CLASS 8 ENGLISH

Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is usually the name of a quality, action or state which we

normally cannot see or touch.

Formation

Abstract nouns are formed From adjectives From verbs From common nouns.

Exercise

Pages 51 -56

Revision Test 1

Worksheet 16

Pages 57 - 60

Word Puzzles

Complete the following pairs of words by filling in the missing letters/

Pages 61 - 62

Articles

The indefinite article a or an is used Before a singular noun, which is

countable, when it is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing.

Before a singular countable noun which represents a class of things.

With a noun complement Before certain numerical expressions In expressions of price, speed, ratio etc With few and little. In exclamations before singular, countable

nouns. A can be used before Mr/Mrs/Miss +

surname.

The indefinite article is not used Before uncountable nouns such as advice,

furniture, information etc. Before abstract nouns such as truth,

beauty, happiness, fear, joy, peace, war etc.

Before a common noun in the singular, used in a general sense.

Use of A and An

A is used before words beginning with a consonant.

An is used before words beginning with a vowel or with a letter h which is not sounded.

A (not an) must be used before words which begin with a vowel pronounced as yoo. (Europe, European, uniform, unique)

A one- rupee note, a one-way traffic, because one begins with the consonant sound of wa.

Use of the Definite Article

Before a noun when it is repeated after it has been said once.

Before a noun which is one of its kind in a given situation.

Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause.

When a singular noun is used to indicate a whole class.

An adverb in such sentences as the following:

The more the merrier

The fewer the better.

Before rivers, ranges of mountains, groups of islands, plural names of countries.

Before oceans, gulfs and bays.

Before the names of certain well-known books.

Before the names of newspapers, magazines etc.

Before the names of public buildings, institutions, associations, etc.

Before the names of peoples (nations), families, and adjectives formed from proper nouns.

Before a common noun, to give it the meaning of an abstract noun.

Before ordinals and superlatives.

Before a proper noun only when it is qualified by an adjective, or by a phrase or clause used as an adjective.

Before an adjective used as a noun.

Before common nouns of which there is only one.

Before the names of ships and trains.

Omission of the Article

Before common nouns used in the widest sense.

Before proper nouns. Before abstract nouns used in a general

sense.

Before material nouns.

Before titles coming before proper nouns

Before names of streets.

Before names of meals.

Before the names of games.

Before the names of languages.

In certain expressions like all day and all night.

In certain phrases consisting of a noun as the object of a verb.

Exercise

Pages 69 - 71

We must have a verb

The most important word in a sentence is the verb. We cannot make a sentence without a verb. If there is only one word in a sentence, that word must be a verb.

Exercise

Pages 72 -73

One verb for several words

Exercise Pages 74 -75

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is the imitation of natural sounds in word form. These words help us form mental pictures about the things, people or places that are described. Sometimes the word names a thing or action by copying the sound.

Exercise

Pages 76 -78

Subjects and Verbs

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

If two singular nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every, the verb is singular.

Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, or either. or, neither. nor, take a singular verb.

If two nouns are joined by with or as well as, the verb agrees with the first noun.

A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb according to the sense. If the idea of oneness is expressed, the verb must be singular, if the individuals of the collection are referred to the verb must be plural.

Either, neither, each, everyone, many a must be followed by a verb in the singular.

Two singular nouns qualified by each and every, even though connected by and must be followed by a verb in the singular.

Errors due to proximity

Often the verb is made to agree in number with a noun near it instead of its proper subject. This should be avoided.

When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, the verb is generally singular.

The verb following a relative pronoun always agrees in number and person with its antecedent.

When the subject is one of, followed by a plural noun, the verb is singular.

But two of , many of, several of, the majority of must be followed by a plural verb.

A lot of, plenty of, some of, half of, most of take a plural verb if the reference is to number. But they will take a singular verb if the reference is to amount or quantity.

A number of is always followed by a plural verb, since it means several or many.

A great deal of , a good deal of, a large quantity of are always followed by a singular verb, since these expressions denote amount or quantity.

Exercise

Pages 83 – 86

Modal Auxiliaries

Shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, ought, need, dare, used to are called modal auxiliaries because they are used to form certain moods for which English has no inflected verb forms.

Shall is used with the first person (I, we) and will with the second and third persons (you, he, she, it, they) to express simple future time.

Will is used with the first person to express:

Willingness Promise Threat determination

Will is used with the second person (you) in the interrogative, when making a polite request.

Shall is used with the second or third person to express:

Command Promise Threat Compulsion Determination

Interrogative sentences

Shall indicates simple future tense, permission or a desire of the person spoken to in the first person.

Will is not used at all in the first person.

Will denotes willingness, intention, or wish of the person spoken to in the second person.

Will denotes simple future tense in the third person.

The most usual form of request is that introduced by will you?

Should and would

To express that an action is future in relation to the past.

To express conditions and suppositions.

Special uses

Should and would have the following special uses.

Should is used:

To express duty or obligation in all persons.

When giving or asking advice.

In the negative, to indicate disapproval of something that was done in the past.

To express purpose and result in the clauses introduced by in order that and so that.

After lest to express a negative purpose.

To express a wish.

Would is used:

To express a wish.

In the negative, to indicate refusal.

To express determination.

To express willingness in the past.

To express past habit.

In polite speech.

To denote condition or uncertainty.

Can and Could

Can is used:

To express ability.

To express possibility.

To mean be in a position to.

To express permission.

To mean have the right to.

With verbs of perception.

Could is :

The past tense of can and is used to indicate ability that existed in the past.

Used as the past tense of can in indirect speech.

Used to express past time.

Used to express possibility.

Used to ask polite questions.

May and Might

May is used To express permission.

To express doubt, uncertainty.

To express possibility.

To express wishes, fears, and hopes.

To express purpose.

To express concession.

Might is used:

As the past tense of may.

To express uncertainty and improbability concerning the future.

To express purpose.

To express gentle reproach.

Must

Must is used:

To express compulsion or strong moral obligation.

To express fixed determination.

To express duty.

To express certainty or strong likelihood.

To express an inevitable result.

Ought to

To express

Desirability

Moral obligation Duties

Ought to have

Used with a past participle to indicate past obligation that was not fulfilled or carried out.

Ought not to have

Is used to indicate disapproval of something that was done in the past.

Need

Is used only in the negative and interrogative.

Need not

With a perfect infinitive may refer to the past.

Dare

The verb dare has the form dare for the third person singular, present tense, when it is followed by a negative and also in the interrogative.

Used

The past tense used expresses: A permanent state that existed in the past. Actions and activities that were habitual or

customary in the past.

Exercise

Pages 96 - 100

Tenses

The Simple Present is used

To express what is actually now taking place.

To express habitual action.

To express universal truths.

To express future action, when the future tense is indicated by the context.

Present continuous

Is used to express an action going on at the time of speaking.

Present Perfect

To express an action that has just been completed.

To express a past action, the results of which still continues.

To express a future perfect when such words as when, before, as soon as, till, after are used before it.

Present Perfect Continuous

Shows that the action that began in the past is continuing up to the present time.

The Simple Past

To express that something was done or took place in the past.

To express a habitual action in the past. To express an action actually going on at

the time started.

Past Continuous

The action was going on in the past time referred to.

Past Perfect

To denote an action which had been completed at some point in the past time, before another action commenced.

Past Perfect Continuous

Shows that the action had begun prior to the past time being referred to.

Simple Future

Denotes an action that will take place in the future.

Future Continuous

Denotes an action going on at some point in the future.

Future Perfect

Denotes that an action will be completed at some point of time in the future.

Future Perfect Continuous

Shows that the action, whether finished or unfinished, has been in progress in some time.

Exercise

106 -- 109

The future tense of intention

Going to is used to indicate: Intention What is considered likely or probable. Future time when there is no reference to

external conditions or circumstances.

Tenses in conditional

Open condition A condition which may or may not be

fulfilled. If I have time, I shall visit the zoo.

Rejected Condition A condition which might have been fulfilled

but is not. If I had time. I should visit the zoo.

Imaginary condition One which could not be true. If you were a bird, you would fly.

Conditions

Inversion of subject and finite verb. Were I alone, I should be afraid to go. Had I known, I should never have gone

there.

Exercise

Pages 114 - 115

One adjective for Several words

It is possible to use a single adjective instead of a group of words or an adjective phrase.

Exercise

Pages 116 -117

Similes and Idioms

A comparison of one person or thing with another is called a simile.

Exercise

Pages 118 -120

Degrees of Comparison

Other after positives and comparatives.

Other is wrong after superlatives.

Exercise

Pages 122 - 124

Word puzzles

Exercise 125 - 126

Relative Pronoun

The pronouns who, whom, which, that which join two sentences and relate or refer to nouns which have gone before are called relative pronouns.

The noun to which a relative pronoun relates or refers is called its antecedent.

Exercise

127 -- 130

Absurd Sentences

Exercise

Pages 131 - 132

Using Adverbs

Exercise

Pages 133 - 135

Preposition

Exercise 136 - 137

Ridiculous!

Exercise

Page 139 - 140