a lls t h is a t e n d e nc y t o qu i bb l e , a nd i t n o t on lym a k e s t h e t r a n s it i o n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f m o r a l s n e c e s sa r y, b u tessen t ia l ly a lways makes tha t t r ans i t ion by i t se l f . I t i s obv ioustha t Ka n t adhe re s t o t he b a s ic t en e t o f P l a t on i c - Ar i s to t e l ianp h i l o sophy i n h i s mora l ph i l o s oph y, i n so f a r a s he d ivo rce s t hep r a c t i c a l , m o r a l i m p e r a t i v e f r o m t h e t e c h n i c a l i m p e r a t i v e o fc leverness .31

A r i s to t l e a n d K a n t i n t r o d u c e d e t h ic a l t h e o r y t o o f fs e t t h e t e n d e n -c i e s o f t r ad i t i ona l mora l i t y. To acco mp l i sh t h i s t a sk , t h e y had t od i s t i ng u i sh p r ac t i c a l r e a son f r om t ech n i ca l kno wle dge a nd t hus t oi n si st on t he au ton om y o f e t h i ca l r e f l e c t i on . I n Ka n t , th i s d is -t i n c t i o n t a k e s t h e f o r m o f t h e d i ff e r en c e s b e t w e e n o r d i n a r y a n dp h i l o s o p h i c a l r a t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e o f m o r a l i t y, b e t w e e n m o r a l

impe ra t i ve s and ru l e s o f sk i l l , a nd be t wee n ca t eg o r i ca l a nd hy po -th e t i c a l impe ra t i ve s ; whe rea s i n Ar i s t o t l e i t co nce rn s t he d i f f e r -e n c e s b e t w e e n p h r o n e s is a n d t e c h n e , a s w e l l a s b e t w e e n p h r o n e -sis a n d e p i s te m e . T h e a u t o n o m y o f e t h ic a l r e f l e c t io n is t h u s e s ta b -f is he d in c o n t r a st t o b o t h t r a d it i o n a l m o r a l i ty a n d t o o t h e r fo r m so f k n o w l e d g e .

T h e m o r e c o n c r e t e le v el o f th e l i n k b e t w e e n A r i s to t le a n dK a n t is t ha t bo th o f t hem b e gan t he i r e t h i ca l t h e o r i e s w i th ac r i t iqu e o f spec if ic t r ad i t i ona l e t h i ca l be l ie f s, f o r i n s tance , a bou tj u s t i c e , d u ty , t he good l if e . Th ey d i d no t j u s t c r i t ic i z e t he fo u nd a -t i on s o f t he se be l i e f s . The ex ac t co n t en t o f t he be l i e f s t hey c r i t i -c i z e d i s , o f cou r se , qu i t e va r i ed b e caus e o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l d i f -f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n a n c i e n t G r e e c e a n d E n l i g h t e n m e n t G e r m a n y.B u t t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , a c c o r d i n g t o G a d a m e r, is t h a t t h er e co gn i t i on o f t he se sha r ed be l i e f s i s a f i r s t s t ep i n t he fo rma t io nof e th ica l r e f l ec t io n . 32 Beg inn ing w i th su ch be l i e f s , the t ask o fph i losophica l e th ics i s to c la r i fy and c r i t i c ize the p r inc ip les and

e n ds o f e t h i ca l p r ac t i c e s . As K an t em p has i z e d , h is r o l e a s m o r a lp h i l o s o p h e r w a s n o t t o i n t r o d u c e n e w e t h i c a l p r in c i p le s , b u t t op rov i de a p ro ced u re fo r eva lu a t i ng t he p ri nc i p le s a lr e a dy be i ng


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f o l l o w e d i n o r d e r t o h e l p t h e m t o w i t h s t a n d t h e n a t u r a l d ia le c -t i c i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n w h i c h , a s w e h a v e s e e n , m i g h t le a d u s t ov i o l a t e t h e s e s a m e p r in c i p l e s .

[ O r d i n a r y h u m a n r e a s o n ] t ri e s t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c l ea ri n s t r u c t i o n r e g a r d in g t h e s o u r c e o f it s o w n p r i n c i p le a n d t h ec o r r e c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n i t s o p p o s i t i o n t om a x i m s b a s e d o n n e e d a n d i n c l i n a t i o n , s o t h a t r e a s o n m a ye s c a p e f r o m t h e p e r p l e x i t y o f o p p o s i t e c l a im s a n d m a y av o i dt h e r is k o f l o si n g a ll g e n u i n e m o r a l p r i n ci p le s t h r o u g h t h e a m -

b ig u i ty in to w h i ch i t ea s i ly f a ll s . 33

A n d , a s w e h a v e a ls o s e e n , w e r e i t n o t f o r th i s n a t u r a l d i a l e c t ic ,p h i l o s o p h i c a l e th i c s w o u l d h a r d l y b e n e c e s s a r y.

I t is i m p o r t a n t , a c c o r d i n g t o G a d a m e r, t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h isc o n c e p t u a l c l a r i f i c a t i o n a n d c r i t i q u e o f e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s is n o t as e a r c h f o r t h e i r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l o r a h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o nBegriin-dung) i n p u r e r e a s o n ; i t i s, r a t h e r, a p r o c e s s o f c o r r e c t i n gBerich-tigung) t h e m i n t h e c o n t e x t a n d b e c a us e o f th e n a t u r a l d i a le c ti ci n p ra c t i c a l r e a s o n . P h i l o s o p h y c a n o n l y b r i n g t o c o n s c i o u s n e s st h e n o r m c h a r a c t e r w h i c h is a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e t h ic a l n o r m s . ''a 4T h a t i s, it c a n n e i t h e r c r e a t e t h e s e n o r m s o r p r i n c i p le s , n o r p r o -v i d e t h e m w i t h a f o u n d a t i o n . I t c a n o n l y a n a l y z e a n d i m p r o v e o nt h e e t h i ca l p r i n c ip l e s a l r e a d y e m b e d d e d i n e t h ic a l p ra c t ic e s . R e c -o g n i t i o n o f t h i s a s t h e t a s k o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s is , a c c o r d i n g t oG a d a m e r, w h a t u n i t e s P l a to , A r i s t o tl e , a n d K a n t .

I I I

W h a t i s t h e r e l e v a n c e o f G a d a m e r ' s p r o p o s e d s y n t h e s i s o f A r i s to -t e li a n a n d K a n t i a n e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h i c a le t h i c s ? H o w d o e s t h i s s y n t h e s i s h e l p t o re s o l v e e t h i c a l s k e p t i c i s m ?T h e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e t w o q u e s t i o n s a r e v i r t u a ll y t h e s a m e b e ca u s e ,b y s h o w i n g h o w e t h i c a l s k e p t i c i s m c a n b e r e s o l v e d , I w i l l a l s o b es h o w i n g h o w G a d a m e r ' s p r o p o s a l is r e le v a n t .

T h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e o f e t h i c a l s k e p t i c i s m is t h e f a i lu r e o f p h i l o -s o p h i c a l e th i c s t o b e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t ic a l a t t h e s a m e t i m e .Tw o p o s s i b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th i s f a i lu r e a r e ( 1 ) d e c i s i o n i s m o r


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t h e r e d u c t i o n o f e t h i c s t o t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l i t y w h e n i t i s n o tt h e o r e t i c a l a n d c r it ic a l e n o u g h ; o r ( 2 ) a n e th i c a l t h e o r y t h a tis e i th e r i m p r a c t i c a l b e c a u s e i t i s t o o t h e o r e t i c a l , o r a l i e n a ti n gb e c a u s e i t is t o o g e n e r a l. T h i s f a i lu r e a n d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e sa re r e l at e d t o t h e f o ll o w i n g d i c h o t o m y w h i c h h as b e e n p r o m -i n e n t i n t h e m o d e r n h i s to r y o f m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y : e i th e r p ra c-t ic a l r ea s o n m u s t b e c o m p l e t e l y p u r e o r i t is c o m p l e t e l y ir -r a t i o n a l , u n c r i t i c a l, o r e v e n i m m o r a l . G a d a m e r a rg u e s t h a t t h isis a fa ls e d i c h o t o m y ; f o r a n i rr e c o n c il a b le o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e np u r e a n d e m p i r i c a l p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i s b o t h u n t e n a b l e a n d u n -

n e c e s s a r y. I t is u n t e n a b l e , b e c a u s e t h e n a t u r a l d i al e c ti c i n m o r a lc o n s c i o u s n e s s c a n n o t b e a v o i d e d b y f a v o r in g j u s t o n e s i de o f t h ed i a l ec t ic . A n o v e r e m p h a s i s o n a n y o n e s i d e g i ve s r is e t o e t h i c a ls k e p t i c i s m : i f e t h i c a l t h e o r y i s r e d u c e d t o i t s e m p i r i c a l s i d e , t h e ni t b e c o m e s i r r a t io n a l , u n c r i t i c a l, a n d i m m o r a l ; i f i t is r e d u c e d t oi ts p u r e s id e , t h e n i t b e c o m e s im p r a c t i c a l a n d a l ie n a t in g . T h i so p p o s i t i o n i s u n n e c e s s a r y, b e c a u s e p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n c a n i n d e e db e r a t i o n a l , c r it ic a l, a n d m o r a l d e s p i t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e n a t u r a ld i a l e c t i c , t h a t i s , w i t h o u t b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y p u r e . I t i s t h e r e f o r ei m p e r a t i v e t o f i n d a w a y o f b a la n c i n g t h e t w o s id e s o f th i s d ic h o t -o m y. B y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e n a t u r a l d i a le c ti c w i t h i n p r a c ti c a l r e a s o n ,G a d a m e r s p r o p o s e d s y n t h e s is a c h ie v e s t h is b a la n c e .

T h e t w o c o n s e q u e n c e s o f e th i c a l s k e p t i c is m t ie d t o t h e f a ls ed i c h o t o m y w h i c h G a d a m e r c r i t i c i z e s a r e a l s o r e l a t e d t o t h e t r a -d i t i o n a l c r i t i c i s m s o f A r i s t o t e l i a n a n d K a n t i a n e t h i c s . A r i s t o t l eis c r it ic iz e d f o r m a k i n g p r a c ti c al r e a s o n t o o d e p e n d e n t o n h e t e r -o n o m o u s o r m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n d i t io n s , a n d t h u s t o o u n c r it ic a l;

w h e r e a s K a n t is c r it ic i ze d f o r m a k i n g e t h i c a l t h e o r y t o o f o r m a l is -t ic , a n d t h u s i m p r a c t i c a l o r a l ie n a ti n g . G a d a m e r a rg u e s , h o w e v e r ,t h a t t h e s e c r it ic i sm s a re b a s e d o n i n t e r p r e t a t io n s o f A r i s t o t le s a n dK a n t s e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s w h i c h i g n o r e t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s ( in f l u -e n c e d b y t h e s o p h i s t ic n o t i o n o f v i r tu e a s t e c h n e , e u d a e m o n i s t i c e t h -i cs , e t c .) , a n d t h u s t h e y o v e r l o o k t h e p r o b l e m s ( e .g . , t h e n a t u r a l d i a-l e c ti c i n m o r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h i -c al e t h ic s a n d t r a d i t io n a l m o r a l i t y, t h e t h e o r e t i c a l an d p r a c ti c a l m o -m e n t s o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s , e t c . ) w h i c h t h o s e e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s

w e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o r e s o lv e . H e s u g g e s ts i n s t e a d t h a t , i f w e in t e r -p r e t t h e i r e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s i n t e r m s o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s , t h e n i t isp o s s i b l e t o s y n t h e s i z e A r i s t o t l e s a n d K a n t s t h e o r i e s i n t o a s in g l e,c o h e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f p h i lo s o p h i c a l e th i cs . W i th s u c h a s y n -


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t h e s i s , w e w i l l t h e n b e a b l e t o r e s o l v e e t h i c a l s k e p t i c i s m , b e c a u s et h e s y n t h e s i s is b as e d o n t h e c l ai m t h a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s m u s ta n d c a n b e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t ic a l at t h e s a m e t im e . T h a t i s,s i n c e t h e s y n t h e s i s e l i m i n a t e s t h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e o f e th i c a l sk e p t i -c i s m , i t e l i m i n a t e s t h e s k e p t i c i s m i ts e lf .

W h a t d o e s i t m e a n , h o w e v e r , f o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s t o b et h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t ic a l a t t h e s a m e t i m e ? To a n s w e r th i s q u e s-t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y f i r s t t o d r a w a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r a c t i c a lr e a s o n a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s . O n t h e l e ve l o f p r a c t ic a l r e a s o n ,t h e o r y s y m b o l i z e s t h e a u t o n o m y o f et h ic a l r e f l e c ti o n w h i c h

K a n t d e f e n d s , w h i l e p r a c t i c e r e p r e s e n t s t h e e t h o s a s d e s c r i b e db y A r i s t o t l e . P r a c t i c a l r e a s o n a r is e s f r o m a n d i s e x e r c i s e d i n it sg i v e n e t h o s , b u t i t s ti ll h a s a r e l a t iv e d e g r e e o f a u t o n o m y b y v i r t u eo f t h e f a c t t h a t r e a s o n i t s e l f i s p a r t o f t h i s e t h o s , t h a t is , b e c a u s e(and so long a s ) c r it i ca l r a t io na l i ty ( i . e ., ph i los op hy ) i s a l iv ing pa r to f th i s e t h o s. S i nc e K a n t , th i s f a c t h a s b e e n p a s se d d o w n t ou s a s p a r t o f t h e l e g a c y o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ; i t is o n e w a y o f u n-d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t h e r e f e rs t o a s t h e f a c t o f r e a s o n - c r it ic a lr a t i o n a l i t y a n d f r e e d o m a r e w h a t m a k e m o r a l i t y p o s s i b l e . T h u s ,a l t h o u g h t h e i d e a o f e t h o s i s, i n g e n e r a l , c l e a r l y a r e s t r i c t i o n o nf r e e d o m , i t d o e s n o t e l i m i n a t e i t ; e t h o s a ls o c o n t a i n s t h e p os -s ib i li ty o f f r e e d o m a n d i t r e m a i n s t h a t a g a in s t w h i c h f r e e d o m ism e a s u r e d . J u s t a s w e c a n n o t i g n o r e e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e n a t u r a l d i a -l e c t i c i n m o r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w e c a n n o t e s c a p e o u r e t h o s o r o u rf r e e d o m . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l m o m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l r ea -s o n a r e s h a p e d a n d , i n t u r n , u n i f i e d b y t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

T h e r e a re a l so t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a ct ic a l m o m e n t s o f ph i lo -

s o p h i c a l e t h i c s : t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c sis a n e t h i c a l t h e o r y. T h i s e f f e c t i s i n d i r e c t i n t h e s e n s e t h a tt h e t h e o r y is a b o u t p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n ; a s s u c h , i t d o e s n o t d i -r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e e t h i c a l l if e t h e w a y p r a c t i ca l r e a s o n c a n. Ye tt h is t h e o r y m a y, i n tu r n , d e t e r m i n e h o w w e e x e rc i s e o u r p ra c -t ic a l re a s o n a n d t h e r e b y i n d i r e c t l y a f f e c t h o w w e le a d o u re t h i c a l l i f e . A l t h o u g h t h e s e d i r e c t t h e o r e t i c a l a n d i n d i r e c t p r a c -t i c a l e f f e c t s d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w f l 'o m p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h -i cs , t h e y w i l l f o l l o w i f i t is c o n v i n c i n g , i f i t c a n p e r s u a d e u st h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f e t h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n w h i c h it a d v a n c e s ism o r a l l y a n d r a t i o n a l l y d e s i r a b l e , t h e o r e t i c a l l y c o h e r e n t , a n d p r a c -t i c a l l y f e a si b le . A n d , i f i t is p e r s u a si v e , t h e n e t h i c a l t h e o r y a n d

MAWO 164 IS


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p r a c t i c e a r e u n i f i e d o n t h e l e v e l o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s a s w e l l ,a n d e t h i c a l s k e p t i c i s m i s t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t e d .

F i n a ll y, w h a t a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e g e n e r a li ty o f e t h ic a lt h e o r y ? H o w c a n G a d a m e r s s y n t h e s is o f A r i s t o te l ia n a n d K a n t i a ne th i c s e l im i n a t e t h e t h r e a t o f m o r a l a l ie n a t io n ? T h e s y n t h e si s ,o n c e r e a l iz e d , v i r t u a ll y d i s so l v es t h i s t h r e a t t o o , f o r t h e n o t i o n o fe t h o s e n c o m p a s s es t h e c o n c r e t e i n d i v i d u a l it y f r o m w h i c h w e ar ea l i e n a t e d w h e n e t h i c a l t h e o r y i s t o o g e n e r a l. O b j e c t iv i t y, o n e o ft h e a l l e g e d c a u s e s o f m o r a l a l i e n a t i o n , h a s t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h -i n a n e t h o s ; i t is t h u s s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i s e t h o s ,

a m o n g w h i c h is c o n c r e t e i n d i v i d u a l it y. T h a t i s, i f th e s y n t h e s ist r u l y r e a l i z e s a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n e t h i c a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e ,t h e n t h e t h e o r y w i ll n o t b e t o o g e n e r al i n th e w a y t h a t c a u s esm o r a l a l i e n a ti o n . A g o a l o f t h e s y n t h e s i s , a n d a t e s t o f it s e f fe c -t iv e n e s s , is t h u s w h e t h e r i t a c t u a l l y a c h i ev e s t h is b a l a n c e .

T h u s , G a d a m e r s p r o p o s e d s y n t h e s i s o f A r i s to t e l ia n a n d K a n t i a ne t h i c s is a b le t o r e s o lv e e t h i c a l s k e p t i c i s m b y a d d r e s s i n g t h e p r o b -l e m s w h i c h c a u s e it . F o r t h i s r e a s o n a l o n e , si n c e s k e p t i c i s m is o n eo f t h e m a i n p r o b l e m s f ac in g p h i lo s o p h i c a l e t h ic s t o d a y, t h is s y n -t h e s is is r e l e v a n t to c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l e th i c s .

I V

I n t h e b e g i n n in g o fAfter Virtue A l a s d a i r M a c I n t y r e d e s c r i b e sc o n t e m p o r a r y e t h ic a l th e o r y a s a n i n c o h e r e n t p o t p o u r r i o f c o n -c e p t s t a k e n f r o m e s se n ti a ll y i n c o m p a t i b l e th e o r i e s i n th e h i s t o r y

o f m o r al p h i l o s o p h y ?4 T h e c o n c e p t s a r e a l l e g e d l y i n c o m p a t i b l eb e c a u s e o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h t h e y w e r e f i r st a r t ic u -l a te d ; t h e c o n t e x t s i n c l u d e p r e s u p p o s i t io n s w h i c h a r e h i s to r i c al lys p e c if ic a n d w h i c h r e n d e r t h e c o n c e p t s a n d t h e o r i e s t h e y g e n e r a t ei n c o m m e n s u r a t e w i th c o n c e p t s a n d t h e o r i e s h a v in g d i f f e r e n t p r e-s u p p o s i t i o n s . G a d a m e r is , o f c o u r s e , w e l l a w a r e o f th e h i s t o ri c alc o n d i t i o n e d n e s s o f e t h i c al c o n c e p t s ; b u t h e a l s o b el ie v es t h a t t h eh i s t o r i c i ty o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e f l e c t io n is w h a t m a k e s i t p o ss ib l et o f in d a c e r ta i n d e g r e e o f c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n h i s t o ri c al ly d i s ti n c t

m o r a l p h i lo s o p h i es . T h e p u r p o s e o f e m p h a s i z in g th i s c o n t i n u i t yi s t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s i s , i n g e n e r a l , a n d t h u st o s t r e n g t h e n i t i n t h e p r e s e n t. T h e c o n t i n u i t y is n o t m e r e l y


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given, however; it has to be created and sustained. Yet it is not anarbitrary construction based on the perspective of the historicalpresent. It is, rather, the result of the persistance of certain ques-t ions that moral philosophers have shared throughout history,for example, the ones addressed here concerning the relationshipbetwe en ethical th eor y and practice and the shadow of ethicalskepticism. The history of moral philosophy is the history of theefforts, failures included, to achieve some continuity by answeringthese and other related questions. Gadamer's contribution to thiscon tin uit y, which have been able only to sketch here, is his

argument that philosophical ethics is indeed possible despite therecognitio n of the condition edness of ethical reflection. His provo-cative synthesis of Aristotelian and Kantian ethical theories pro-vides hop e and con cre te dir ection for philosop hical ethics in aworld admittedly characterized more by skepticism, relativism,and nihilism than by any shared ethical theory or practice.

NOTES

1. For the classic statement of emotivism, see C.L. Stevenson, Eth ic s andLanguage (New Haven: Yale, 1945). J.P. Sartre is perhaps the clearestrepresentative of existentialist ethics; see "Existentialism is a Human-ism," in Exis t en t ia l i sm f rom D os toe vsky to Sa r tr eed. Walter Kaufmann(Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1956); and Being and No th ingness trans.Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956). Of course,not all ethical theorists in this century are committed to either emotivismor existentialism; my claim here is only that these two philosophicalpositions have been extremely influential.

2. There are, of course, ethical theorists today who are not skeptical aboutphilosophical ethics; but I think contemporary moral philosophy ispredominantly skeptical. See, as prime examples of this skepticism,Alasdair MacIntyre, Afte r Vi r tue (Notre Dame, IN: University Press,1981); and Bernard Williams, Eth ic s and the L imi t s o f Ph i lo sophy(Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1985). Furthermore, many philosopherswho have recently become interested in ethics have been more concernedwith practical, policy issues rather than with ethical theory per se.

3. " [lber die MSglichkeit einer philosophischen Ethik," in Kleine Schr i f -ten I (Tiibingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1976) [hereafter KS] , pp. 179-91.

4. Ibid., pp. 180-81.5. Ibid., p. 181.6. I am using Hegel and Kierkegaard as examples of two main types of criti-


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c i sm s o f e t h i c a l t h e o r y w h i c h a r e p r e v a l e n t i n th e h i s t o r y o f m o d e r ne t h i c a l t h e o r y ; t h e s e t y p e s a r e e s s e n ti a ll y t h e s a m e o n e s i n t r o d u c e d

a b o v e a n d d i s c u ss e d f u r t h e r b e l o w.7 . O n t h e n o t i o n o f m o r a l a l i e n a t i o n , s e e B e r n a r d Wi l li am s , P e r s o n s ,

C h a r a c t e r a n d M o r a l i t y, i nM o r al L u c k ( N e w Yo r k : C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 8 1 ) ,p p . 1 - 1 9 ; a n dEth ic s and the L imi t s o f Ph i lo sophy,o p . c i t . ; a n d s e e a l s oA d r i a n P i p e r, M o r a l T h e o r y a n d M o r a lAlien at ion , Journa l o f Philoso-p h y L X X X I V 2 (F e b r u a r y 1 9 87 ): 1 0 2 - 1 8 .

8 . K S , p p . 1 8 1 , 1 9 1 . S e e a l s o G a d a m e r,Pla tos d ia lekt i sche Eth ik( H a m b u r g :M e i n e r, 1 9 3 1 ) [ h e r a f t e r P d E ] , p . 5 ; a n dDie I clee des Gu ten zwischenP la to und A r i s to t le s( H e i d e l b e rg : Wi n t e r , 1 9 7 8 )( T h e Id e a o f t h e G o o d inPla tonic-Ar is to te l ian Phi losophy,t r a n s . P. C h r i s t o p h e r S m i t h [ N e w H a -

v e n : Ya l e , 19 8 6 ] ) [ h e r e a f t e r I G PA I .9 . KS , p . 184 .

1 0 . I n t h e s e c o n dCrit ique, K a n t d o e s n o t d i sc u s s t h e p r o b l e m o f w h e t h e rr e a s o n c a n b e p u r e ; h e c l a i m s t h a t t h i s p r o b l e m w a s r e s o l v e d i n t h e f i rs tCrit ique. T h e i s s u e i n t h e s e c o n dCrit ique i s w h e t h e r p u r e r e a s o n c a nb e p r a c t i c a l . T h is p r o b l e m i s a p p r o a c h e d b y a s k in g w h e t h e r t h e r e a r ea n y p u r e m o r a l la w s . C f. K a n t ' sCrit~ ' i tue of Pract ical Reason,t r a n s .L e w i s W h i t e B e c k ( I n d i a n a p o l i s , I N : B o b b s - M e r r iU , 1 9 5 6 ) [ h e r e a f t e rK p V ] , p p . 1 5 - 1 6 - t h e v o l u m e a n d p a g e n u m b e r s o f th e P r us si anA c a d e m y E d i t i o n [ PA E ] o f K a n t ' s w o r k s a re a ls o p r o v i d e d h e r e : PA E ,

V: 1 6 .11. A c c o r d i n g t o K a n t , t h e p r o o f t h a t p u r e r e a s o n c a n b e p r a c ti c a l i s a u t o n o -

m y - t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m o r a l i t y b y w h i c h m a s o n d e t e r m i n e s t h e w il l t oa c t io n - b e c a u s e a u t o n o m y w o u l d b e i m p o s s ib l e w i t h o u t p u r e r e a s o n( c f. K p V, p . 4 3 [ PA E , V: 4 1 - 4 2 ] ) . A t t h e s a m e t im e , K a n t a d m i t s t h a tt h e r e is n o d e d u c t i o n t o p r o v e t h e o b j e c t iv e r e a l i ty o f a u t o n o m y ( c f.K p V, p p . 4 8 , 9 7 [ PA E , V: 4 7 , 9 3 - 9 4 ] ) . H e n c e , t h e r e is n o p r o o f f o rt h e p r o o f t h a t p u r e r e a s o n c a n b e p r a c t i c a l. C o n c e r n i n g t h e p o i n t t h a tt h e h u m a n w i ll c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y p u r e, it is e n o u g h t o r e m e m b e rt h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o K a n t h i m s e l f , w e n e e d i m p e r a t i v e s b e c a u s e o u r w i ll is

f i n i t e , i .e . , n o t a l w a y s p u r e l i k e t h e d i v i n e w i ll .1 2 . I n h i s c r i t iq u e o f K a n t ' s e th i c s , H e g e l f o c u s es o n t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e

c o n t e n t o f u n i v e rs a l l a w s . H e a rg u e s t h a t ( 1 ) p u r e r e a s o n c a n n o t b e al a w - gi v e r, b e c a u s e a l a w m u s t h a v e c o n t e n t a n d p u r e r e a s o n i s m e r e l yf o r m a l ; ( 2 ) p u r e r e a s o n i s m e r e l y a l a w - t e s t e r w h o s e t a s k i s t o d e c i d ew h i c h m a x i m s m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e c a te g o r i c a l i m p e r a t i v e ;( 3 ) w h e n p u r e r e a s o n a c t s a s a l a w - t e s te r , h o w e v e r , it m u s t p r e s u p p o s em a x i m s a l o n g w i th a l l t h e i r c o n t i n g e n c y, d e t e r m i n a c y, e t c .; a n d ( 4 )a s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , p u r e r e a s o n i s u n s t a b l e a s a l a w - t e s t e ra n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y, i t i s n o l o n g e r p u r e . P r a c ti c a l r e a s o n c a n n o t h a ve

c o n t e n t a n d s ti ll b e p u r e ; a n d , i f i t r e m a i n s p u r e , i t h a s n o c o n t e n t . C f .T h e P h e n o m e n o t o g y o f M i n d ,t r ar l s. J , B . B a i ll e ( N e w Yo r k : H a r p e r &R o w, 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 4 3 9 - 5 3 ;Natu ra l Law : The Sc ien t i f ic Ways o f Trea tingNatura l Law , I t s P lace in Mora l Phi losop hy, and I t s Rela t ion to the

MA WO 164 18


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Positive Sciences, t r a n s . T. M . K n o x ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , PA : U n i v e r s i t y o fP e n n s y l v a n i a P re s s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 7 5 f f . ; a n dThe Philosophy of Right,t ra n s . T.M . K n o x ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d , 1 9 6 7 ) , P a rt s I I - I I I .

1 3. T h r o u g h o u t t h i s e s sa y, K a n t r e p r e s e n t s t h e p u r e s id e a n d A r i s t o tl e t h ee m p i r i c a l s id e o f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n . T h u s , t h e t e r m ' p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n ' i nt h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t is n o t s t r i c tl y K a n t i a n o r A r i s t o t e l i a n . T h e d i s t i n c -t i o n b e t w e e n t he ~ e t w o s id e s o f p r a c t i c a l re a s o n is m i r r o r e d w i t h i n K a n ti n th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e nWilIe a n d Willkiir; a l t h o u g h I c a n n o t e l a b o r a t eo n t h is p o i n t n o w, I w o u l d i n t e r p r e t K a n t ' s d i s t i n c t i o n in l ig h t o f t h em e d i a t io n b e t w e e n A r i s t o tl e a n d K a n t .

1 4. T h is a p p l i c a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d o r e x e c u t e d b y e t h i c a l j u d g m e n t , t h em e d i a t o r b e t w e e n e t h i c a l l a w s a n d e t h i c a l d e li b e r a t io n a n d a c t i o n , b e -t w e e n u n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s a n d c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h ei m p o r t a n t r o le o f m o r a l j u d g m e n t i s, I t h i n k , o n e o f t h e m a i n re a s o n sf o r t h e r e c e n t r e v i v a l o f A r i s t o t e l i a n e t h ic s .

15. Critique of Pure Reason, t ra n s . N o r m a n K e m p S m i t h ( N e w Yo r k : S t.M a r t i n 's P r es s , 1 9 2 9 ) , A 4 4 4 / B 4 7 2 f f .

16. Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, t r a n s . J a m e s W. E l l i n g t o n[ h e r e a f t e r G M M ] , i n Kant s Ethical Philosophy ( I n d i a n a p o l i s , I N :H a c k e t t , 1 9 83 ), p p . 1 6 - 1 7 [ PA E , I V : 4 0 4 - 0 5 ] .

1 7 . K S , p . 1 8 2 .1 8 . G M M , p . 1 7 ( PA E , I V : 4 0 5 ) .

1 9 . T h e n a t u r a l d i a l e c t i c i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n f i rs t i n t r o d u c e d i n t h eGround-work is b e t w e e n d u t y a n d i n c l i n a t i o n . B u t, b e c a u s e K a n t u n d e r s t a n d sd u t y i n t e r m s o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e m o r a l l a w a n d r e d u c e s a ll i n c li n a -t i o n s t o t h e p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s , t h i s i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e d i a l e c t icb e t w e e n v i r t u e a n d h a p p i n e s s d i s cu s s e d i n th e s e c o n dCritique a s t h ea n t i n o m y o f p u r e p r a c t i c a l re a s o n . K a n t a t t e m p t s t o r e s o lv e t h is d ia -l e c ti c , n o t b y e l i m i n a t in g o n e s i d e o f i t, n o r s i m p l y b y c l a i m i n g t h a tt h e t w o s i d es a r e a n a l y t i c a l l y id e n t i c a l , b u t b y a rg u i n g t h a t v i r t u e i sa n a p r i o r i c o n d i t i o n f o r h a p p i n e s s , t h a t i t h a s b o t h m o r a l a n d lo g i c a lp r i o r i t y o v e r h a p p i n e s s . J u s t a s f r e e d o m a n d n a t u r e a r e c o m p a t i b l e in

t h e f i r s t Critique, v i r tu e a n d h a p p i n e s s c a n b e u n i f i e d i n t h e s e c o n dCritique i n t h e f o r m o f t h e h i g h e s t g o o d . T h e m o r a l l aw r e m a i n s t h ed e t e r m i n i n g g r o u n d o f t h e p u r e w i ll , b u t t h e h i g h e s t g o o d i s i ts o b j e c t .B u t K a n t ' s r e s o l u t i o n d o e s n o t e l im i n a t e t h e n a t u r a l d ia l e c t ic i n p r a c -t i c a l r e a s o n , i t o n l y e s t a b l i s h e s a h i e r a r c h y a m o n g i t s t w o s i d e s ( c f . K p V,p p . 1 1 1 - 2 4 [ PA E , V: 1 0 6 - 1 9 ] ) .

2 0 . K S , p . 1 8 8 .2 1 . I b i d . , p . 1 8 7 .2 2 . I b i d . , p . 1 9 0 .2 3 . C f . G M M , p p . 2 - 3 ( PA E , I V : 3 8 9 - 9 0 ) ; a n dMetaphysics of Morals, P a r t

I I , i n Kant s Ethical Philosophy, o p . c i t . , p . 1 4 ( PA E , V I : 2 1 5 ) . T h u s ,a s I a r g u e d im p l i c i t ly a b o v e ( p p . 3 3 2 - 3 3 4 ) , t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e n a t u -


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reason, something which he was reluct ant to accept.24. Rel ig ion Wi th in the L im i t s o f Reason Alo ne ,trans. Theodore M. Greene

and Hoyt H. Hudson (New York: Harper, 1960), Book One, pp. 15-49.25. Cf. IGPA; Werner Marx: Gibt es anf Erden ein Mass? , Phi losophische

R u n d s c h a u XXXI 3/4 (1984): 1 61 -77 [hereafter Review I ]; andHeidegger und das Problem der Ethik, Phi losoph i sehe Rundschau

XXXII. 1/2 (1985): 1- 26 [hereafter Review II ].26. IGPA, p. 61, and chs. 2- 2 .27. Metaphys ics 990a33-993al l , and N i e o m a c h e a n E t h i c s[hereafter NE]

1096all-1097a30, trans. W.D. Ross, in The Bas ic Works o f Ar i s to t l e ,ed. Richard McKeon (New York: Random House, 1941).

28. NE 1096b30-34.

29. According to Gadamer, this was the t ask and style of Aristot le's dialec-tic. On Gadamer's understanding of dialectic in ancient Greek philoso-phy , see Hegel and the Dialectic of the Ancient Philosophers, in He-gel s D ialect ic,trans. P. Christopher Smith (New Haven: Yale, 1976).

30. IGPA, p. 19.31. Ibid., pp. 170- 71 .32. Aristo tle does this in the first book o f NE in relation to the question of

what is the good for man and Kant does it in the beginning of GMM inrelation to the common understanding of duty and other basic moralnotions. Of course, Kant proceeds in a different manner in the secondCrit ique; but, even there, he says he must presuppose GMM in so faras that work gives a preliminary acquaintance with the principle of dutyand justifies a definite formula of it (KpV, p. 8 [PAE, V:8] ).

33. GMM, p. 17 (PAE, IV-405); and KpV, p. 8 (PAE, V:8).34. Review II, p. 12.34. Afte r Vi r tue ,op.cit., pp. 1-5.

Gadamer and philosophical Ethics. Kenny

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