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AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rules of thumb
General Briefing G2
V2.0
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Content – G2
1 in 60 rule
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb gradient
Descent planning Wind and time corrections
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Content – G2
1 in 60 rule
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb gradient
Descent planning Wind and time corrections
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1 in 60 rule
Most angles are defined in degrees, but you can define an angle also in radians (rad).
For an angle of one radian the arc length along the edge of the circle is equal in length to the radius.
• Mathematics
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1 in 60 rule
Circumference of a circle = 2 x π x r
2 x π (6,28) radii in the circumference of a circle
2 x π radians in a circle, in 360°
Conclusion: 1 rad = 360° / 2 x π = 57,3°≈ 60°
• Mathematics
≈ 60°
r
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1 in 60 rule
1 rad ≈ 60 ° with arc length = radius
For an angle of 1°, arc length ≈ radius / 60
• Mathematics
1°
not to scale
r
r / 60
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1 in 60 rule
• The 1 in 60 rule
1°
60 NM
1 NM
1°
1 NM
≈ 100ft
≈ 6000ft
3°
1 NM
≈ 300ft Standard ILS
not to scale
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1 in 60 rule
• Exercises
A
B
α
• at 60 NM, 3° B ≈ … NM ?
• at 15 NM, 5° B ≈ … NM ?
• at 25 NM, 2° B ≈ … NM ?
• at 1 NM, 3° B ≈ … ft ?
• at 10 NM, 3° B ≈ … ft ?
• at 5 NM, 4° B ≈ … ft ?
• at 60 NM, 2 NM off α ≈ ?
• at 12 NM, 4 NM off α ≈ ?
• at 20 NM, 6 NM off α ≈ ?
• at 1 NM, 200ft off α ≈ ?
• at 5 NM, 2000ft off α ≈ ?
• at 6 NM, 1800ft off α ≈ ?
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1 in 60 rule
• Exercises
A
B
α
• at 60 NM, 3° B ≈ 3 NM
• at 15 NM, 5° B ≈ 1,25 NM
• at 25 NM, 2° B ≈ 0,8 NM
• at 1 NM, 3° B ≈ 300 ft
• at 10 NM, 3° B ≈ 3000 ft
• at 5 NM, 4° B ≈ 2000 ft
• at 60 NM, 2 NM off α ≈ 2°
• at 12 NM, 4 NM off α ≈ 20°
• at 20 NM, 6 NM off α ≈ 18°
• at 1 NM, 200ft off α ≈ 2°
• at 5 NM, 2000ft off α ≈ 4°
• at 6 NM, 1800ft off α ≈ 3°
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1 in 60 rule
• Exercises
Q. You are on a VFR navigation, flying a leg from point D to point E (distance 35 NM) at 120kts. 6 minutes after passing point D,you verify your position with a landmark and with the chart you
notice that you drifted 3 NM off track. What is your drift angle?
drift angle ≈ 15 °
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1 in 60 rule
• Exercises
Q. Airport elevation is 1500ft, mountain ridge (top 5500ft) at 20NM from airport. What minimum angle do we need to pass the ridge without any margin?
1500ft
5500ft
20NM
minimum angle ≈ 2 °
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1 in 60 rule
• Exercises
Q. 2 NM after the departure end of the runway is a building extending up to 400ft. You pass the end of the runway at 100ft during your take-off. What angle of climb do we need to pass the
building with at least 500ft clearance?
required angle = 4°
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1 in 60 rule
• Exercises
Q. We want to follow a 3° descent path from 12500ft to 2500ft.How many miles do we need to descent to 2500ft.
33 NM
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1 in 60 rule
• Exercises
Q. How many nautical miles is the green segment of this DME arc? Procedure is flown at 120 KTAS.
R090
12DME arc
turn radius = TAS/200
7,4 NM
Arc distance between R050 and R090 = 8.0NM Turn radius = 0.6NM
Green segment = 8.0 – 0.6 = 7.4 NM
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1 in 60 rule
Q. At which altitude approximately should you start the descent at the FAF arriving via FLORA?
• Exercises
≈ 2920 ft
Distance threshold to FAF = 8.8NM ≈ 9NM 1 in 60 rule: 9NM with a 3°≈ 2700ft 2700ft + TCH (≈60ft) + apt. elev. (≈160ft)
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1 in 60 rule
Q. At which altitude should you cross 2.5DME ILST?
≈ 1425 ft
• Exercises
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Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Another good approximation for air factor is:
Mach number x 10
Most of the times this equation can be used on bigger airplanes where Mach is indicated on the flightdeck.
air factor ≈ ?
• Air factor
6 NM/min
example
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Q. Calculate the air factor for the given TAS / Mach number?
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
• 90 KTAS AF = ?
• 120 KTAS AF = ?
• 150 KTAS AF = ?
• 180 KTAS AF = ?
• 100 KTAS AF = ?
• M .78 AF ≈ ? (A320)
• M .84 AF ≈ ? (B747)
• M .72 AF ≈ ? (AVRO RJ)
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Q. Calculate the air factor for the given TAS / Mach number?
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
• 90 KTAS AF = 1,5 NM/min
• 120 KTAS AF = 2 NM/min
• 150 KTAS AF = 2,5 NM/min
• 180 KTAS AF = 3 NM/min
• 100 KTAS AF ≈ 1,7 NM/min
• M .78 AF ≈ 8 NM/min
• M .84 AF ≈ 8,5 NM/min
• M .72 AF ≈ 7 NM/min
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Q. Calculate the ground factor for the given TAS and wind?
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
• 120 KTAS, 20kts HW GF ≈ 1,7 NM/min
• 105 KTAS, 15kts TW GF = 2 NM/min
• 130 KTAS, 25 kts TW GF ≈ 2,5 NM/min
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Navigation exercises:
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
• A B − leg distance: 30 NM
− 110 KTAS
− TW 15 kts
− ETE ? 15 min
• B C − leg distance: 50 NM
− 120 KTAS
− TW 25 kts
− ETE ? 20 min
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Navigation exercises:
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
• C D diversion − leg distance: 45 NM
− 145 KTAS
− HW 20 kts
− ETE ? 22 min
• C E diversion − leg distance: 70 NM
− 140 KTAS
− HW 30 kts
− ETE ? 35 min
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IFR navigation exercises:
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
• Under radar vectors to final on base leg. Speed 120 KTAS,HW 15 kts. How much time left before intercepting final?
3,5 min
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IFR navigation exercises:
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
• Under radar vectors to final on base leg. Speed 100 KTAS,TW 10 kts. How much time left before intercepting final?
2 min
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Q. ATC request ETA overhead point EXIBA, distance to EXIBA is 80 NM. Speed 145 KTAS, HW 20 kts.
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
13:4514:25
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Q. ATC request ETA overhead point DOBAL, distance to DOBAL is 30 NM. Speed 110 KTAS, HW 20 kts.
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
• Exercises
16:3216:52
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Q. What is you air factor, ground factor and at what time will you arrive overhead TILLE?
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
AF ≈ 4 NM/min GF ≈ 3 NM/min TILLE @ 11:37Z
• Exercises
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Content – G2
1 in 60 rule
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb gradient
Descent planning Wind and time corrections
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Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
[ft]distance
[ft]altitude][][tan
rad rad
NMdistance
ftaltitude
• Mathematics - AoD
6000[NM]distance
[ft]altitude][
rad
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Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
6000M]distance[N
[ft]altitude][
rad
• Mathematics - AoD
100M]distance[N
100[FL]altitude][
6000M]distance[N
[ft]altitude
60
][
100M]distance[N
[ft]altitude
][
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Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
M]distance[N
FL][
≈ angle of descent [ ° ]
• Mathematics - AoD
ftaltitude
NMdistance
100M]distance[N
100[FL]altitude][
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Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
• Mathematics - RoD
]AoD[
hr / NMGS
RoD [ft/min]
M]distance[N
FL][AoD
GS[NM/hr]
RoD[FL/hr]][AoD
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Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
• Mathematics - RoD
GS[NM/hr]
RoD[FL/hr]][AoD
GS[NM/hr]
100
60]RoD[ft/min
][AoD
60100GS[kts]][AoD]RoD[ft/min
100GF[NM/min]][AoD]RoD[ft/min Rate of descent [ ft/min]
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Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
• Descent gradient
descent gradient [%] 12AoD
3°≈ ?
4°≈ ? 7 %
5 %
example
Rate of descent [fpm] ≈ descent gradient [%] x GS
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Q. Calculate angle of descent, descent gradient and rate of descent?
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
Altitude to loose 2000ft 3000ft 1200ft
in distance of 6 NM 5 NM 3 NM
with GS 120 kts 100 kts 150 kts
AoD ? ? ?
descent gradient ? ? ?
RoD ? ? ?
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Q. Calculate angle of descent, descent gradient and rate of descent?
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
Altitude to loose 2000ft 3000ft 1200ft
in distance of 6 NM 5 NM 3 NM
with GS 120 kts 100 kts 150 kts
AoD 3,5° 6° 4°
descent gradient 6% 11% 7%
RoD 720 fpm 1100 fpm 1050fpm
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Q. You are flying enroute at 11.000ft, ATC requests you to descent and reach waypoint TANGO at 5000ft. TANGO is at 12 NM and your groundspeed is 160 kts. What rate of descent will
you need?
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
RoD ≈ 1300 fpm
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Q. What AoD and RoD do we need to fly to pass the step down fix at 12.0 NM and 7.0 NM at the minimum altitude? What will be our final RoD (from to the touchdown point)? GS is 90kts.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
6200ft
7.0 15.012.0
5000ft
4000ft
Final RoD ≈ 450 + 100fpm
AoD ≈ 4°
RoD ≈ 600 fpm
1900ft
AoD ≈ 2 °
RoD ≈ 300 fpm
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Q. What is the AoD and RoD required to reach the stepdown fixes at the minimum altitudes? GS is 75 kts.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
KCHD, VOR Rwy 4R
4°500 fpm
3°375 fpm
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Q. What is the final RoD required to the MDA? GS is 75 kts.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
KSDL, VOR A
450 + 200 fpm
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Q. What RoD is required to stay on the glide of a standard ILS approach, at 90 – 100 – 120 – 150 kts GS?
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
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Q. What is the angle of descent and rate of descent required to follow the published final approach?
AoD ≈ 4°RoD ≈ 800 fpm
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
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Q. What is the descent gradient and required rate of descent of this non-precision approach?
Descent grad. ≈ 6% RoD ≈ 540 fpm
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
•Exercises
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Content – G2
1 in 60 rule
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb gradient
Descent planning
Wind and time corrections
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Rate of climb, angle of climb,climb gradient
• thumbrules
climb gradient [%] 12AoC
≈ climb gradient [%] x GS
Same as for descent.
distance
FL
angle of climb [ ° ]
100GFdistance
FL
rate of climb [fpm]
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Q. What RoC do we need to climb on a SID with a standard gradient? Climb speed 105 kts.
350 fpm
Rate of climb, angle of climb,climb gradient
• Exercises
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i i
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Q. At 3 NM from the departure end of the runway is a church located on a small hill. The top of the church is at 700ft above airport elevation. What is the AoC, climb gradient en RoC required to cross the top with a 500ft clearance? During takeoff you cross the end of the runway at 150ft at 90 kts.
Rate of climb, angle of climb,climb gradient
• Exercises
150ft
700ft
AoC: 3,5°Climb gradient: 6%
RoC: 525 fpm
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Content – G2
1 in 60 rule
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb gradient
Descent planning
Wind and time corrections
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Descent planning
500 feet/min rate of descent is the standard, unless there is a good reason to descend at a higher rate.
Minutes to descend =
Distance to descend =
Remember not to calculate your descent until ground but til your pattern altitude!
• non-pressurized aircraft
21000
loosetoaltitude
GF2
1000
loosetoaltitude
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Q. How many miles to loose 3000ft at 120 kts GS?
5000ft 100 kts
4000ft 150 kts
Descent planning
12 NM
•Exercises
17 NM
20 NM
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Q. Calculate TOD in nautical miles and minutes?
Descent planning
•Exercises
present alt. airport elev. airspeed wind
8500ft KSDL - 1500ft 110 kts 10 TW
5500ft KRYN - 2500ft 100 kts 15 HW
11500ft KFLG - 7000ft 145 kts 20 HW
! Reach the airport at TPA (normally 1000ft AGL).
• 12 min – 24 NM before KSDL• 4 min – 6 NM before KRYN • 7 min – 14 min before KFLG
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Q. At which distance from KFFZ will you start the descent? Descent speed 90 kts (no wind).
Descent planning
A/FD KFFZ pattern alt. 800ft
TOD = 20 NM before KFFZ
•Exercises
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Content – G2
1 in 60 rule
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Rate of descent, angle of descent,descent gradient
Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb gradient
Descent planning
Wind and time corrections
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Wind and time corrections
• wind component
crosswind
h e a d w i n d
t ai l wi n d
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Wind and time corrections
3
1
3
2
• crosswind component
3
3
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Wind and time corrections
• crosswind component
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Wind and time corrections
3
2
3
3
• tail-/headwind component
3
3
3
2
HEADTAIL
3
1
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Wind and time corrections
1 3 k t s
• tail-/headwind component
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Wind and time corrections
• wind component
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Wind and time corrections
•Exercises
Q. Calculate crosswind and head/tailwind component?
wind: 340/15
300/10 015/20
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Wind and time corrections
•Exercises
Q. Calculate crosswind and head/tailwind component?
wind: 080/20
230/30 360/15
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Wind and time corrections
HW / TW component divided by AF = time correction [sec] per minute flight time
time correction per minute x leg time = time correction for the leg
• time correction
example
A
B
Q: new flight time with 20kts headwind?
11min 40 sec
This is an approximation (thumb rule), if you calculate it
exactly, you will found 12 min. as new flight time
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Wind and time corrections
• drift/wind correction angle
AF
componentcrosswind
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AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate crosswind and head/tailwind component?
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Wind, 300°/13kts
Crosswind comp. = 8 kts (2/3)
Headwind comp. = 8 kts (2/3)
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Exercises
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Q. How many ground miles will you fly in a minute?
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Reported wind: 090°/22kts
2 NM/min
1 6 k t s
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Exercises
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AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
•
Exercises
Q. Calculate the heading correction, 90 KTAS?
wind: 340/15
300/10 150/20
3° L
5° L7° R
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Wind and time corrections
•
Exercises
wind: 080/20
230/30 360/15
Q. Calculate the heading correction, 120 KTAS?
4° L
15° R 8° L
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Wind and time corrections
•
Exercises
VFR navigation • PA 28 – 110 KTAS • wind 120/15 • diversion to alternate airport: course 060°, distance 36 NM
Q. What will be your ETE and heading to your alternate airport?
Heading: 067°ETE: 21 min
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AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
•
Exercises
VFR navigation • DA 42 – 145 KTAS • wind 060/25 • diversion to alternate airport: course 210°, distance 45 NM
Q. What will be your ETE and heading to your alternate airport?
Heading: 205°ETE: 16 min
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Q. Which heading to fly and what will be your estimated leg time?
Track: 160°Distance: 11 NM Wind: 030/18
HDG: 154°Leg time: 5,5 min
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Exercises
Wind and time corrections
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AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
•
Exercises
Q. Calculate the time correction? 100KTAS, leg time 3 min.
wind: 340/15
300/10 150/20
+ 30 sec.
+ 9 sec.- 30 sec.
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AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
•
Exercises
Q. Calculate the flight time outbound SNOWL and the heading and time correction outbound in the procedure turn (course 167°). 100 KTAS.
2,5 min.+ 0 sec / 11° R
Stay within
10 NM from
SNOWL
Extra info: Outbound timing SNOWL 1 to 3 minutes (ICAO), we take 3 minutes (no wind) with a speed of 100 KTAS and we stay within 10NM from SNOWL
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