Functional Anatomy

Section One: The Skeleton

Functions of a Skeleton

FUNCTION EXPLANATION EXAMPLES

MOVEMENT Where bones meet we form joints. In combination with

muscles, we create movement.

Bones move because of joints and

muscles, e.g. elbow moved by biceps

PROTECTION Provide protection to vital organs

Scapula – lungsSkull – brain

SUPPORT Give support for organs and tissue so they do not collapse.

Spine supports the head and trunk

STORAGE Minerals are stored in bones

Storage of calcium and potassium

SUPPLY Red and white blood cells are produced in

bone marrow

Femur produces red blood cells

The skeleton performs 5 basic functions:

1.3 Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

All the bones of the skeleton are divided into two main groups. These are known as:

1. Axial Skeleton2. Appendicular SkeletonAXIAL SKELETONConsists of those bones forming the central

column of the body, i.e. spine, skull and ribcage.

APPENDICULAR SKELETONThose bones that attach to the axial

skeleton, i.e. shoulders, hips and the limbs.

1.4 Classification of Bones

Bones are classified according to

their shape.They fall into four basiccategories:1. Long bones2. Short bones3. Irregular bones4. Flat bones

Using the table, fill in the basic

function of each type of bone and

provide some examples of these.

BONE CLASSIFICATI

ON

BASIC FUNCTION

EXAMPLES

Long*

*The length is greater than

width

Production of red blood

cells and white blood

cells. Movement.

Humerus, femur,

radius and ulna

Short Small of fine movements

Carpals (wrist)Tarsals (ankle)

Irregular Movement support and

muscle attachment

Face and vertebrae

Flat Protection and

attachment

Shoulder blade and breastbon

e

On the skeleton, colour the short, flat, long and irregular bones you can identify.

What do you notice about the location of most of the flat bones? Why might this be?

Located around the main organs, e.g. brain, heart. To give

protection.

What do you notice about the location of most of the long bones? Why might this be?

Located in legs and arms. These are the regions of most joints and therefore movement.

1.5 Identifying Bones of the SkeletonAs a pre-test, try naming as many bones as possible on the

skeleton below. Use common or anatomical terms.

Cranium (skull)

Vertebrae – cervical (neck)Sternum

(breastbone)Ribs (ribcage)

Vertebrae – lumbar (lower back)

Pelvis (hip) = Ilium, Ischium & Pubis

Metacarpals (palm)

Phalanges (fingers)

Tibia (shin)

Maxilla (face)

Humerus (upper arm)

Scapula (shoulder blade)

Fibula (shin)

Metatarsals (foot)

Patella (knee cap)Tarsal (heel)

Phalanges (toes)

Mandible (jaw)

Ulna (forearm)

Clavicle (collarbone)

Radius (forearm)

Femur (thigh)

Identify and explain the function of the following skeletal structures.

1. THE HEAD

A

B

C

A. Cranium (common name = skull)

Designed to protect the brain. Made up

of a number of inter-connecting bones.

C. Mandible (common name = jaw)Responsible for talking, chewing etc.

B. Maxilla (common name = face)Houses the eyes and sinuses. Protects these features against damage.

2. THE RIBCAGE

Ribs (common name = ribs)

12 pairs in all. Designed to protect the heart and lungs

Rib

3. THE CHESTA. Sternum (common name = breast

bone )

Protects the heart and lungs. It is the bone pressed on in C.P.R.

4. THE SPINECervical vertebrae. These are small delicate bones responsible for neck movement. There are seven bones in all.

Thoracic vertebrae. Allow ribs to attach to the spine hence there are 12 of them (one for each rib pair).

Lumbar vertebrae. These are the largest of the vertebrae and are responsible for weight-bearing. There are five in all.

The sacrum (upper) and coccyx (lower) are a series of fused (joined) bones that help form the pelvis.

What do the shapes of the bones tell you about their function?

Those that are larger have a roll in weight or load bearing

e.g. lumbar and thoracic. Smaller ones are important formovement e.g. cervical.

5. THE SHOULDER

A. Scapula (common name = shoulder blade )

Protects the lungs. Forms shoulder joint.

B. Clavicle (common name = collarbone)

Holds the shoulder in place. Easily broken.

B

A

6. THE ARM A. Humerus (common name = upper arm )

Prime function is movement.

B. Radius (common name = Forearm )

Prime function is movement, always located

on thumb-side of forearm.

C. Ulna (common name = forearm )

Prime function is movement.

D. Carpels (common name = wrist )

Prime function is movement.

E. Metacarpels (common name = palms )

Prime function is movement.

F. Phalanges (common name = Fingers )

Prime function is movement.

D

A

E

F

B

C

7. THE PELVIS

A. Ilium (common name = pelvis)

Protects intestines

B. Pubis ( common name = pelvis)

Forms front of pelvis. Has to separate

in childbirth.

C. Ischium (common name = pelvis)

Forms the ‘boney bum’.

A

B

C

8. THE LEG

A

B

C

F

D

G

E

A. Femur (common name = thigh )

Largest bone in the body, responsible for support and movement.

B. Patella (common name = knee cap )

Protects the knee joint.

C. Tibia (common name = shin )

Support and movement.

D. Fibula (common name = shin)

‘Thinner’ bone of leg. Support and movement.

E. Tarsels (common name = ankle)

Bones of the ankle and heel. Support and balance.

F. Metatarsels (common name = foot)

Form the sole of the foot. Support and balance.

G. Phalanges (common name = toes)

Support, movement and balance.

Functional Anatomy

Section Two: Terms of Direction

2.2 The Anatomical PositionIn order to explain the positioning of bones, organs, muscles

and the like on the human body, anatomists have agreed on a standardised position for the human body in all cases. This is known as the anatomical position.

THE ANATOMICAL POSITION

There are four key features to note:1. Palms face forward2. Body is upright3. Thumbs point outward – so radius and ulna and

uncrossed4. Face is forward

The terms of direction in the next section are all with respect to this position.

Why is it important to always talk about the position of organs, bones and muscles in or on the human body with respect to the anatomical position?

This enables everyone to talk from the same point of view regardless of their profession or level of expertise.

2.3 Anatomical Terms of Direction

These refer to the position of parts of the body, or of one part with respect to another.

Term Definition ExamplesAnterior On the FRONT of the

body or limb

1. The chest is on the anterior of the

body2. The face is an

anterior aspect of the head.

Posterior On the BACK of the body or limb

1. The buttocks are on the posterior of the

body2. The calf muscles are on the posterior of the

leg

Superior Above or on top of 1. The cervical vertebrae are superior to the thoracic

vertebrae2. The thoracic vertebrae are superior to the lumbar

vertebrae

Term Definition Examples

InferiorBelow or beneath

1. Thoracic vertebrae are inferior to the cervical

vertebrae2. The lumbar vertebrae

are inferior to the thoracic vertebrae

MedialNearer the midline

of the body

1. The big toe is on the medial aspect

of the foot 2. The little finger is

on the medial aspect of the hand

LateralFurther away from the midline of the

body

1. Little toe is on the lateral aspect of

the foot.2. The thumb is on the lateral aspect

of the hand

Term Definition Examples

DistalFurther away from the body. Usually

refers to the limbs.

1. Wrist is distal to the elbow

2. Elbow joint is distal to the shoulder

joint

ProximalNearer the body.

Usually refers to the limbs.

1. Elbow is proximal to the wrist joint

2. Shoulder joint is proximal to the

elbow

ProneFace down

A press-up is on the PRONE position

SupineFace up

A sit-up is on the SUPINE position

Term Definition ExamplesDeep When a muscle

is BENEATH another with

respect to the skin surface

The ilio psoas is a deep muscle

of the hip

Superficial On the surface of the body or

limb

Pectoralis major is a

superficial muscle of the

chest

Iliopsoas

Pectoralis Major

This exercise has shown that the terms of direction compliment each other. Complete the list below by placing the opposite term next to the one provided.

Superior - Inferior Anterior- Posterior

Proximal - Distal Medial -Lateral

Deep - Superficial Supine - Prone

Functional Anatomy

Section Three: The Joints

3.2. Overview of Joint Types

There are three broad categories of joint type in the body. They are classed according to the degree of movement possible.

The three categories are:1. Immovable Also known as fibrous joints2. Slightly movable Also known as cartilaginous joints3. Freely movable Also known as synovial joints

We shall look at all these categories in turn.

3.3 Fibrous JointsThese are non-movable joints. They are the result

of tough fibrous tissue forming where the two bone ends meet.

What is the function of a fibrous joint?To provide protection.

Examples include:1. Skull2. Pelvis Fibrous joint

3.4 Cartilaginous Joint

These are slightly-movable joints. They are the result of cartilage forming where the two bone meet. This gives a fair degree of resilience.

What is the function of a cartilaginous joint?

To act as shock absorbers.

Examples include:1. Invertebral discs2. Ribs to sternum3.Where pubic bones meet

Cartilaginous Joints

3.5 Synovial JointThese are freely movable joints. The only

limitation in range of movement is as a result of bone shape at the joint, and ligaments.

What is the primary function of a synovial joint?To provide movement.All synovial joints follow the same basic structure

as shown

The key components of your illustration have important roles to play in maintaining the structure of the joint.

1. Ligaments Join bone to bone for stability

2. Capsule Provides stability and protection from infection

3. Cartilage Reduce wear and tear on bones

4. Synovial Fluid Lubricates the joint and provides shock absorption

5. Synovial MembraneProduces synovial fluid

In some joints, for example the knee, there are pads of fat and/or discs of cartilage to further help absorb shock and reduce general ‘wear and tear’.

3.6 Types of Synovial Joints

Synovial joints can be divided into six basic types. The types are governed by the type of movement or movements they allow.

The six basic types are:1.Gliding2.Hinge3.Pivot4.Condyloid5.Saddle6.Ball and Socket

1. GlidingDefinition: The bone surfaces are small and flat, or

slightly concave and one bones slides over the other.

Examples:1. Carpals and tarsals2. Ribs and vertebrae3. Scapula and ribs

Movements: Only slight movement is possible due to the restrictions of attached ligaments.Movements possible are:1. side to side (abduction / adduction)2. Back and forth (extension/flexion)

2. HingeDefinition: Two bones join in such a way that

movement is possible only in one direction, usually at right angles to the bones.

Examples:1. Elbow2. Knee3. Ankle

Movements: A uniaxial joint allowing movement in only one directionThe only movement possible is:Back and forth (extension/flexion)

3. PivotDefinition: A joint constructed in such a way that

rotation only is possible (usually about the long axis of the bone)

Examples:1. Atlas and axis of neck2. Radius and humerous

Movements: A uniaxial joint allowing movement in only one directionThe only movement possible is:Rotation

4. CondyloidDefinition: Also known as an ellipsoid joint. The

bone ends make the shape of an ellipse.Examples:

1. Carpals and radius2. Metacarpals and phalange

Movements: A biaxial joint allowing movement in two main directions.The movements possible are:

1. Back and forth (extension/flexion)2. Side to side

(abduction/adduction)3. Some Circumduction

5. SaddleDefinition: The bone ends are shaped like a rider

on a saddle

Example:1. Carpal/metacarpal of thumb

Movements: A biaxial joint allowing movement in two main directions.Movements possible are:1. side to side (abduction / adduction)2. Back and forth (extension/flexion)

6. Ball and SocketDefinition: A ball-shaped bone end fits into a

socket or cup-shaped bone.Examples:

1. Hip2. Shoulder

Movements: A multiaxial joint allowing movement in many directions around the joint.

The movements possible are:1. Back and forth (extension/flexion)2. Side to side

(abduction/adduction)3. Rotation4. Circumduction

The shoulder joint is the most freely moving ball and socket joint we have. The illustration may help you with your answer.

Why is the shoulder joint so freely moving?Because the socket is shallow.

What do you suppose is the risk of such a freely moving joint?

It is easy to dislocate.

3.7. Movements at Synovial Joints

Just as we learnt a set of terms to describe the positioning of bones, muscles and organs in the body, so we have a set of terms to describe how joints move.

Term Definition Examples

Flexion Bending or decreasing the angle

between two bones

Bending at the knee6. Knee

Raising the thigh towards the trunk

5. Hip

Bringing the palm towards the forearm

4. Wrist

Bending at the elbow3. Arm

Moving the arm forward2. Shoulder

Bending forwards (sideways – lateral flexion)

1. Trunk

Bending at the knee6. Knee

Raising the thigh towards the trunk

5. Hip

Bringing the palm towards the forearm

4. Wrist

Bending at the elbow3. Arm

Moving the arm forward2. Shoulder

Bending forwards (sideways – lateral flexion)

1. Trunk

Term Definition Examples

Extension Straightening or increasing

the angle between two

bones

Straightening the knee6. Knee

Moving the leg backward5. Hip

Straightening the wrist4. Wrist

Straightening the elbow3. Arm

Moving the arm backward2. Shoulder

Straightening up1. Trunk

Straightening the knee6. Knee

Moving the leg backward5. Hip

Straightening the wrist4. Wrist

Straightening the elbow3. Arm

Moving the arm backward2. Shoulder

Straightening up1. Trunk

Term Definition ExamplesAbduction Moving a limb or

part of a limb away from the midline of the

bodyMoving outwards on

a star jump

Adduction Moving a limb or part of a limb towards the

midline of the body

Bringing the limbs back together in

a star jump

Circumduction A combination of flexion,

extension, abduction and

adduction.The movement

of the limb resembles the

shape of a cone

The arm stroke in Butterfly

Term Definition Examples

Rotation Twisting of a limb about its long axis

Turning the headTwisting the trunk

Supination Movement of the hand into a palm-

up positionHolding a bowl of

soup

Turning a card overTurning a page in a

book

PronationMovement of the hand into a palm-

down position tipping the soup

out

Turning a card face down

Closing a book

Term Definition Examples

Inversion Movement of the sole of the foot

inward

Eversion Movement of the sole of the foot

outward

Dorsi flexion Movement of the top of the foot upward, closer

to the shin

Plantar flexion Movement of the sole of the foot

downward

Underarm Volley ball serveFrame Joint Bones at the joint Movement or

Position

A Knee Femur (thigh) & Tibia (shin)

Flexion

A Trunk (at hip) Pelvis (hip) & Femur Flexion

A → D Right Shoulder Scapula (shoulder blade) & Humerus

(upper arm)

Flexion

A → C Right Hip Pelvis (hip) & Femur Extension

A → D Right Foot (at ankle) Tibia, Fibula (shin) & Tarsals (ankle)

Plantarflexion

A → D Right Knee Femur & Tibia Extension

A → D Right Hand (at wrist)

Radius & Ulna (forearm) & Carpals (wrist)

Slight (flexion)

D Right Elbow Radius, Ulna & Humerus Extension

Functional Anatomy

Section Four: The Muscles

4.2 Identifying MusclesTrapezius

Deltoid

Biceps

Triceps

Pectoralis Major

Latissimus Dorsi

Rectus Abdominus

Gluteus Maximus

Hamstrings

Quadriceps

Gastrocnemius

4.3 Guide to Individual Muscles[A] PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK

1. Rectus adbominus: Location : A group of two muscles running

lengthwise along the medial aspect of the abdomen. They are rather like two columns of

muscle running up either side of the belly button.

They run from the pubis (pelvis) to the cartilage of the 5th, 6th and 7th ribs.

Movements: Rectus abdominus allows two basic movements.

1. Flexion of the trunk2. Lateral flexion of the trunk

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Sit ups2. Cartwheels3. Pike in diving

Rectus Abdominus

[A] PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK

2. Erector Spinae Group: Location : One of the main muscles located in the

lower back and one of the few visible. It runs from the pelvis to the lumbar vertebrae.

Movements: Erector spinae group allows two basic movements.

They are:1. Extension of the spine2. Lateral flexion of the trunk

Application Typical sporting actions include:

1. Straightening out from a pike2. Rowing3. Swimming (body position)

Erector Spinae

[B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER

1. Trapezius: Location : A large triangular muscle located on the

posterior aspect of the body.It runs in a triangular shape from the

base of the skull, the 7th cervical vertebrae and all the thoracic vertebrae, to the scapula

and clavicle.

Movements: Trapezius allows four basic movements.They are:

1. Raise the head2. Pull the shoulders back3. Raise the scapula4. Drop the scapula

Application: Typical sporting actions include:

1. Pulling shoulder when throwing2. Rowing3. Looking up in basketball

Trapezius

[B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER2. Latissimus Dorsi:

Location : The broadest muscle of the back. It forms the back of the armpit.This is a large triangular muscle which covers the lumbar and lower thoracic region of the back.It runs from the lower thoracic and lumber

regions, to the anterior aspect of the humerus

Movements: Latissimus dorsi allows three basic movements.They are:

1. Adduction of the upper arm2. Extension of the shoulder3. Internal rotation of the shoulder

How can latissimus dorsi allow internal rotation of the shoulder to occur if it is a muscle located on the back?Because it attaches to the humerus

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Recovery in breaststroke2. Ten-pin bowling3. Drawing arm back to punch

Latissimus dorsi

[B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER

3. Deltoid: Location : A triangular shaped muscle located on the

superior aspect of the shoulder i.e. above the shoulder joint

It runs from the scapular and clavicle to attach at the humerus

Movements: Deltoid allows four basic movements.They are:

1. Flexion of the shoulder2. Extension of the shoulder3. Abduction of the arm4. Rotation of the shoulder

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Throwing2. Punching3. Swimming

Deltoid

[B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER

3. Pectoralis Major: Location : A large triangular muscle located on the

chest.It runs from the clavicle, sternum and

the 6th rib, to the humerus.

Movements: Pectoralis major allows three basic movements.

These are:1. Flexion of the shoulder2. Abduction of the arm3. Rotation (internal) of the shoulder

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Throwing2. Punching3. Press-ups

Pectoralis major

[C] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW

1. Biceps Brachii: Location : A two-headed muscle (biceps) located on

the anterior aspect of the humerusIt runs from the scapular to the upper

aspect of the radius

Movements: Biceps allows two basic movements.They are:

1. Flexion of the elbow2. Flexion of the shoulder

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Biceps curl2. Rowing3. Recovery in breaststroke

Biceps Brachii

[C] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW

1. Triceps Brachii: Location : A large muscle located on the posterior

aspect of the humerus.It runs from the scapular, over the posterior

aspect of the humerus, to the upper part of the ulna.

Movements: Triceps allows two basic movements.These are:

1. Extension of the elbow2. Extension of the shoulder

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Karate chop2. Press-up3. Punching

Triceps Brachii

[D] PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST1. Flexor digitorum:

Location : This is one of the main gripping muscles of the anterior aspect of the forearm.It runs mainly from the proximal aspect of the radius and ulna, over the anterior of the forearm, to attach to the fingers.

Movements:Flexor digitorum has two basic movements.

1. Flex the fingers (make a fist)2. Flex the wrist

Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Punching2. Hold a racquet

3. Wrist ‘dink; in a set shot (volleyball)

Flexor digitorum

[D] PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST

2. Extensor digitorum: Location : This is one of the muscles in direct

opposition to the flexor digitorum. It is located on the posterior aspect of the forearm.It runs over the posterior of the forearm, to attach to the fingers.

Movements: Extensor digitorum allows two basic movements.

1. Extend the fingers 2. Extend the wrist

Application: Typical sporting actions :1. Karate chop2. Fending in tackling3. Set shot in (volleyball)

Extensor

digitorum

[E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE

1. Illiopsoas: Location : This is a group of three muscles located

deep inside the hip region.It runs from the lumbar vertebrae and pelvis to the

upper femur.

Movements: Illiopsoas allows one basic movement.This is:1. Flexion of the hip

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Kicking2. Running3. Cycling

[E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE

2. Gluteus Maximus: Location : This is a the large fleshy muscle that

makes up your backside. You are probably sitting on it right now! It is an extremely powerful muscle.

It is located on the posterior aspect of the hip running from the ilium (pelvis), sacrum and coccyx to the upper third of the femur.

Movements: Gluteus maximus allows three basic movements.

1. Extension of the leg 2. Abduction of the leg 3. External rotation of the leg (rotating outwards)

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Kicking2. Running3. Jumping

[E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE

3. Quadriceps: Location : This is a group of four (quad) muscles

located on the anterior aspect of the thigh.The four muscles making up the

quadriceps group are:1. Rectus femoris 2. Vastus medialis 3. Vastus lateralis4. Vastus intermedius (not shown)

Movements: Quadriceps allows two basic movements.

1. Extension of the knee

2. Flexion of the hip Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Kicking2. Running

3. Jumping

The Vastus intermedius is not shown because it lies under the Rectus femoris, so is not visible.

Consider the illustration. Label the muscles of the quadriceps group you can identify.

Rectus femoris

Vastus lateralis

Vastus Medialis

[E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE3. Hamstrings:

Location : This is a group of three muscles located on the posterior aspect of the thigh.

Since they are in direct opposition to the quadriceps and are generally weaker they are prone to injury.

The three muscles making up the hamstrings group are:

1. Semitendinosus 2. Biceps femoris3. Semimembranosis

Movements: Hamstrings allows two basic movements.These are:

1. Extension of the hip2. Flexion of the knee

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Kicking2. Running3. Jumping

[F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE1. Gastroncnemius:

Location : This is a the large fleshy muscle located on the posterior aspect of the lower leg.It runs from the distal aspect of the femur to the tarsal's (heel) via the Achilles tendon.

Movements: Gastrocnemius allows two basic movements.These are:

1. Knee flexion 2. Plantar flexion

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Kicking2. Pointing toes3. Jumping

[F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE

2. Soleus: Location : This muscle lies beneath gastrocnemius

and serves largely the same function. It shares the Achilles tendon with

gastrocnemius.It runs from the proximal aspect of both

tibia and fibula to the same position as gastrocnemius on the heel

Movements: Soleus allows one basic movements.1. Plantar flexion

Application: Typical sporting actions include:

1. Kicking2. Pointing toes3. Jumping

[F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE3. Tibialis anterior:

Location : This muscle is located on the anterior aspect of the lower leg.It lies mainly over the tibia and can be felt running along its sharp edge.It runs from the proximal aspect of the tibia to the toes.

Movements: Tibialis anterior allows two basic movements.1. Dorsi flexion 2. Inversion

Application: Typical sporting actions include:1. Passing with the outside of the foot (soccer)2. Kicking (recovery)3. Rowing

4.4 Agonists and AntagonistsWhen muscles create movement, they tend to work in

pairs.When one muscle (or group), contracts to generate

themovement, the opposing muscle (or group) relaxes.This is known as Reciprocal Inhibition.Each muscle in the pair is labelled as either the

agonist orantagonist.

Agonist:The muscle that produces the movement.

Agonists are also referred to as prime movers. Why?

Because they are the main muscle producing movement (prime = main).

Antagonist:This muscle that opposes motion

Consider the example of a bicep curl.The movement occurring at the elbow is

flexionThe agonist muscle would be bicepsThe antagonist muscle would be tricepsThe prime mover would be biceps

When the person extends the arm i.e. to lower the weight:

The agonist muscle would be tricepsThe antagonist muscle would be bicepsWhat other role does the antagonist muscle

play in the lowering of the weight?Controls the speed at which weight is

lowered in order to help prevent injury.