FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRICULTURE

About the Authors

Dr. R.L. Arya born on 3 March 1964 at Village Jagdish Pur (Bhekhepur), Auraiya - Etawah (UP), completed his B.Sc. (Ag & A.H.) in 1984 from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, M.Sc. and Ph.D. in Agronomy from Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi in 1986 and 1989, respectively. He served as a scientist at CRIDA, Hyderabad, IGFRI, Jhansi, IIPR, Kanpur, CTRI, Rajahmundry, CTRI Research Station, Jeelugumilli (West Godavari dist., A.P.) and CTRI Research Station, Dinhata (Cooch Behar dist, W.B.). He has good number of publication to his credit about 250 research papers/popular articles/papers presented in seminar symposia etc/book chapters in various national and international journals/megazines. Dr. Arya has vast experience (more than 20 years) in the field of dryland/rainfed agriculture, nutrient and water management, cropping system in pulses and pulse based cropping system, nutrient management and cropping system research in Jati and Motihari tobacco in West Bengal. He has also released a variety “Torsa” – an early maturing type of Motihari tobacco. He has authored several books such as Principles of Crop Production and Crops (2 Volume), Modern techniques of tobacco cultivation, Pulse production, Irrigation management, Weed management, Tobacco production in India, Indira Krishi Pratiyogita Darpan, Indira Competition Explorer, Indira Agricultural Competition Explorer, Indira’s Objective in Agricultural Biotechnology, Indira’s Objective in Agricultural Extension, Indira’s Objective in Agronomy and Indira’s Objective in Agriculture. He was also selected for Dr. Rajendra Prasad Puruskar by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi and received best book award by Indian Society of Weed Management from NRC Weed Science, Jabalpur.

Sonam Arya has completed her graduation and post graduation in Biotechnology from College of Biotechnology in Chhatrapati Sahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur and Babasaheb Bhem Rao Ambedkar University (Central university), Lucknow, respectively. She obtained M.Phill degree in Life science from CSJM, Kanpur. She is a research scholar (Ph.D. student) of doctoral programme in Agricultural Biotechnology in Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Modipuram, Meerut. She has published many research papers/popular articles in national and international journal of repute. She has also authored several books entitled Indira Agricultural competition Explorer, Indira Competition Explorer, Indira’s Objective in Agricultural Biotechnology and Indira’s Objective in Agriculture. She is awarded Rajiv Gandhi Fellowship from UGC for doing Ph.D.

Renu Arya has completed her graduation and post graduation in Home science with specialization in extension education and communication management from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. She was also student of doctoral programme in Home Science in extension education and communication management in Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Presently she is working as a Subject Matter Specialist in Home Science at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Behraich (UP) under Narendra Deo University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad. She has published many research papers/popular articles in national and international journal of repute. She has also authored two books entitled Indira Krishi Pratiyogita Darpan in Hindi and Indira Competition Explorer, Indira’s Objective in Agricultural Extension and Indira’s Objective in Agriculture. She was awarded Rajiv Gandhi Fellowship from UGC for doing Ph.D.

Janardhan Kumar obtained his M.Sc. (Ag) in Plant Biochemistry from Narendra Deo University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumar Ganj, Faizabad. Presently he is a brilliant research Scholar in Department of Plant Biochemistry, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. He has published two book entitled Indira’s Objective in Agricultural Extension and Indira’s Objective in Agronomy and Indira’s Objective in Agriculture. He was awarded Rajiv Gandhi Fellowship from UGC for doing Ph.D.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRICULTURE

DR. R.L. ARYA (M.Sc. & Ph.D. in Agronomy, IARI, NEW DELHI) Ex Senior Scientist Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry (A.P.)

SONAM ARYA Research Scholar Department of Biotechnology Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Modipuram, Meerut (U.P.)

RENU ARYA Subject Matter Specialist Krishi Vigyan Kendra Behraich (U.P.)

JANARDHAN KUMAR Research Scholar Department of Biochemistry Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur (U.P.)

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PREFACE

India is a developing country and majority of population is dependent on agriculture. Total food grain production was 51 million tones in 1951 was increased to 257 million tones in 2012-13. There is still need to increase the total food grain production for ever increasing human population in the country with the active support and popularization of newly evolved high yielding varieties/production technologies by the extension workers and farmers. Agriculture is becoming as the one of the most favourite and important subject for the student, it has been also taken as an subject in undergraduate, post graduate and doctoral programmes is running in majority of Indian universities.

The competitive examinations have become a routine procedure of recruitment and admissions for higher position and education. Now-a-days a large number of short/objective type questions appear in the examination. A sincere effort has been made by the authors to present them in most easy, short and understandable language for the benefit of students, farmers and those who are interested in agriculture.

“Fundamentals of Agriculture” for competitive exams in agricultural discipline contain 19 chapters covering all related discipline. The chapters included such as: General agriculture, Agricultural climatology, Genetics, plant breeding and biotechonology, Plant physiology and biochemistry, Seed technology, Agronomy, Soil science and agricultural microbiology, Horticulture, Entomology, Plant pathology, Agricultural extension, Agricultural economics, Agricultural statistics, Animal husbandry and dairying, Aqua culture – Fish culture, prawn culture and Pearl culture, Bee keeping, Seri culture, Lac culture and Agroforestry. This book has given due importance and whole syllabus was covered as per UGC, ICAR and SAU’s programmes in relation to agriculture. Each chapter contains brief descriptive questions for the easy understanding of the students. Recent information and development in the field of agriculture have been incorporated in the book. This book is primarily intended to serve as a appearing in competitive examinations of undergraduate, post graduate and doctorate programmes in agricultural of various universities. Thus this book is based on the syllabus of student of agriculture stream, it may be useful not only to students but also teachers, researchers as well as extension workers. The chapters are chosen in view to cover the course contents of

vi Fundamentals of Agriculture

competitive examinations like IAS, IFS, ARS, PCS, Banking, SAU’s, UGC and to get admissions in various degree programmes of SAU’s and other universities.

Finally I have belief and hope that this book will fulfill the requirement of students of agriculture stream for appearing in different competitive examinations.

Being first edition, there could be some shortcomings for which valuable and informative suggestions will be gratefully appreciated. These shortcomings if found in the text may be incorporated in forthcoming edition for the benefit of readers with your critical suggestions, so that book may be more useful to the students.

I convey my gratitude to the entire Management of Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur for taking all pains in the publication of the book. Authors shall be highly grateful to all those persons as well as various books, periodicals, magazines, newsletters, journals etc., have helped me in the preparation of this book. The authors/publishers look forward to suggestions from all readers, especially for experienced researchers and scholars for further improving the subject content as well as the presentation of this book. If any suggestions from readers will be highly appreciated.

R. L. ARYA

SONAM ARYA RENU ARYA

JANARDHAN KUMAR 2014, Kanpur

CONTENT

Chapter 1 General Agriculture 1 - 54

Origin of agriculture, Technological evolution, early history,Neolithic era, bronze age, classical antiquity, History ofagriculture, Agriculture in India, Indian agriculture in independent India, India’s position in world agriculture in 2010,Three largest producing states in India, Rice, Wheat, Maize,Sorghum, Bajra, Barley, Small millet, Pulses, Gram, Pea, Arhar,Urd, Soyabean, Groundnut, Rapeseed/mustard, Sunflower, Sesame, Linseed, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Agriculturalrelated year, Revolution in agricultural sectors in India, Importantstatements about agriculture, Extension tips for successfulagriculture, ICAR awards, ICAR research institutes, Important national organization, International agriculture, SAU’s, ICARdeemed agricultural universities, Central universities related toagriculture disciplines, Types of agriculture, Sustainableagriculture, Principles of sustainable agriculture, Components of sustainable agriculture, Agro-ecology, Urban agriculture, Organic agriculture, Precision agriculture, Industrial agriculture, bio-dynamic agriculture, Community supported agriculture, Slash andburn agriculture, Terra farming, Aeroponics, Conservation agriculture, Principles of conservation agriculture, Impact ofconservation agriculture, Advantages of conservation agriculture,Limitations of conservation agriculture, Globalization, Agro-ecological regions, Agro-climatic zones of India.

Chapter 2 Agricultural Climatology 55 - 77

Definition, Classification, Factors affecting climate, Verticalstructure of atmosphere, Nature and origin of atmosphere, Agricu-ltural meteorology, Climatic parameters, Weather forecasting,Agromet advisory service in India, Climate change and agriculture,Agro-climatic zones, Atmospheric moisture, Process of cooling toproduce condensation and sublimation, Clouds, Fog, Winds,Weather disturbances.

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Chapter 3 Genetic, Plant Breeding and Biotechnology 78 - 155

Variation, Crop improvement, Aims and objectives, Method ofplant breeding, Plant introduction, Selection, Hybridization, Tissueculture, Genetic engineering, Mendel’s law of inheritances,Experiments of Mendel’s, Monohybrid crosses, Dihybrid crosses, Back crosses, Linkages, Crossing over, Factors affecting crossingover, Significance of crossing over, Mutation, Practical importanceof mutation, Cytoplasmic inheritance, Sex linked traits and theirinheritance, Sex determination in plants, Neorospora genetics, Theory of evolution by natural selection, Lamarckism, Neo-Lamarckism, Theory of germplasm, Theory of natural selection,Variation, Genetic basis of adaptation, Gene pool, Neo-Darwinism, Mutation theory, Genetic drift, Isolation variation, Heredity, Mendel’s principles of inheritance, Chromo-some theory of inheritance, Chromosomes, Giant chromosomes, Functions ofchromosomes, Independent assortment, Plant biotechnology.

Chapter 4 Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 156 - 210

Diffusion, Osmosis, Osmotic pressure, Diffusion pressure deficit, Water potential, Imbibition, Absorption of water , Mechanism ofwater absorption, Ascent of sap, Mechanism of ascent of sap,Transpiration, Types of transpiration, Transpiration ratio,Stomata, Mechanism of stomatal movement, Scotoactive stomata, Guttation, Mineral nutrition, General function of mineral element,Significance of different elements for plants, Specific role ofdifferent elements, Mineral salt absorption, Mechanism of mineralsalt absorption, Factors affecting mineral salt absorption, Respiration, Glycolysis, Kreb cycle, Pentose phosphate pathway,Respiratory quotient, Factors affecting respiration,Photorespiration, Glyoxylate cycle, Translocation of organic food,Direction of translocation of solutes, Path of translocation, mechanism of translocation of solute, Photosynthesis, Significanceof photosynthesis, Mechanism of photosynthesis, Hill/ light reaction, Production of assimilatory powers, Dark reaction, Calvincycle, Hatch and slack’s cycle, difference between C3 and C4 plants, CAM plants, Law of limiting factors, Warburg’s effect, CO2

compensation points, Factors affecting photosynthesis, Bacterialphotosynthesis, Chemosynthesis, Special mode of nutrition,Physiology of flowering, Photoperiodism, Vernalisation, Condition necessary of vernalisation, Significance of vernalisation, Growth,development, Internal regulation of growth and development,Auxins, Gibberellic acid, Cytokinins, Abscesic acid, Ethylene,Morphactine, Wound hormone, Senescence, Biochemistry

Content ix

Chapter 5 Seed Technology 211 - 233

Role of seed technology, Goal of seed technology, Relationship ofseed technology to the other science, Seed, Classes of seeds,Difference between certified seed and truthful labeled seed,Difference between seed and grain, Seed multiplication ratio, Seedquality characteristics, General principles of seed production-Genetic and agronomic principles, Seed certification, objectives ofseed certification, Seed certification agency, Minimum seedcertification standards, Seed legislation, Types of seed legislation,Seed legislation in India, Regulatory legislation, Statutoryrequirement for sale of seed, Seed testing, Seed testing laboratory,Seed sampling, Method of taking primary samples, Precaution insampling, Sampling in laboratory, Minimum weight of workingsamples.

Chapter 6 Agronomy 234 - 336

Principles of agronomy, Relationship of agronomy with otherdiscipline, Classification of crops- Taxonomic classification, Special classification, Mulch, Tillage, Precision farming, Drought, Irrigation, Objectives of irrigation, Soil moisture constant, Formsof water, Water requirement of crops, Factors affecting waterrequirement, Infiltration, Percolation, Seepage, Permeability,Coefficient of permeability, pF, Efficient water management, Irrigation requirement of important crops, Availability of waterresources in India, Irrigation efficiencies, Evapotranspiration,Weeds, Characteristics of weeds, Weed causes, Useful aspects ofweeds, Classification of weeds, Weed control, Criteria for successful bioagents, Kinds of bioagents, Promising bioagents of weeds,Development of herbicide resistance in weeds, GMCs and HRCs,GM crops, Bioherbicides, Commercial bioherbicides, Plantmetabolites used for herbicidal activity, Adjuvants, Kinds of adjuvants, Origin of important weeds, Seed producing capacity ofimportant weeds, Dormancy, Classification of herbicides,Herbicide/pesticide, Time of application of herbicides, Criteria forgood herbicides, Methods of application, How to apply, Selection of herbicide, How to increase the herbicide performance, Tips forproper application of herbicides, After care of sprayers and nozzles,Safe handling of herbicides, Herbicide formulation, Calculation ofherbicide requirement, Weed control efficiency, Weed control index, Making stock solution, Herbicide requirement of different crops,Common and trade name of herbicides, Local name, Scientificname and family of weeds, Local, trade and chemical name ofimportant herbicide, Effective index of tillers, fertility ratio, problems related to agronomical characteristics, Assessment ofagronomic interaction, Assessment of competition and yieldadvantages- CRE, LER, RCC, Aggressivity, Competition index,

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Competition ratio, Competition coefficient, Monetary advantage, Assessment of land use and productivity in multiple – MCR, CII, CI, SCII, RCII, CLUT, DI, RI, RYI, CER, AE, RSI, Physiologicalparameters – CGR, RGR, LAI, LAD, LAR, SLA, NAR, RWC,Dryland farming, Drought, Classification of drought, Drought resistance, Water harvesting, Mulching- mulching materials, Types of mulches, Effect of mulches on soil and plants,Antitranspirants, Different antitranspirants, Strip cropping, Typesof soil conservation tillage practices, Minimum/zero tillage, Zero tillage, Concepts of minimum tillage, Watershed, Categorization ofwatershed, Benefit of watershed, Low production technologies,Cultivation practices of different crops.

Chapter 7 Soil Science and Agricultural Microbiology 337 - 415

Pedology, Edaphologgy, Soil classification, Soils, Components ofsoils, Soil minerals, Clay minerals- Silicate clay, Sesquioxide clays, Classification of clay minerals, Silica-sesquioxide ratio, Organic matter, Physical properties of soil, Soil texture, Soil structure, Density of soil, Soil porosity, Soil colour, Soil formation, Parentmaterial, Weathering of rocks, Soil horizon, Soil erosion, Types ofsoil erosion, Consequences of soil erosion, Causes pf soil erosion,Plant nutrition, Essentiality of elements in plant nutrition, Essential plant nutrients, Forms in which nutrients are utilized byplants, Inventor of essential plant nutrients, Mobility of nutrients,Functions of essential plant nutrients, Deficiency symptoms ofplant nutrients, Losses of plant nutrients from soil, Sources of plant nutrients, Nutrient composition of fertilizers, Nutrientcomposition of wood ashes, Green manuring, Method of fertilizerapplication, Enhancing fertilizer use efficiency, Nutrient content indung and urines of different animals, Nitrogen fixation in soil of different green manuring crops, nutrient content in different typesof cakes, Classification of nitrogeneous, phosphatic and potassicfertilizers, Nutrient content in different complex fertilizers,Rhizobium species and strains, Fate of plant nutrients, Soil of India, Classification of soil groups according to new classification,Saline, Alkali, Saline-alkali soils, Difference between saline and alkali soils, Sodium absorption ratio, Causes of salt accumulation,Evaluation of saline and alkali soils, Reclamation of saline andalkali soils, Acid soil, Land capability classification, IPNS system,Soil nutrient transformation, mineralization of nitrogen,Denitrification, Biofertilizers, Bacterial biofertilizers, Types ofmicrobial inoculants, Compost inoculants, VAM, BGA, Method ofapplication, Precaution while using biofertilizers, BNF, Strategiesfor enhancing BNF, Inoculation technology ND Inoculationmethods.

Content xi

Chapter 8 Horticulture 416 - 495

Importance and scope of horticulture, Tropical and subtropical fruits – Mango, Banana, Ber, Grapes, Temperate fruits – Apple, Apricot, Cherry, Peach, Pear, Straw berry, Plum, Indianfloriculture industry, Export constraints, Rose cultivation,Annuals, Types of annuals, Varieties of annuals, Climbers and creepers, Shrubs, Hedges, Selection of plants, Topiary, Ornamentalfoliage plants, Propagation of shrubs, Landscape gardening,Natural elements of landscape, Landscaping principles, Factorsaffecting the landscape design, Garden styles, Art/principles of landscape, Some important landscape gardening terms, Greenhouse production technology for important flowers-Rose, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Green house technology forvegetables, fruit vegetables –Tomato, Brinjal, Chillies, Okra, Cole crops-Cabbage, Cauliflower, Knol-khol, Bulbs, Cucurbits and gourds, water melon, Bonsai, package and practices of fruits andvegetables, Annual flowering plants, Important herbs used inherbaceous border, Fruits and vegetable production.

Chapter 9 Entomology 496 - 506

Pests, causes of outbreaks of pests, Principles for insect-pest control, Natural control, Applied control-Physical, Mechanical, Cultural, Biological control, List of some parasitic fungi, Importantinsecticides and pesticides.

Chapter 10 Plant Pathology 507 - 546

Diseases-Concept of plant diseases, Way that pathogens causesdisease, Classification of diseases, Diseases caused by, Symptomsof plant diseases, Animate causes of plant diseases, Obligateparasites, Facultative parasites, Disease forecasting, Common diseases, Foliage and root diseases, Principles of plant diseasescontrol-Eradication, Exclusion, Protection, Some plant protectionchemicals-Seed dressing, Fungicides, Soil fungicides, Spray fungicides, Wound dressing fungicides, post harvest treatments of fruits and vegetables, Antibiotics, Seed treatment of differentcrops, Nematodes, Symptoms of nematodes attack, Types ofparasitism, Important nematodes genera and diseases,Management of nematodes-Physical methods, Cultural methods, Physiological methods, Chemical methods, Biological methods,Host resistance, Regulatory methods, Important diseases of crops-Diseases of cereals, Diseases of oilseed crops, Diseases of vegetablecrops, Diseases of fruit crops, Diseases of cash crops, Diseases of pulses.

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Chapter 11 Agricultural Extension 547 - 609

Extension education, Objectives of extension education, Principlesof extension education, Objective of extension, Basic philosophy ofextension, Functions of extension, Extension education process, Teaching-learning process, Role of extension education indevelopment, Criteria of effective extension education, An effectivelearning situation, Criteria of effective learning, Principles ofextension, Dimensions of extension, management of extension, Steps in extension teaching, Competencies needed by the extensionagent, Scope of extension, Communication, Communicationsystems, Key elements of communication, Basic functions ofcommunication, Method of communication, Elements of extension communication system, A good message should be, Communicationmethods, Classification of communication methods, Audio-visual aids, Demonstration, Adoption and diffusion of innovations,Research attributes of innovation, The adoption process, Extensionprogramme planning, Components of programme planning,Principles of programmee planning, Agricultural and ruraldevelopment programmes in India, Information andcommunication technology, Historical roots of ICT in India, Someinnovative rural based initiatives in India, ICT-Some prominent initiatives, Suggestions of effective utilization of ICT, Traditionalfolk media, Types of traditional media, Forms of indigenouscommunication, Participatory Research, Cyclic process of PR, GATmodel, Use of media in PR.

Chapter 12 Agricultural Economics 610 - 644

Scope of agricultural economics, Subject matter of agriculturaleconomics, Nature of agricultural economics, Utility of agriculturaleconomics, Rural credit, Classification of credit, Sources ofagricultural credit, Integrated scheme of rural credit, Role ofreserve bank of India, State Bank of India, Agriculturalcooperative credit societies, Agricultural cooperative creditstructure, LLB, NABARD, Land reforms in India, agriculturalmarketing, Classification of agricultural marketing, Marketing services, Market channels, Method of sale of agricultural produce,Problems in marketing of agricultural produce in India, Farmmanagement, Scope of farm management, Economic principlesapplied to farm management, Types of farming, Systems of farming, Classification of systems of farming, Agricultural labour,Classification of agricultural labour, Problems of agriculturallabours, Suggestion for improvement of labour efficiency, Farmplanning and budgeting, Partial budgeting, Complete budgeting.

Content xiii

Chapter 13 Agricultural Statistics 645 - 674

Functions of statistics, Limitations of statistics, Collection of data,Method of sampling, Classification and tabulation of data,Objectives of classification, Types of classification, Tabulation of data, Measures of central value, Types of averages, Measurementof dispersion, Coefficient of variation, Skewness, Measures ofskewness, Moments, Kurtosis, Correlation, types of correlation,Regression, X2 test, Z-test, T-test, F-test, Analysis of variance, experimental design – CRD, RBD, LSD, factorial, Split plot design, Strip plot design, Missing plot techniques.

Chapter 14 Animal Husbandry and Dairying 675 - 715

Zoological classification of important animals, System of breeding, Breeding management, Breeds of Cattle, Buffaloes, Goats, Pigs,Sheep, Camels, Horses, Poultry, Zoological classification ofimportant birds, Comparative statements of different animals,Feeding of animals, Principles of rationing, Important diseases ofanimals, Milk and milk products, Factors affecting component ofmilk, Colostrum, Common dairy processing, Types of marketedmilk, Cream, Types of cream, Common defects of milk and cream,Butter, Defects of butter, Cheese, indigenous milk products, meat,fish and poultry technology.

Chapter 15 Aquaculture 716 - 750

Fish culture/fisheries, Fresh water culture system, Fresh waterbodies, Seed procurement, Seed production technologies, Breedingof common carp, Carp hatcheries, Bundh breeding, Fish breedingtechnologies, Management of culture system, Feeding, Harvesting,Eradication of insects and other harmful biota, Feed management,Health management, Types of fish diseases, Composite andintegrated fish farming, Fishes used in composite fish culture,Fresh water, Brackish water and marine cultured fishes,Integrated fish farming, Types of culture, Spawning, Prawanculture- Species, Seed, Feed, Technology, Pearl culture- Collection of mussels, Pre-operative conditioning, Mussel surgery, Postoperative care, Pond culture, Pearl harvest.

Chapter 16 Beekeeping (Apiculture) 751 - 755

Advantages of bee keeping, Production process – Equipment requirement, Species of honey bees, Establishment of hives,Establishment of a bee colony, Management of colonies, Harvesting of honey.

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Chapter 17 Sericulture 756 - 769

Types of silk in India, Trends in Indian sericulture, India’s positionin global sericulture, Science, technology and sericulture, Mulberryimprovement, Mulberry productivity, Mulberry protection,Silkworm improvement, Silkworm productivity, Silkwormprotection, Silkworm rearing technology innovation, Post-cocoon technology.

Chapter 18 Lac culture 770 - 783

Host plants, Lac insects, Lac cultivation, Propagation of lac insects,Inoculation period, Harvesting of lac, Composition of lac, Lac processing, Lac products and their uses, Lac pests, Potential ofIndian lac production.

Chapter 19 Agroforestry 784 - 795

Definitions, Difference between social forestry and agroforestry,Different technologies for describing tree cultivation, Possible impacts of agroforestry, Features of agroforestry, Types ofagroforestry, Arrangement of components, Socio-economic classification, Ecological classification, Agroforestry based onprominent systems, Agroforestry systems based on allied components, Different types of agroforestry system, Benefit ofagroforestry systems, Limitations of agroforestry systems.

Subject Index 796-804