Funeral traditions in classical Jewish · PDF file · 2012-08-21Funeral traditions...

Funeral traditions in classical Jewish sources Elina Ioffe, Paideia Fellow 2011/12

Funeral – is one of the most important rituals among rites of passage1, events that mark a person's

progress from one status to another describing life cycle of every human. This ritual, rather practical

and common it may be, plays substantial role in spiritual culture answering it's existential key

questions. Funeral helps humanity to submit to mortality. It is here to convince us if not in life after

death then at least in life after bereavement.

There are many ways to investigate funerary rite besides psychological and philosophical. In

research of Jewish funeral there are approaches that one can not avoid even if he doesn't deal with

them directly. In this case I am bound to mention two of such approaches – archaeological and

halakhic (legal in the sense of religious law).

Biblical archeology always was one of the most thrilling section respective science. In the Land of

Israel great number of very ancient tombs and graves were discovered, attributed and studied

properly. But the problem is that, dealing with the patriarchal period, it is impossible to distinguish

Israelite from Canaanite burials2. For our purposes the description of relatively late burial will suit.

Typical tombs were cut at the highland, at the bottom of a vertical, cylindrical shaft, a doorway

blocked with stones provided access into a circular chamber with lamp niches cut into the walls.

Most burials belong to families, not individuals.

As it seems from findings inside this artificial caves, deceased were thought to need nourishment

and the protection afforded both by weapons and symbolically by colored and metal jewelry. The

practice of placing burial gifts together with the dead was widespread throughout the Hellenistic

and pagan worlds, but the Jews, although following the custom, gave it their own interpretation by

ignoring the connotation of an offering to the dead for their use in the afterlife. Possibly Jews placed

personal belongings in the tomb of the deceased to heighten the tragic mood of the onlookers.3.

Both primary burials in wooden coffins and secondary burials of collected bone in ossuaries were

practiced in the same time. All type of burial were outside the boundaries of dwelling territory, in

case of cities – outside gates. It is connected not only with universal trend to push death away, but

also with Jewish doctrine concerning purity and impurity in which dead body in any state is most

impure.

When Talmud was codified, this and much more rules concerning funeral were written down in

tractate Ebel Rabbati4 that more usually and euphemistically called Semachot

5. However there was

an older collection of rules concerning funeral ordinances, that is why the new one, which was

included in the Talmud, was designated "Rabbati" to distinguish between the two. This halakhic

work contains prescriptions for all occasions from grave illness till remembering diseased. Up until

now days all Jewish books providing guidance for arranging proper funeral are based on this

rulings. But world of Halahka is beyond our concerns in this study. Here will analyzed another

section of rabbinic literature – so called Agada. It is narrative part of the Talmud where, among all

possible genres of the stories, examples of funeral halakhic laws when in use are represented. Main

1 The concept of rites of passage as a general theory of socialization was first enunciated by Arnold van Gennep in

1909.

2 “Burial” // The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. David Noel Freedman, ed. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

3 Ibid.

4 Closest translation "The Mourning – big edition”

5 Closest translation “The Joys”

source in our possession is Hayim Nahman Bialik's masterwork “Sefer HaAggadahh6. For this

collection hundreds of narratives from whole Talmud and most of Midrash were selected and

arranged thematically. First three-volume edition was published during 1908–1911 and has been

reprinted numerous times.

This material most interestingly shows how Jewish funerary rite was developing until it was finally

structured, what thoughts and concerns about funeral were on the people minds, to which examples

of adequate conduct every person had aspire and what in short was common attitude towards

funeral among the Jews in the rabbinic period.

But before going to Agada, we must move our attention to Bible. Not only because of chronological

reason for Agada is not taking Bible chronologically. Biblical text is the ground for all later halakhic

and midrashic activity. Midrash and Bible share same characters and great deal of plot. So it in our

case: Agada describes most significant funeral of famous Biblical heroes. It builds it self along the

lines of existing text and when it fails to answer emergent question Agada is always ready to fill the

gap.

Biblical references to burial are descriptive rather than prescriptive7. Biblical expression “he lay

with his fathers”8 indicating a natural death or “he was gathered to his people”

9 indicate that burial

in the family tomb will be most appropriate since this way will ensure reunion with the ancestors. In

most cases describing death of some person Bible mentions how and where burial took place. In

fact about some characters of the period of Judges only details Scripture provides is the place of

their grave10. Proper burial for Bible is matter of great importance. On the contrary sinners were

cursed with lack of burial or exhumation11. Author of the Chronicles uses place funeral practice for

expressing his opinion about royal persons: while commendable kings, according to him, were

buried with their predecessors in the City of David, sinful and ailing kings were not worthy reunite

with righteous ancestors even post-mortem. But most kings and rulers were buried the their home

town or capital city. Important individuals were buried in prominent places where their tombs

would be visible and accessible. Those tomb served also as a landmark.

The most known place of burial in the Bible is Cave of Machpelah, purchased by Abraham in

Geneses 49. All patriarchs and matriarchs with the exception of Rachel were buried there. In

accordance with their wishes to be buried with family, the remains of Jacob and Joseph were

transported from Egypt to the Land of Israel.

In Geneses biblical text follows biographies of very few main heroes, that is why their place of their

eternal rest described thoroughly and accurately. But rabbinic mind was able to find some

roughness even there. The first quite legitimate question to the text is: how was the first ever dead

man buried? This men was of course Abel killed by his brother. This Midrash12 demonstrates how

once and forever Jews were prescribed to bury dead in the ground:

Adam and his wife were sitting weeping and lamenting over him [Abel], and they did

not know what to do with Abel, for they were not acquainted with burial. A raven, one

of whose companions had died, came. He took him and dug in the earth and buried

6 All text are quoted according to translation from edition “The Book of Legends, Sefer Ha-Aggadah". Schocken

Books. New York. 1992.

7 “Burial” // The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. David Noel Freedman, ed. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

8 Mainly in Kings and Chronicles

9 Mainly in source P according to Documentary Hypothesis.

10 Tola in the Shamir hill country of Ephraim (Judg 10:2), Jair in Kamon, Gilead (Judg 10:5) and more.

11 Deut 28:25–26; 1 Kgs 14:10–11; Jer 16:4. Find further example of Jehoiakim King of Judah.

12 Pirkey de R. Eleazer 21b

him before his eyes. Adam said, 'I shall do as this raven.' Immediately, he took Abel's

corpse and dug in the earth and buried it

Here ingumation (placing body in the soil) was presented as most natural way of treating the dead.

This is how Jews were introduced to the funerary rite and one awkward gap in the Scripture was

covered. But there are more gaps even in the Patriarch cycle. Next one chronologically would be

Rebecca, about whose funeral Bible keeps silence.

Funeral of Biblical heroes

When Rebekah died, it was asked: who will walk before her bier? Abraham is dead.

Isaac stays at home because his eyes are dim, and Jacob has gone to Paddan-aram.

Should wicked Esau walk before her bier, people will say, “A curse on the beast that

gave suck to such a one.” What did they do? They took her out for burial at the night.

For this reason, Scripture does not record her death13.

The passage describes anxiety of person that lived in patriarchal and tribal culture. According to the

common understanding of such a person head of the clan must lead this important funeral

ceremony. But because of the unfortunate lack of candidates (Abraham is already dead, Isaac is ill,

Jacob is away and Esau is a black sheep) the they proposed the least shameful decision – to make

modest secret funeral away from neighbors' eyes and gossips. Even Scripture tactfully pass over

this incident in silence.

One other significant funeral in Bible lacks organizers and attendants – funeral of Moshe. Tradition

tells us that since at moment of death Moshe was alone with God, He Himself buried him. But this

time Bible deliberately rejects to grant readers with whereabouts of his grave.

“And he buried in the valley in the land of Moab over against Beth-peor” (Deut.

34:6). R. Berekhiah commented: Although Scripture thus provides one clue within

another about its location, nevertheless [it goes on to say], “No man knoweth of his

sepulcher” (ibid.). The wicked kingdom of Rome once dispatched a request to the

military garrison at Beth-peor: “Locate the spot where Moses is buried.” When the

soldiers stood on high ground, the spot seemed to them to be belaw; when they stood

on law ground, it seemed to them to be above, fulfilling the words, “No man knoweth

of his sepulcher to this day.”14

The first question arose to this text – why suddenly here emerges “The wicked kingdom of Rome”

and for what reason it can be interested in locating Moshe's grave? But it is common for Agada to

involve non-Jews as antiheroes and prescribe the them the most daring and wild act. This strangers

however always are knowledgeable in realm of Jewish law and History (further we shall see

another example of this nature in imaginary dialog with Persian king). The main difference of this

secondary role actors is that they feel no necessity to consider this knowledge it in their conduct.

So, we see that Agada also insists that Moshe's grave must stay indefinite and all attempts of wicked

ones to reach it are pointless. Offered reasons behind it we shall see further in analysis of the nature

of righteous dead.

Moshe's successor Joshua was buried but Bible doesn't state what period of public mourning was

13 Sefer Ha-Aggadah, p. 50, 87.

14 Sefer Ha-Aggadah, p. 104, 141

established after his death. This causes doubts and doubts are always step before aggadic story.

“And they buried him in the border of his inheritance … on the north of the mountain

of Gaash” (Josh. 24:30). It is said in the name of R. Joshua ben Levi: We have gone

through all of Scripture and did not find a place called Gaash. What then in meant by

“the mountain of Gaash”? That at the time of Joshua's death Israel were so

preoccupied (nitgaashu) that the failed to pay him the honor due him. The land of

Israel had just been divided among the tribes, who were completely taken up both by

details of the division and by the use they planned to put the land to. Thus, one was

occupied with his field, another with his vineyard, still another with his olive trees,

and still another with his household chores, so that they were negligent in paying

Joshua the honor due to him. The Holy One was about to cause the earth, all of it, to

quake under its inhabitants. What, then, R. Judah asked in the name of Rav, is meant

by “the mountain of Gaash”? That the mountain began to quake, and [had in

continued], it would have slain them15.

This time the place also is uncertain, but it is not the main point. Joshua's grave was erected like a

landmark on the border of his portion of the land. This makes inquisitive rabbinic mind to suspect

something concerning all this dividing and cultivating business something to do with his burial.

Author uses etymology to prove this suspicions, he tackles unfamiliar word “Gaash” with two

results: firstly, he concludes that Israel was preoccupied and didn't pay enough attention t o death

of great leader, secondly, he shows how disloyal it was not only to Joshua, but to God himself who

wanted to destroy the people by earthquake for such a sin.

God is rather attached to his favorites and wants them to be treated well after the death too. One of

those chosen people was Saul. While he misbehaved during his kingship, he perished bravely and

didn't deserve insult of lying unburied in the domain of his enemy.

“And there was a famine in the days of David. … And the Lord said: “It is because of

Saul” (2 Sam. 21:1), because he was not mourned in the manner required by law. The

Holy One asked David: David, is he not Saul who was anointed with the oil of

anointing? Is he not the Saul in whose day no idolatry was practiced in Israel? Is he

not the Saul whose portion in heaven is with Samuel the Prophet? Yet you are in the

Land and he outside it. At once David got busy and gathered all the elders and

notables of Israel. They crossed the Jordan, came to Jabesh-gilead, and found the

bones of Saul and his son Jonathan – bones over which worms had exercised no

power. They took the bones, put them in a coffin, and went back across the Jordan.

Then David commanded that Saul's coffin be borne through the territory of each and

every tribe. Upon the coffin's arrival in the tribe territory, the entire tribe – the men,

their sons and druthers, as well as their wives – come out and paid affectionate

tribute to Saul and to his sons, thus discharging the obligation of loving-kindness to

the dead. When the Holy One saw that Israel had shown such loving-kindness, He,

immediately filled with compassion, sent down rain16.



In this case punishment for not mourning (and not burring the first ever King of Israel) was famine.

First it started and then God declared what Israel was required to do. He speaks to chosen and

beloved King David, by using his painful points and reminding him, that only because of Saul he

has his title. God also points to his advantages in comparison with David (Saul was close to the

Prophet and he didn't allow idolatry in his domain – unlike David with his many alien wives).

David instantly outfits an expedition of noble men of Israel (remember Rebekah's funeral, when

also most prominent figures were required), this expedition rescues royal bones from foreign

territory. Bones are untouched by time and nature probably it was not the time for them to decay

before appropriate - natural for King's status – burial. Already in the coffin Saul was “through the

territory of each and every tribe” what refers to God's mentioning of “not being in the Land” in his

reprimand. Touched by affectionate tribute to Saul and to his sons God withdraw his anger and sent

down rain.

Thus we have examined narratives, which were written or to fill the gap or, if to allow rabbis of

Talmudic period to be more ingenious, the narratives, expressing contemporary ideas which were

carefully inserted in the sanctified by sanctity of the Bible plots. This insertions implant in readers

or listeners basic idea of respectable interment and mourning, in fact doing the same job as strict

laws of halakhic part of the Talmud. But all Agada is the same, there are narratives existing for the

sake of narration and stories, invented just because of the eternal reader's desire to know more

details about adventures of favorite hero.

Now we shall return to the very beginning of funeral history of the Bible – to the Cave of

Machpelah.

“There was Abraham buried next to Sarah his wife” (Gen. 25:10). R. Samuel bar

Nahman said: [At the time of Sarah's funeral], Shem and Eber, walking before her

bier, determined that the place next to where she was to be buried was the one

intended for our father Abraham, and then they buried her in [that place in

Machpelah] in Abraham's twin chamber17.

This story doesn't give us much new material: in the beginning Abraham was buried next to Sarah

and so it is remained in the end. But we are provided with some details of Sarah's funeral. Unlike

Rebekah Sarah had an honor of being escorted by two elders of the that time's proto-jews – Shem,

son of Noah and Ebor – his righteous descendant, who was known for not participating in the affair

with tower of Babel and so for maintained his language (Hebrew if follow the tradition) unmixed.

Those two have determined that Abraham will be buried next to Sarah, which was very altruistically

of them, because they were thought to be relatives of Abraham's next wife Ketura. Or they just were

not a prophets which is actually rare disability in rabbinic way of thinking about heroic past.

There are of course more elaborate narratives, which turn Bible's mentioning of somebodies funeral

in one or to lines into thrilling story with plot and composition of it's own.

“And they came to a threshing floor for brambles” (Gen. 50:10) But is a threshing

floor ever used for brambles? R. Abbahu explained: The verse implies that, as

threshing floor is fenced by hedge of brambles, so was Jacob's coffin encompassed

by crowns. For sons of Esau, of Ishmael, and of Keturah also came. They came, so it

is taught, to wage war [against sons of Jacob]. But when they saw Joseph's crown

hung upon Jacob's coffin, they all took off their crowns, and they, too, hung them

17 Sefer Ha-Aggadah, p.42, 48.

upon Jacob's coffin. I is taught that thirty-six crowns were thus hung upon Jacob's

coffin, encompassing it. When they came to the cave of Machpela, Esau appeared and

sought to prevent Jacob's burial in it, saying, “This cave has room for only four

couples. Since Jacob buried Leah in his place, the plot that remains is mine.” Jacob

sin's replied, “Bur you sold your portion to our father.” Esau retorted, “Even if I did

sell my claim as firstborn [to an additional portion in my father's estate], did I sell

also the original single portion due me as an heir?” They said, “You sold that also.”

Esau: “Show me the bill of sale.” They: “The bill of sale is in Egypt. Who will go and

bring it from there? Let Naphtali go – he is as swift as a hind.” It is so happened that

Hushim son of Dan, who was hard of hearing, was standing there. When he asked,

“What's going on?” he was told, “This one is holding us up until Naphtali returns

from Egypt.” Hushim asked, “And until Naphtali returns from Egypt, is my father's

father to lie shamefully unburied?” So he seized a club and struck Esau on the hard

so hard that his eyes fell out of their sockets and dropped at Jacob's feet. At that,

Jacob opened his eyes and smiled. Hence Scripture's assurance that “the righteous

man will rejoice when he seeth revenge; how will bathe his feet in the blood of the

wicked” (Ps. 58:11) At that moment Rebekah's prophecy “Why should I be bereaved

of you both in one day?” (Gen. 27: 45) was fulfilled.18

Here we have narrative with the form of “ptihta” – rabbinic genre, in which the skilled ones used to

demonstrate fluency in Biblical text and ingenuity. The goal is to connect smoothly two very

different biblical verses on conditions that the second verse is known to listeners. Here we can see

how from rather innocent verse a“And they came to a threshing floor for brambles” author led us

through the whole fight-next-to-coffin story to Rebeka's prophecy “Why should I be bereaved of

you both in one day?”. However the main in the scenary is Jacob's funeral where all family has

gathered. Like it always in all family gatherings some awkward guests have also arrived – these are

Esau, Ishmael, sons of Ketura. Author even states that they intended to attack the protagonistic part

of family undoubtedly to remind us how wicked they are. But even their hearts were moved by

seeing Joseph's crown, symbol of great power and glory, abandoned because of grief and despair

and hanging on his father's coffin to show how worthy was the deceased. Evil party offers their

tribute too, but then Esau came to his senses and started bargaining. He wants this respectful burial

place for himself, and being part of the family he has certain point. The rest tried to persuade him

but Hushim broke the argument and killed Esau. From his words and anger we understand how that

keeping the dead unburied caused great shame upon him. This is actually became one of the main

principle in Jewish funerary rite – to bury the deceased as soon as possible.

R. Yohanan said in the name of R. Simeon ben Yohai: What is the proof that he who

keeps his dead unburied overnight transgresses a negative precept? The verse “His

body shall not remain overnight. … Thou shalt surely bury him the same day” (Deut.

21:23). If the relative keeps body overnight to honor the deceased – to have his death

made known in nearby towns, to bring professional mourners for him, or to procure

for him a coffin and shrouds – he violate no precept, for all he does [that brings

about burial] is done for honor of the deceased19.

This ruling states that you can keep body unburied only if it is necessary for preparing honorable



funeral ceremony – with all important relatives and professionals being present and proper set of

items obtained. We shall go into details of what is thought to be minimal requirements of honorable

funeral further. In the story about fight next to Jacob's coffin one more detail should attract attention

of careful reader - “At that, Jacob his opened eyes and smiled.” This one remark causes crucial

questions in terms of popular belief : can the dead know, hear and see what is happening in the

world of living? If so, all dead have the same abilities or not? Where lays the border of their

impact? What are there abilities in comparison with the living? We shall examine this questions on

exemplificative narratives about various heroes, but primarily we shall continue to deal with Bible

characters.

Abilities pf the dead

“And Moses took the bones of Joseph with him” (Exod. 13:19). The sages taught:

Pause and consider how beloved were commandments to Moses our teacher – while

Israel, all of them, were occupied with spoils, he was occupied with performing

commandments. But how did Moses know where Joseph was buried? It is said: Serah

daughter of Asher, who was of Joseph's generation, was still living. Moses went to

her and asked, “Do you know where Joseph is buried?” She replied, “The Egyptians

made a metal coffin for him, which they sank into the Nile, in order that its waters

might be blessed thereby. Then, too, the magicians and the sorcerers told Pharoah,

“Do you wish that this people should never leave Egypt? If they do not find the bones

of Joseph, they will never be able to leave.” Then Moses went to the bank of the Nile

and called out, saying: Joseph, Joseph, the time in which the Holy One swore to

redeem Israel has come, as has time of the oath you had Israel swear. Give honor to

the Lord, God of Israel. The presence is waiting for you. Israel are waiting for you. If

you show yourself, well and good. If not, we shall be released from the oath you made

our forebears swear. Immediately, Joseph's coffin began bubbling upward, rising out

of the depth as though no heavier than reed, and Moses took it. R. Nathan said:

Josephus was buried in the royal sepulchers. Moses went and stood by these

sepulchers, saying: Joseph, the time in which the Holy One swore to redeem Israel

has come, as has time of the oath you had Israel swear. If you show yourself, well and

good. If not, we shall be released from the oath you made our forebears swear. At

that, Joseph's coffin began to shake. Moses took it and carried it with him20.

In this story Moses talking to Joseph, who, unlike Jacob in previous next, has been dead for a long

time already. But apparently time doesn't matter in this case, Joseph still can hear him and make an

effort for revealing himself. Also Joseph is bound to the world of living by oath about which Moses

reminds him. He commanded to bury his body in the promised Land and can not fully leave this

world till his body finds rest with his ancestors. From Bible we also know that the body was

embalmed according to Egyptian custom. The whole narrative has Egyptian flavor: have two heroes

– Joseph and Moses, both of them were close to court of Pharaoh and Egyptian culture.

Whereabouts of Josephs coffin also clearly refer to myth about Osiris - Egyptian dying god, who

was enclosed in the coffin and sank into Nile. But for our purposes one more point is worth

notifying: in both stories dead like they are conscious, they react on situation, but they do not speak.

Actually is is so in most stories about interactions between living and dead in this period. It seems

that dialog with dead lays already in the realm of magic, which is forbidden and dangerous but

speechless communication goes without negative connotations. In the Bible raising the soul of


Samuel from the dead was considered and awful transgression and performed by specially trained

magician, and here righteous is talking to the dead for the sake of performing the oath. And it seems

also that “righteous” communication is directed not to soul as such but for that part of Joseph's

personality dwelling in the coffin, meaning - still connected with body.

Let us continue with Moses and come back to the question, why his grave had to be hidden and

unreachable.

R. Hama bar Hanina asked: Why was the sepulcher of Moses hidden from the eyes of

mortals? And answered: Because it was revealed and known to the Holy One that the

Temple was to be destroyed and Israel banished from their Land; hence [the spot was

hidden], lest at that time Israel should come to the sepulcher of Moses and stand

there, weeping and beseeching Moses, saying, “Moses out teacher, rise up for prayer

in our behalf.” Then Moses would rise and nullify the decree [of banishment]. For

after their death, the righteous are even more beloved by God than while alive21.

IIn this speculative case Moses could not remain indifferent to the fate of his people even despite of

him being dead for long time. But it seems that information about events in the world of living can

reach him only if pronounced directly at his place of rest. God, not wanting Moses to intervene in

his decisions, prevented such a communication by hiding his grave. It doesn't mean that Moses

stopped enjoying special connection to God, on the contrary - “after their death, the righteous are

even more beloved by God than while alive”. There is one more saying of R. Hama bar Hanina

where this statement is formulated even more bluntly: “the righteous are more powerful after their

death than during their life”22.

From the viewpoint of comparative religion there is some rudiments of Veneration of the dead. This

kind of cult was opposed by official Judaism since Biblical times, but never disappeared

completely. Isaiah speaks23 against it, he curses communication with the dead in order to wring

prophesy and practice of prayer directed not straight to God, but to the spirits of respected or related

deceased. Jewish funerary practice till now days shows that the prophet didn't succeed in his

propaganda. But let us return to the texts and to the analysis of abilities that popular belief

prescribed to the dead.

Once, while R. Hiya and R. Jonathan were walking about in a cemetery, the fringes of

R. Jonathan's cloak were trailing on the ground. R. Hiya said to him, “Lift it up, so

that the dead should not say, “Tomorrow they will be coming to join us, yet now they

threat us with contempt.” R. Jonathan replied, “But do they know such things? It is

written, “But the dead know not anything” (Eccles. 9:5)?” R. Hiya: “If you have

read verse once, you have not repeated it; If you have repeated it, you have not gone

over it a third time; if have not gone over it a third time, you have not had it

explained to you properly. “For the living know that they shall die” (ibid.) - these are

the righteous, who in their death are called living. “But the dead know not anything”

- such dead are the wicked, who even during their lives are called dead.”24

The matter of fringes will be explained in the next part of the present overview. From this text we



23 Isa 57: 7 – 9.


learn that only righteous dead have awareness of reality. They can express their thoughts to each

other, develop shared opinion or argue:

When Rabbah bar R.Huna and R.Hamnuna died their coffins were carried up [to the

Land of Israel]. When the cortege reached a bridge, the camels halted. An Arab

asked: What's happening? The sages [accompanying the cortege] replied: The

deceased scholars are deferring yo each other, one saying, “Master,you go first”, and

the other saying,“You, master, go first”.25

This story shows that way of thinking of the dead is perceived like nor different from one of the

living. Scholars show politeness and mutual respect after death as like as they presumably got used

to during their life. Also worth notifying the fact that they travel in order to be buried in the Holy

Land. In the next narrative the dead can show their opinion (or even censure) about alive people

too:

R. Isaac said: If one makes invidious remarks about the dead, it is like making

remarks about the stone. Some say the reason is that they do not know; others say

that they know but do not care. But is it so? Has not R. Papa told of certain man who

made derogatory remarks about Samuel while follawing his bier, and a log fell from

the roof and cracked that man's skull? A disciple of the wise [such as Samuel] is

different, because the Holy One demands the deference due him26.

Here too the main dead character is special man, God's prophet. The story as like as previous one

illustrates clash of the theories, and makes more or less the same conclusion – some particular

dead have honor of being conscious during eternal rest. R. Hiya explains that righteous have such

merit because they have been prepared for death, which means that they exercised pious behave

while living in order to dwell among the chosen in His presence post mortem. In some texts idea of

knowledge about forthcoming death expresses by description of surrealistic self-funeral ritual.

When Aaron’s time came to depart from this world, The Holy One said to Moses, “Go

tell Aaron of this impending death.” So Moses rose early in the morning and went to

Aaron. As soon as he called out, “Aaron, my brother,” Aaron came down and asked,

“What made you come here so early today?” Moses replied, “During the night I

meditated on a matter in Scripture which I found distressing, and so I rose early and

came to you.” “What was matter?” Aaron asked. “I do not remember, but I know it

was in the book of Genesis. Bring it and we’ll read it.” They took the book of

Genesis, read each and every section in it, and said about each one of them <...>

until finally he [Moses] mentioned to him the precise day when death was to come. At

that moment, Aaron’s bones felt the imminence of his own demise. So he asked, “Is it

because of me that you found the matter in Scripture so distressing?” Moses

answered, “Yes.” At once Israel noticed that Aaron’s height had diminished <...>

Moses asked, “Is dying acceptable to you?” Aaron: “Yes.” Moses: “Then let us go

up to the mount” <...> When the three [Moses, Aaron, and Eleazar]reached the top

of the mount, the cave opened up for them. In it they found burning lamp and a

couch, both wrought by Heaven. Then Aaron proceeded to remove his garments one



by one, and Eleazar donned them, until finally a celestial cloud enveloped Aaron’s

body. <...> Then Moses said to Aaron, "My brother, go up [and lie] on this couch,"

and he went up. "Stretch out your arms," and he stretched them out. "Shut your eyes,"

and he shut them. "Close your mouth," and he closed it. At once the Presence came

down, and as it kissed him, his soul departed. Then, as Moses and Eleazar kissed him

on his cheeks, the cloud of glory rose up and covered him. The Holy One commanded

them,"Go hence." The moment they left, the cave was sealed.27

In this text exceptional righteousness of Aaron gained him knowledge that his last hours are

coming. God is present like an engine for whole narrative: he commanded to Moses to inform

Aaron and he prepared the funeral – the cave, the couch and lamp inside, the cloud instead of

shrouds. His presence took Aaron's soul by kissing him and then sealed his grave . It means that

God Himself buried not only Moses, but also his brother. He also prepared similar grave for Rabbi

Akiva:

So all that night the two [R. Joshua and Prophet Elijah] carried R. Akiva’s bier, until

they reached Antipatris of Caesarea. When they arrived there, they went up three

steps, then went down three steps, and a cave opened up before them. In it they saw a

seat, a footstool, a table, and a lamp. They laid down R. Akiva’s bier and left. The

moment they left, the cave closed, and the light in the lamp was lit. When Elijah saw

this, he burst out in blessing: Blessed are you, O righteous! Blessed are you who

labor in Torah! Blessed are you who fear God! In the time-to-come, a place in the

Garden of Eden is reserved, saved, and lovingly kept for you. Blessed are you, R.

Akiva, that at the time of your death a transient lodging was made available for

you28.

The main difference between two stories about the tomb of divine creation is that R. Akiva arrived

there being already dead. But he also had two accompanying persons, fully-furnished self-closeable

cave. To find or open this place they performed some kind of semi-magical ritual - “they went up

three steps, then went down three steps”. After burial was done Elijah gives the speech, where he

expresses important for the purposes of this research thought: R. Akiva's grave is transient lodging,

as like as he get this one he will be provided with “a place in the Garden of Eden”.

Back to Aaron, Scripture says29 that he was buried at on Mt. Hor as usually members of the Exodus

generation were buried at the location of their death. Here is the story about self-funeral in the

Wilderness:

During all the years that Israel was in the wilderness, on the eve of every ninth of Av,

Moses sent a herald throughout the camp to proclaim, “Go out and dig graves, go

out and dig graves!” and the people went out and dug graves, in which they spent the

night. In the morning, the herald went and announced, “Let those who are alive

separate from the dead!” The living then stood up and found themselves some fifteen

thousand short. [And so it continued year after year in thus way] until Israel was

sixty myriads short. In the last of forty years, they did the same thing and, upon



29 Num 33:39, but see Deut 10:6

finding that they were all still alive30.

In this case self-funeral was performed as God's punishment, not reward. Exodus Generation was

condemned to die out in the Wilderness and to be interred in simple land burial.

Burial place

However not all significant characters were buried in family tomb too. Burial at the location of

death as well as in proximity to a tree were known long before Exodus. One of the matriarchs was

buried was not buried alongside the others:

“And Rachel died, and was buried on the road to Ephtarth” (Gen. 35:19). Why did

Jacob see fit to bury Rachel on the road to Ephtarth [and not in the cave of

Machpelah]? Because our father Jacob foresaw that they who were to be exiled

would pass by way of Ephrath. Therefore he buried her there, so that she might

beseech mercy for them. Referring to this, Scripture says, “A voice is heard in

Ramah, lamentation, and bitter weeping, Rachel weeping for her children” (Jer.

31:15)31

Apparently Rachel also would have ability at first to know what happens with her descendents and

then to influence God by her merit of righteousness to have mercy upon them. But thinking

historically for nomadic nation burial on the road is quite ordinary. In cases when making a tomb in

the hillside is impossible, trees were playing role landmark. Rebekah’s nurse, Deborah, was interred

where she died near Bethel under an oak tree32. Burial under a tree also expressed the desire to

propagate and to perpetuate the memory of the person since the tree was long associated with

immortality.

In Talmudic period the special rule was developed about cases when burial on the spot is not only

possible but mandatory. It refers to the commandment to provide the grave for any dead body on

which you have happened to stumble. The hero is again R. Akiva, but here he himself performing

funeral:

When a man finds an unidentified body, he should attend to its needs and bury it in

the place where it was found. R. Akiva said: This how mu ministry to sages began.

Once, while walking on a road, I found a slain man. O carried him a distance of four

mil to a burial place, where I interred him. When I came to R. Eleazer and R. Joshua,

I told them what had happened. They said to me, “Every step you took is deemed

against you as though you had shed blood.” Then I said to myself, reasoning from the

minor to the major: If I incurred sin when I thought to do good, how much more sin

would I have incurred had I not thought to do good! Henceforth, I did not budge from

ministering to the sages33.

Comparison with shedding blood is not accidental. According to biblical understanding blood



32 Gen 35:8


contains essence of life. In case of murder it is necessary to bury person with all his blood which

has dripped out. For this purpose the killed must be buried without changing the garments, not in

usual shrouds. Akiva didn't knew that and carried the body to the burial place apparently with the

risk of spilling some blood on the way or remaining it behind on the spot of murder. In other cases

body should be buried in the special place, alongside respectful ancestors and according to the

habits of the deceased:

R. Aha bar Hanina said: A wicked man should not be buried next to a righteous one;

and just as a wicked man should not be buried next to a righteous one, so is a grossly

wicked man not to be buried next to one mildly wicked.34

It is naturally follow belief in ability of the dead to communicate to each other and feel offended

too. In narratives grossly wicked sometimes not even deserve the funeral. One of them - Jehoiakim

King of Judah. He is remembered for burning the manuscript of one of the prophecies of famous

Prophet Jeremiah, who used to criticise the king's policies, insisting on repentance and strict

adherence to the law. In survived prophecy of Jeremiah it is written35 that he “shall be buried with

the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem”. But for rabbinic mind it

was not enough:

R. Hiyya bar Avuyah said: On the Jehoiakim's skull are the words: “This and yet

another” [which R. Hiyya explained with the follawing story]: At the gates of

Jerusalem, R. Perida's grandfather found a skull with the words “This and yet

another” inscribed on it. He buried I, but it burst up out of the ground. He buried it

again; it burst up again; Then he said to himself: This must be the skull of

Jehoiakim, about whom it is said, “He shall have have the burial of the an ass,

dragged out and left lying outside the gates of Jerusalem” (Jer. 22:19). Still, he

reflected, Jehoiakim was a king, and it is not right to subject him to such disgrace.

So R. Perida's grandfather took the skull, wrapped it in silk, and put it in casket.

When his wife came home and saw what was in the casket, she went out and spoke of

it to her women neighbors, who said: It is no doubt the skull of his first wife, whom he

cannot forget. So she lit the oven and burned the skull. When R. Hiyya bar Avuyah

heard of the incident, he said: No doubt it is the skull that is inscribed with the words

“This and yet another.”36

The narrative describes unsuccessful attempts of merciful jew to cancel God's decree and prophecy

of Jeremiah. At first R. Perida's grandfather tried to perform commandment of burying

unidentified corpse. Them he used his knowledge of the Scripture and identified the skull. He

decided to pay regard to the King and it doesn't matter how wicked he was. Yet predicted fate has

found it way to come true. King's skull ended up in dual disgrace - not only thrown away but

burned. In the end of the narrative we also can spot some shadow of “Bluebeard" motif of the

husband keeping at home remnants of dead wife. R. Perida's grandfather is rare example of carrying

remnants of deceased out from Jerusalem. Generally the aim was to bring body to Jerusalem and

land of Israel. To finish analysis of various burial places we shall take as an example narrative

containing details of funereal reality we already familiar with:


35 Jer 22:19


R. Abba began his eulogy: “Our master [R. Huna] was worthy of having the

Presence rest upon him, but his being in Babylonia prevented it.” <...> When the bier

was brought to the Land of Israel, R. Ammi and R. Assi 10 were told, “R. Huna has

arrived.” They said, “While we were in Babylonia, we could not raise our heads

because of him; 11 now that we have come here, he is still after us.” When they were

told that it was his bier that had arrived, R. Ammi and R. Assi went out to meet it.

They asked themselves: Where shall we lay him to rest? And decided: Let us bring

him into R. Hiyya’s grotto, for R. Huna disseminated Torah in Israel, just as R.Hiyya

disseminated Torah in Israel. <...> So R. Hagga brought R. Huna's bier to grotto,

where Judah was reposing at the right of R. Hiyya, his father, and [his twin]

Hezekiah at R. Hiyya's left. Judah spoke up to Hezekiah,"Rise from your place; it is

not good manners to have R. Huna remain outside." As Hezekiah rose, a column of

fire rose with him. When R. Hagga saw it, he was overcome with fear. So he stood the

bier up [as a shield between himself and the column of fire] and left37.

Land of Israel and Babylonia were two competing centers of knowledge and present narrative offers

some evidences of this tension. Balance between two capitals of wisdom was maintained quite for a

while, but in the and Babylonian Talmud and it's Halacha got ahead of Palestinian one. But in terms

of best burial place land of Israel remained the favourite till now days. Apparently living in

Babylonia R. Huna had no relatives buried in the Israel which he could of join. That’s why in place

of family relations decision was made on the base of ties between colleagues. But in the and

family connection prevailed: R. Hiyya's twin Hezekiah to whom the text even doesn’t refer as a

rabbi, furiously insisted on his right to rest alongside his famous and scholarly brother. What

eventually happened to the body of poor R. Huna we don’t even know because narrator's agent left

the bier in a hurry.

The dead as the poor

Thus we reached conclusion that according to understanding represented in Biblical and Aggdic

narratives the dead besides abilities shared with the living (consciousness and communication)

have some significant powers only mildly limited by locale of burial. Tradition provided Jewish

people with rituals constructed to ensure special status of the dead and to meet a demand of official

strictly monotheistic Judaism. Exactly value of religious observance prevented popular belief from

sinking into ancestor worship, which as we saw had it's chance.

R. Judah said in the name of Rav: A man who sees a corpse [on the way to burial]

and does not accompany is shows no concern for the assertion “He that mocketh the

poor blasphmeth his Maker” (Prov. 17:5) And if he accompanies it, what is his

reward? To him apply the words “He that is gracious unto the poor lendeth unto the

Lord” (Prov. 19:7) and “He that is gracious unto needy honoreth Him” (Prov.

14:31)38

In this text surprisingly to all previous dead are called “poor” and “needy” and attitude to them goes

under the same category as to the poverty-stricken. The living were commanded to show respect for

the diseased by attending the funeral and organizing it properly. The dead according to this

understanding are deprived of one of the highest values in Jewish religious life – performing



commandments. The living must have pity of them and not to stress this inequality:

We have been taught: A man should not walk about in the cemetery with tefillin on his

head, nor read from a Torah scroll held on his arm. If he does, he shows no concern

for the assertion “He that moketh the poor blasphemeth his Maker” (Prov. 17:5)39

The rule states that to go to the place of dwelling of the dead and to tease them because of their

incapability of performing religious ritual (wearing tfillin, reading Torah) is highly tactless. If recall

story about two rabbis walking through the cemetery, when “fringes of R. Jonathan's cloak were

trailing on the ground” we can suggest with some certainty that the cloak meant the tallis - prayer

shawl which rabbis of Talmudic period used to were all the time. Thus R. Jonathan not only treated

inhabitants of cemetery impolitely but also was showing off with his ability to pray.

The dead and Tora

Among others related to religious observance issues Torah study and Torah itself has specific

connections with the dead body in terms of sanctity level. It is strange combination indeed, though

considerable quantity of narratives expressing relations between Torah and funeral doesn't allow to

suggest just accidental tie.

“And Hezekiah slept with his father, and they buried him in the best of sepulchers of

the house of David” (2 Chron. 32:33). R. Eleazer said: By “the best” is meant: near

the best of the family. And who were they? David and Solomon. “Ans they did honor

to him at his death” (ibid.) means that thirty-six thousand [warriors] marched with

shoulders bare. Such is opinion of R. Judah. But R. Nehemiah said to him: Was not

the same done for Ahab [who was an evildoer]? What did happen was that a Torah

scroll was placed on Hezekiah's bier, and the people declared: This one fulfilled all

that is written in that scroll40.

It is not the most original story, actually it is set of motives used in many other aggadic narratives,

but those blocks were composed to correspond with structure of Biblical verse that gains additional

meaning for the whole story. Commentary concerning “the best” is quite obvious since according to

the Bible David and Solomon are the best in lots of senses. “Thirty-six thousand warriors” were

derived from the verse by usage of gematria. The most interesting is appearances of the Torah scroll

as part of funerary inventory. Let us examine how the same motif works without it:

During all the years that Israel were in the wilderness, the arklike coffin of Joseph

and the Ark of the Presence moved side by side. When passerby asked, “What is the

significance of these two arks?” they were told, “This is the Presence.” “But is it

proper that a corpse move side by side with the Presence?” Israel replied, “The

corpse in this ark fulfilled all that is written in that Ark.”41

Here Torah is not present as such but Ark substitute for it. The narrative reminds us that dead body

is supposed to convey ritual impurity. Objects and people that destined to contact with sanctity had

to limit their contiguity with death in very accurate way. How then Torah which contains holy name

of God can be regarded as funerary supplement? Apparently Torah has some powers to repel




impurity.

...Then the prophet Elijah, ever remembered for good, appeared and, standing at the

doorway of R. Joshua house, said: Peace upon you, my master. Joshua: Peace upon

you, my master and teacher. Elijah: Do you need anything? R. Joshua: Who are you?

Elijah: I am a priest and I came to tell you that R. Akiva has died in prison. <...>

They laid out R. Akiva’s corpse on a bier and were about to leave when Elijah, ever

remembered for good, bestirred himself and hoisted the bier in his shoulders. Seeing

this, R. Joshua said: My master, did you not just tell me that you are a priest, and is

not a priest forbidden to defile himself by contact with the dead? Elijah: Enough, R.

Joshua, my son. God forbid that disciples of the wise or even their disciples should

convey uncleanness42.

After many hundreds years this passage became decisive in hassidic culture: Elijah's statement that

dead body of “disciple of the wise” doesn't convey ritual impurity allowed to hasidim of priestly

origin (cohanim) to visit graves of their rabbis, which is part and parcel of hassidic worship

especially now days. In relations to Torah the main point of the narrative is that individuals who

occupied themselves with Torah study during lifetime gain special merit after the death. It seems to

continuation of pattern with Biblical choosen people who enjoyed extraordinary connection to God

while being alive and were even beloved by him in their death. When God withdraw His direct

Presence from this world Torah took empty place. This is correct not only about Jewish funerary rite

but for whole change in Jewish religious practice after destruction of the Temple.

Back to the actual texts from which we have departed, there were also some disputes among the

Sages about relevance body of the deceased has to Torah scroll in terms of sanctity:

When R. Huna died, the sages were about to place a Torah scroll on his bier. But R.

Hisda said to them: Should one do something for him that he disapproved of while he

was alive? Remember that R. Tahalifa told us, “I once saw R. Huna about to sit down

on a couch on which there lay a Torah scroll. He inverted a jar on the ground and

laid the Torah scroll upon it.” Clearly he thought that sitting on a couch that had a

Torah scroll lying on it was forbidden43.

Here interchangeability of Torah scroll and rabbi's corpse is implicit, but obvious for participants of

R. Huna's funeral. He himself as like as the Torah is regarded as receptacle of law, commandments

and God's image. Same equalization goes for anonymous body too:

Our masters taught: A man who transports bones from one place to another should

not put them in a saddle-bag, place the bag on his donkey's back, and then sit on it,

because this is a disrespectful way of treating them. Bur if he is afraid of heathens or

robbers, he may do so. And the rule laid down for bones applies also to a Torah

scroll44.

The Sages also considered cases when funeral is engaged in competition with Torah. They tried to

develop general law for such a situation also:




Our masters taught: One may interrupt the study of Torah ti attend a funeral

procession. It is said of R. Judah bar Ilai that he used to interrupt the study of Torah

to attend a funeral procession, but only when there were nit enough people in the

procession. When there are enough, study may not be interrupted. And how many are

enough? R. Samuel bar Ini said in the name of Rav: Twelve thousand men and six

thousand trumpeters. Ulla said: As many, say, would from a continuous line from the

city gate to grave. However, R. Sheshet – according to some, R. Yohanan – said:

Torah's interruption requires as many to be present as there were when it was given:

since he Torah was given in the presence of sixty myriads, so it can be interrupted

only if sixty myriads are present. When may study be interrupted be the presence of

the sixty myriads? At the funeral of one who read Scripture and recited Mishnah. But

at the funeral of one who taught Scripture and Mishnah, there is no limit.45

Let us recall that “A man who sees a corpse [on the way to burial] and does not accompany is shows

no concern for the assertion “He that mocketh the poor blasphmeth his Maker46” But according to

ideal rabbinic sense of values Torah must always prevail. Usually rabbis struggle to maintain

balance between Torah study and making a living, ironically in present case the balance in question

is between Torah study and honor of the dead. Clearly it is not possible to attend every funerary

procession that happen to pass in somebody’s sight. First attempt was to differentiate funerary

processions according to the number of present attendants. How exaggerated are given numbers we

can suggest from the statement:

R. Judah said: Even the poorest man in Israel should provide [for his wife's funeral]

not less than two flutes and at least one professional female mourner.47

Of course funeral of women required unfairly less than funeral of Torah scholar, but clearly it is

talked of dozens of attendants, both professionals and friends, not of thousands. The story had

twisted the idea of quantity and convert it into quality of the deceased with conclusion that every

one surely may interrupt Torah study to escort the bier of great scholar. In other cases Torah is still

the most important:

When R. Shimon, the son of R. Akiva, fell ill, the father did not neglect his house of

study, but arranged for his messengers to stand by [the sickbed]. The first messenger

came and said: “He is very ill.” “Carry on!” - said R. Akiva to his disciples. The

second came and said: “He is getting worse.” He had them resume their study of

Torah. The third came and said: “He is dying.” “Carry on!” The fourth came and

said: “He is gone.” Hearing this, R. Akiva rose, removes his tefillin, rent his clothes,

and said to his disciples: “Up to now we were obliged to study Torah. From this

moment on, you and I are obligated to honor the dead.” A large gathering assembled

for the burial of R. Akiva’s son and showed great grief over his demise. As they were

about to leave, R. Akiva stood up on a large stool and said: O House of Israel, our

brethren, hear me! Even if my son had been a bridegroom, I would still be comforted,

because of the honor you accorded him.


46 See footnote 39.


It is not because I am wise:

There are those here who are wiser than I.

And it is not because I am rich:

There are those here who are richer than I.

The people of the south know R. Akiva,

But how do the people of Galilee know him?

The men know R. Akiva,

But how do the women and children know him?

If you came for the sake of someone named Akiva,

how many men named Akiva are there in the marketplace?

I know that you troubled to come for the sake of the commandment [of comforting the

bereaved], as well as for the honor of Torah, saying, “The law of his God is in his

heart” (Ps. 37:31). It is therefore certain that your reward will be twofold. I am

comforted. Go to your homes in peace48.

Mourning

R. Akiva, hero of many of previous narratives, demonstrates coolness and exceptional devotion to

the Torah. He preferred not to interrupt study for seeing his own dieing son, but honored him after

death in common framework of rules for honoring the dead. He chose Torah and believe that all

who attended the funeral did it because of both commandment and Torah. He approves of such a

law-obeying behavior. Coolness that R. Akiva preserved in the depth of grief is not unusual for

aggadic characters. Clearly this type of conduct was unreachable for commons, but still served as a

model. R. Akiva's expression “ Even if my son had been a bridegroom, I would still be comforted”

refers to the interesting tendency of traditional narratives to compare or combine two contrary rites

of passage – wedding and funeral. In later Jewish funerary rite this two ritual also share some

elements. Let us have a look on a man whose son actually was bridegroom:

A story is told of one of Kevul's notables who was about to have his son wed. On the

fourth day of the week, he invited guests. While they were eating and drinking, he

said ti his son, “Go up the upper chamber and get us some good wine out of such-

and-such a cask.” When the son got there, a serpent bit him, and he died. The father

waited for him to come down, but when he did not, the father said: I will go up and

see what's happened to my son. He went up and found that a serpent had bitter his

son and that he was dead, lying among the wine casks. What did the father do? [Not

wishing to dampen the merry mood of his guests], he waited until they had finished

their meal. Then, as they were about to say the grace after meals, he spoke out:

“Masters, you are not here to say in my son's honor the bridegroom's grace after

meals, bur rather to say the mourner’s grace after meals. You are not here to escort

my son to his bridal chamber – come, then, escort him to his grave.” Presently, R.

Zakkai of Cabul [lamenting the son's death] concluded his discourse with “If

laughter is mingled [with grief], the I say, “What does mirth accomplish?” (Eccles..


2:2)49

This horrific tragedy was used to illustrated verse from Ecclesiastes, who speaks of the vanity of

existence. We clearly see similar motives – the father doesn't show his grief of bereavement because

he doesn't want to spoil the evening for the guests. He reveal the truth only when silence could lead

to inaccuracy in performing religious ritual. Some narratives don't show pretext for not-mourning,

just describe it as an evidence of great self-control. Most of the narratives are about death of the

children, which seems more tragic and unnatural then departure of older relatives:

When R. Hanina's daughter died and he did not weep for her, his wife asked: Was it a

mere hen you carried out of your house? He replied: Do you want me to suffer two

evils – not only bereavement but also blindness from incessant weeping?50

On the contrary excessive and uncontrollable mourning was considered as a bad omen, act that

attracts death even more. Next death would be the punishment for not letting our beloved ones to

move to the world of dead in peace.

R. Judah said in the name of Rav: When a man indulges in excessive grief for his

dead, he will soon find himself weeping foe another dead. In R. Huna's

neighborhood, there was a woman who had seven sons. When one of them died? She

wept excessively. R. Huna sent word to her: “Don't do this,” but she paid no attention

to him. He sent word again: “If you listen, well and good; if not, you may find

yourself preparing shrouds for your remaining sons.” When all of them died, she kept

on weeping. Finally, he sent word to her: “Prepare shrouds for yourself”, and she,

too, died51.

Poor woman got stuck into a vicious circle: more grief – more mourning – more grief. She had been

exempted from it only by her own death. That is negative example of what can happen if doesn't

struggle to maintain coolness demonstrated by famous rabbis.

“Wrong” funeral

In traditional narratives negative example is usually prescribed to some “other” people, not to

community of narrators. Talking about funeral there no lots of others around to whom it is possible

to prescribe wrong, but still Jewish, funeral ritual. Non-Jews are considered beyond the framework

of such a the discourse, we shall encounter them further. Babylonian Talmud found “the others” in

the Land of Israel and vice versa – Jerusalem Talmud tries to move away from what is accustomed

in Babylinya. Exilic position of Babylonian Talmud doesn't allow to criticize traditions of the Holy

Land of its best time directly, but authors of the text still felt obliged to point out the differences.

Evidently they used this comparison for development and improvement of their own set of rules

concerning proper funeral.

In Jerusalem they used to walk in front of the bier reciting the things a deceased

person had done, while in Judea they used to recite behind the bier the things ha had

done. For in the Jerusalem they recited in front of the bier only things he had actually

done , while behind the bier they recited the things he had done as well as the things




he had not done. However, in Judea they recited in front of the bier the things he had

one as well as things he had not done, but those who follawed the bier did not

respond to all things recited, limiting themselves to only things he had done52.

Here process of eulogizing is described. It was led by professionals but all attendants participated

by responding or repeating some parts of chant. There are some rules designed by rabbis especially

for those professionals mourners, eulogizers and funeral attendants:

We have been taught: Even as the deceased are requited, so are eulogizers [who do

not tell the truth] and they who echo [the falsehoods spoken by] them53.

To avoid deceitful custom which was prescribed to Judea and Jerusalem, rabbis have threatened all

who participates in eulogizing of the dead with punishment for saying falsehoods. Nonverbal part

of ceremony also had it's limits:

During the week of a festival, women may wail but not clap their hands [in the

gesture of grief]. However, R. Ishmael said: Those who are next to the bier may clap

their hands [in the gesture of grief]. On New Moons, Hanukkah, and Purim, they may

both wail and clap their hands. But none of these days may they chant a dirge. What

is meant by a wail? That all women wail together. What is meant by a dirge? That one

chants [a line] of the dirge, and others respond [by repeating it]54.

Here we see more detailed description of chanting practice, also in Talmud examples of actual lines

are recorded. The point of mourning restrictions is the commandment to be joyous on the certain

holidays. That forced rabbis to develop rules to balance honoring the dead and not observing the

commandment since both issues are very important. To promote all this rules which rabbis created

for the funeral they needed to explain to people why this way is the best and both God and

respected dead would certainly appreciate it. Even in Talmud masses don't follow rules that they

find too strict, difficult and unattached to reality. To confirm the positive impact of proposed

Halakha rabbis created wrote the stories made in “before-after” pattern.

At one time, providing decent burial was more burdensome for the kin of the deceased

than even his death, so they would leave the body and run away, until Rabban

Gamliel II came and prescribed a simple style for himself – he was carried out in

inexpensive linen shrouds. Thereafter, all the people follawing his practice by

carrying out their dead in inexpensive linen shrouds. R. Papa added: And now it is

the practice to take out the dead even in a shrouds of rough cloth worth no more than

a zuz.55

Main message of rabbinic funeral - “death is the grand leveller”. Rich and poor alike will not need

any belongings in their afterlife. Funeral must be modest and affordable for everybody. Rabbis

struggled for equality in their rulings, they believe that the diseased must be judged only according

to his way conduct and not too harshly. Even wicked men worthy of some honor after death, and

nobody should be humiliated:





Our masters taught: Formerly, the faces of the rich were left uncovered, while the

faces of the poor, which during years of drought had turned dark, were covered;

understandably, the poor felt humiliated. In deference to their feelings, it was

instituted that everybody's face should be covered.

Formerly, the rich were carried out for burial on a state bed, and the poor on plain

bier; understandably, the poor felt humiliated. In deference to their feelings, it was

instituted that all should be taken out on plain bier.

Formerly, a perfuming pan was placed under those who died of disease of the

bowels; understandably, the living suffers from such disease felt humiliated.1 In

deference to their feelings, it was institute that such a pan should be set under who

died.56

In this narrative the dead themselves are represented as source of new laws, established “in

deference to their feelings”. In first to cases they felt humiliated because discrimination by level of

income. In the third case they enough suffered from illness during lifetime and don't want to show it

publicly after death by having additional perfuming pan. Also modest funeral mustn’t be the reason

of humiliation for the rest of the family:

Our masters taught: Formerly, [victuals] to the house of mourning were conveyed for

the rich in silver and gold baskets, and for the poor in baskets of peeled willaw

shoots, which caused the poor to feel humiliated. In the deference to their feelings, it

was instituted that victuals for poor and rich alike should be conveyed in baskets of

peeled willaw shoots. Formerly, beverages in a rich man's house of mourning were

served in white glass vessels, and in poor man's house of mourning in colored glass,

which caused the poor to feel humiliated. In deference to their feelings, it was

instituted that beverages for poor and rich alike should be served in colored glass57.

Clearly funeral procession is not the place to demonstrate family income and not the place of

quarrels and idly wrangling:

Our masters taught: Formerly, the mourners used to stand still, while all the people

passed in front of them. But there were two families in Jerusalem who contended with

each other, each insisting: "We shall pass first." So the masters laid down the rule

that the people should remain standing, and the mourners pass in front of them58.

Some rules were supported by example of the famous and popular Sages, as we saw in the case of

Rabban Gamliel II. The other example was set by funeral of R. Huna:

When R. Huna’s bier could not be got through the doorway, they thought of letting it

down from the roof. But R. Hisda said: This is what I learned from R. Huna:

“Deference to a deceased sage requires that his bier should pass through the door.”

They thought of moving the corpse from one bier to another, but R. Hisda again said

to them: I have also learned from him: “Deference to a deceased sage requires that




he be taken out on the original bier upon which he was placed.” So they broke the

door and carried him out59.

On the contrary to widespread ancient tradition to carry death out of the house in such a manner the

it would not find the way back, this ruling states that at least deceased sage must be carried out

respectfully thru the door. Some extremely pious rabbis used to entrust their disciples with

extravagant wishes about future funeral. They impressed people people around them with utmost

utmost modesty self-abasement:

R. Yannai said to his children: My sons, bury me not in the white shrouds nor in the

black shrouds – not in white, lest, lacking merit, I look like a bridegroom among

mourners; nor in black, lest, having merit, I look like a mourner among

bridegrooms. But bury me in the bath attendants' drab-colored cloth that comes from

a city across the sea60.

When R.Yohanan was about to depart from the world, he said to those who were to

attend to his burial: Bury me in dun-colored shrouds, neither white nor black, so that

if I stand among the wicked,I will not be humiliated61.

Both rabbis demonstrate uncertainty in their place afterlife, because only arrogant man can be sure

in his own righteousness. They want to be prepared for any outcome and believe that they will stand

before the Judge in the same shrouds in which they will have been buried. There is also general

ruling about the shrouds:

Whoever heaps elaborate shrouds upon the dead transgresses the injunction against

wanton destruction. So R. Meir. R. Eleazer bar Zadok said: “Such a one disgraces

the deceased”. Rabban Simeon ben Gamliel said: “He invites more worms to feed on

the deceased.”62

Jewish funeral and non-Jews

In this research was examined Jewish attitude to funeral ritual in as it is presented in biblical and

aggadic stories and. Also were mentioned some halakhic laws in which those view later solidified.

But Jews didn't live in vacuum, in fact in period in question they lived as a minority among non-

Jews. At first Jewish burial practice was common in whole Middle East later on circumstances have

changed. The biggest clash Jews had in concerning funerary practice was of course with Persian

fire-worshipers. They considered it sinful to defile the earth burying dead bodies in it. Their

practiced exposition of bodies to the birds in special places. This disagreement also found way into

Agada:

R. Yohan said in the name of R. Simeon ben Yohai: Where in the Tora is burial of the

dead alluded to as a precept? In the verse “Bury, Thou shalt bury him” (Deut.

21:23). King Shapur asked R. Hama: From where in the Torah is the obligation to

59 Sefer Ha-Aggadah, p. 307, 606




bury the dead derived? R. Hama remained silent, saying nothing in reply. Upon

hearing about this incident, R. Aha bar Jacob commented, “The world is given over

into the hands of fools! R. Hama should have cited, “Bury him.” [King Shapur might

have responded]: Perhaps the words imply that the body must be placed in a coffin?

R. Hama should have quoted the entire verse “Bury, Thou shalt bury him” [where the

repetition of the verb indicates burial in the ground] [Since burying may also refer to

a body's being placed in a coffin, King Shapur would have maintained that R.

Hama's] inference even from the entire verse unwarranted. Should R. Hama have

said that the righteous [such as the patriarchs] were buried? [King Shapur might

have retorted]: Merely a matter of general custom. But Holy One buried Moses. He

did so merely in order not to depart from the general custom. R. Hama should have

cited “They shall not be buried, neither shall men lament for them” (Jer. 16:6). [King

Shapur would have retorted]: Such a citation indicates that in this instance there was

to be a departure from the general custom63.

As we already noted in the beginning of present overview, in traditional narratives non-Jewish

debaters are usually described as very knowledgeable in Jewish law. In this imaginary debate

Shapur II, King of Persia defeated all arguments of rabbis. Actually the question about

differentiation local custom from halakha in Jewish funerary law is still relevant. In most famous

guides like “Shulhan Arukh” is recommended to keep the local custom if it doesn't directly

transgress basic halakha. Going back to the debate with King Shapur, there also examples where

Jews win the argument with fire-worshipers and not only by arguments:

There was a certain magus who used to rummage among graves. When he came to

the burial cave of R. Tobi bar Mattenah, R. Tobi grabbed hold of his beard. Abbaye

came by and said to Tobi, “Pray, let go of him.” A year later, the magus came back,

and the dead man again seized hold of his beard. Abbaye came by again [to rescue

the magus], but this time the dead man would not let go of him, so they had to bring

scissors and cut off the magus's beard64.

The stubborn magus roamed about the Jewish cemetery and with all possible hostile intentions

entered burial cave and ended up lacking his beard that is shame in all traditional patriarchal

cultures. We can assume also that power of disturbed and angry Jewish dead extends to punishment

of non-Jews too, however power to calm down such a dead is only in the hands of Jewish righteous

and wise.



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