FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
-
Upload
sudharsananprs -
Category
Documents
-
view
244 -
download
0
Transcript of FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
1/79
Examensarbete vid Institutionen fr geovetenskaper
ISSN 1650-6553 Nr 228
Rainfall-runoff Model Application in
Ungauged Catchments in Scotland
Alexander Peter Anthony Fionda
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
2/79
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
3/79
I
Abstract
Rainfall-runoff model application for ungauged catchments in Scotland
Alexander Peter Anthony FiondaDepartment of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University
Villavgen 16, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden.
The conceptual rainfall-runoff model Hysim is used to estimate the flow in ungauged
catchments in Scotland by Scottish Water. However, there are non-quantified uncertainties
associated with the outcomes of the modelling strategy used. In order to identify and quantify
these uncertainties it was necessary to use the framework of proxy-basin validation in order
to evaluate the performance of different modelling strategies.
The proxy-basin validation test requires hydrologically analogous catchments for the
evaluation of models, a Region Of Influence regionalisation method was used in order group
selected catchments by Q95(%MF). Four groups of four catchments were established, which
covered Q95(%MF) 5-7%, 7-9%, 9-11% and 11-13%.
The allocation of donor catchment and target catchment for each Q95(%MF) group
was accomplished through discussion with Scottish Water with respect to existing Scottish
Water modelled catchments. A single donor catchment and three target catchments were
therefore indicated for each group.
Two modelling strategies were developed by the study; the first full transposition method
used the entire optimised parameter-set from the donor catchment with the exception of the
target catchments catchment area parameter. The second partial transposition method usedthe entire optimal parameter-set with the exception of the target catchments interception
storage, time to peak, rooting depth and catchment area parameters.
It was found that the full transposition method had the least uncertainty associated its use
for flow estimation when the parameter-set was derived from a donor catchment calibration
that was excellent. Contrarily, it was found that the partial transposition model method had
the least uncertainty associated with flow estimation for parameter-sets that were derived
from a relatively poor donor catchment calibration.
Encouraged by this testing framework, this study has suggested the use of catalogue of
donor parameter-sets that can be used to estimate flow for catchments that are hydrologicallysimilar. This strategy of hydrological modelling has been recommended to improve existing
Scottish Water Hysim methodology.
Keywords
ungauged catchment, proxy-basin validation, region of interest, transposition method, hysim,
rainfall-runoff model, sepa, scottish water, scotland.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
4/79
II
Referat
Anvndning av en avrinningsmodell i ett skotskt avrinningsomrde utan
vattenfringsmtningar
Alexander Peter Anthony Fionda
Institutionen fr geovetenskaper, Uppsala universitet
Villavgen 16, 752 36 UPPSALA.
Scottish Water anvnder den begreppsmssiga avrinningsmodellen Hysim fr att uppskatta
vattenfringen i skotska avrinningsomrden utan vattenfringsdata. Den valda
modelleringsstrategin har emellertid resulterat i icke-kvantifierade oskerheter i berknade
vattenfringar. Fr att identifiera och kvantifiera de oskerheter som r frbundna med olika
modelleringsstrategier var det ndvndigt att anvnda sig av information frn likartadeavrinningsomrden.
Den valda regionaliseringsmetoden anvnde hydrologiskt analoga avrinningsomrden som
definition p likhet. Analogin grundades p inflytanderegion (Region of Influence) som
erhlls genom att gruppera utvalda avrinningsomrden utefter Q95 (% medelflde). Fyra
grupper med fyra avrinningsomrden valdes ut grundat p fljande Q95-grnser (%
medelflde): 5-7%, 7-9%, 9-11% and 11-13%.
Frdelningen av analoga avrinningsomrden (omrden med vattenfringsmtningar vars
parametervrdesuppsttningar skulle verflyttas) och mlomrden (utan mtningar) fr varje
Q95-grupp erhlls efter diskussion med Scottish Water frn omrden dr Scottish Water
modellerat vattenfringen. Ett analogt omrde och tre mlomrden valdes ut fr varje grupp.
Studien anvnde tv modelleringsstrategier. Den frsta metoden, total verflyttning,
anvnde hela parametervrdesuppsttningen frn det analoga omrdet med undantag av
mlomrdets area. Den andra metoden, partiell verflyttning, anvnde hela
parametervrdesuppsttningen med undantag fr mlomrdets interceptionslager, tid till
hgflde, rotdjup och area.
Den totala verflyttningsmetoden hade lgst oskerhet nr parametervrdesuppsttningen
hrleddes frn ett omrde med utmrkt kalibrering. Den partiella verflyttningsmetoden hade,
andra sidan, lgst oskerhet nr parametervrdesuppsttningen hrleddes frn ett omrde
med dlig kalibrering.
Efter att ha provat de tv metoderna utmynnade studien i ett frslag till en katalog med
parametervrdesuppsttningar fr omrden som kan bedmas som hydrologiskt lika. Denna
strategi fr hydrologisk modellering har rekommenderats som frbttring av befintlig Hysim-
metodik hos Scottish Water.
Nyckelord
Avrinningsomrde utan vattenfringsdata, validering mot likartade omrden,
inflytanderegion, verflyttningsmetod, hysim, avrinningsmodell, SEPA, Scottish Water,
Skottland.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
5/79
III
Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Research objectives ................................................................................................. 1
1.1.2 Scottish Water and its resource systems .......................................................... 2
1.1.2 The role of hydrologic modelling in Scottish Water ........................................ 5
1.2 The use of Hysim rainfall-runoff modelling by Scottish Water............................ 12
1.2.1 Quantifying the uncertainty associated with parameterisation ...................... 13
1.2.2 Modelling flow in ungauged catchments ....................................................... 15
1.3 Key questions and summary of methods ............................................................... 16
2 Materials and Methods................................................................................................. 18
2.1 Analogue and target site selection from SEPA catchments .................................. 18
2.2 The Hysim conceptual rainfall-runoff model ........................................................ 21
2.3 Derivation of inputs ............................................................................................... 24
2.4 Hysim model calibration ....................................................................................... 26
2.5 Development of parameter transposition methods ................................................ 27
2.6 Evaluating model performance using the proxy-basin test ................................... 28
3 Results.......................................................................................................................... 29
3.1 Hydrological statistics of mega-zones and SEPA catchments .............................. 29
3.2 Calibration quality of donor catchments ............................................................... 31
3.3 Evaluating model performance with transposition method chosen....................... 39
3.4 Evaluating model performance with selection of target catchment ...................... 44
4 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 47
4.1 Hydrological statistics of mega-zones and SEPA catchments .............................. 474.2 Calibration quality of donor catchments ............................................................... 48
4.3 Uncertainty identified with selection of target catchment..................................... 53
4.4 A more pragmatic methodology for estimations of flow ...................................... 54
5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 56
6 Acknowledgements...................................................................................................... 58
7 References.................................................................................................................... 59
8 Appendices................................................................................................................... 63
Appendix A: Hysim operational notes ........................................................................... 63
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
6/79
IV
Appendix B: Parameter-set references ........................................................................... 64
Appendix C: Results of validation ................................................................................. 65
Definition of terms
MF - the mean flow.
Q95 - the 95th
percentile of mean flow; the flow exceeded or equalled 95 % of the time.
Q95(%MF) - the 95th
percentile of mean flow as a percentage of mean flow.
Source catchment - a catchment containing source of water, which is utilised by Scottish Water.
Donor catchment - the catchment for which an optimal parameter-set is achieved through calibration.
Target catchment/analogue - a catchment chosen through a method of regionalisation to be similar
in character to the donor catchment.
Model a software based representation of a physical system. Model software consists of a
programmed framework, into which physical data and estimated parameters are placed, in order to
represent a physical system. This study evaluates model performance, where a model consists of the
programming, input data and parameters as a whole. This status is stored by Hysim the model
programming- as a single project file, which is referred to as a model in its own right.
Parameter-set - a set of estimated parameter values that may be adjusted in order to manipulate the
outcomes of a model.
Optimal parameter-set - a set of parameter values that provide the best estimation of flow,
commonly achieved through the calibration of a model.
Transposition the process of transferring parameter values from a donor catchment optimal
parameter-set to a target catchment parameter-set.
Full Transposition Method (FTM) - a method describing the transposition of every parameter fromthe donor catchments optimal parameter-set to the target catchment parameter-set. The catchment
area of the target is maintained as a parameter for the target catchment parameter-set.
Partial Transposition Method (PTM) - a method describing the transposition of part of the donor
catchments optimal parameter-set to the target catchment parameter-set. catchment area, time to
peak, rooting depth and interception storage of the target are maintained as parameters for the target
catchment parameter-set.
Uncertainty - A state of having limited knowledge where it is impossible to exactly describe existing
state or future outcome; in this study this is quantified by evaluating model performance, using
accuracy between estimated and recorded flow.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
7/79
1
1.IntroductionThe benign human curiosity in the future drifts in and out of focus in society. It can enthral as the
subject of films and can spell boon or doom in the media. As a species capable of producing much of
what we utilise in our day to day existence it is our privilege to be able to successfully predict the
outcomes of what we create and control. In order to do so, we rely on the continual development of
the mathematical model. However, when we attempt to utilise the environment around us, there is the
desire, and often assumption, that a similar level of prediction is available. We necessitate accurate
environmental prediction, whether it may concern the local weather next week or global climate in the
next century. Unfortunately, the natural world is almost infinite in its scale of complexity and cannot
be represented in its entirety by any model. As such, the outcomes of mathematical models that
attempt to tell us more about the future is discussed more as a form of prophecy than prediction
(Beven, 1993).
Hydrological variables are but one aspect of the natural world. Mathematical models, especiallyconceptual rainfall-runoff models, are a capable means of narrowing down future states of
hydrological variables for a given area. For water management companies this is essential, as
predictions of the likely states of variables are invaluable in resource planning. It is within the realms
of prediction that rainfall-runoff models, capable of simulating flow in areas that are ungauged, are
best suited.
Models of hydrological systems have been progressing for the best part of three decades. One
branch of development of modelling tools leads to the prediction rainfall and consequential runoff in a
hydrological system. Conceptual rainfall-runoff models are among the most ubiquitously used tools in
hydrology. Input data is more readily available for their application unlike their counterparts: the
complex, physically based, distributed models. Conceptual models are often comparatively simpleand easy to use, that said, the drawbacks of model parameters being inter-correlated or over-
parameterised is not uncommon. It is the case that some model parameters will have a physical bias
that ties directly to variations on the catchment scale. Due to the fact that such variations are virtually
unquantifiable in the field, calibration is an essential step in representing real runoff calculations. This
leads to the pursuit of the optimal parameter-set that produces the greatest closeness to reality and a
process of parameter alteration that inevitably brings about multiple solutions with different sets of
parameters. Uncertainty therefore arises in modelling, it is discussed as the confusion as to which set
of parameters to choose for application by Beck, 1987. This study aims to elaborate upon the
uncertainty associated with parameter selection by testing parameter-sets that have been derived by
various methods. It will then be possible to quantify this uncertainty by the comparison of the
accuracy of these methods.
1.1 Research objectivesThis study is undertaken in cooperation with Scottish Water -the publically owned water authority for
Scotland, who expressed considerable interest in improving the efficiency of their rainfall-runoff
modelling strategy for various operations. This study aims to evaluate model performance, where a
model consists of the programming, input data and parameters as a whole. In doing so, the focus of
evaluation will be on changes made to the parameter-set and potentially data. In literature surrounding
model evaluation, the model software itself is usually under scrutiny and described as the model;
such analysis is not the focus of this study.A review of the current internal and external publications on Scottish Waters modelling strategy
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
8/79
2
reveals non-quantified uncertainties in the input, parameterisation and calibration of their modelling
scheme that require addressing. This paper attempts to identify and quantify the uncertainty
surrounding parameterisation by testing the accuracy of various methods of parameter-set derivation.
Furthermore, this uncertainty evaluation may then be used to infer an improved, more pragmatic
method for modelling the flow in ungauged catchments.
Using the framework of proxy-basin validation to evaluate the uncertainties associated with flow
estimations in ungauged catchments requires the following aims to be fulfilled:
i. Select catchments for experimentation that are both approved by a monitoring agency interms of quality and that represent typical Scottish Water source catchments. Use a method of
regionalisation to group hydrologically analogous catchments in compliance with the proxy-
basin framework
ii. Identify catchments that are suitable for deriving parameter-sets and those that are suitable asthe target of the evaluation process; so called donor and target catchments. Update theinput data and data selection periods and improve the calibration of existing Scottish Water
models for those catchments identified as donor catchments.
iii. Develop two methods of parameter transposition and test parameter-sets upon targetcatchments in order to evaluate accuracy and quantify uncertainty associated with parameter-
set selection. Interpret whether uncertainties are quantified enough for the recommendation of
using a single method of parameter-set derivation for the estimation of flow in all
hydrological analogous, ungauged catchments.
In completing these objectives, it is possible to identify a single donor parameter-set for eachhydrologically similar group that can be used to estimate flow in ungauged catchments with
hydrological similarity to a quantified level of accuracy. A library of models would then exist that
would each represent a range of hydrological similarity that could be used whenever flow was needed
to be estimated in an ungauged catchment. This builds upon suggestions by Jacobs (2010); the ability
to approve this as an outcome would recommend a more pragmatic Hysim methodology for Scottish
Waters estimation of flow in ungauged catchments.
For the objectives of this report to be upheld it is important to address some additional vulnerability
within the current scheme of Hysim modelling that Scottish Water employs. A detailed method for the
calibration of Hysim models must be documented and made consistent with Scottish Water
guidelines; however the method should be seen to improve existing modelling procedure in order to
assist with future Hysim modelling studies. Where there are pre-existing calibrations models for
catchments, it is an aim of this to update or improve these models where possible. This may be
achieved through taking advantage of the improved rating and record of evapotranspiration or
precipitation data records or by alterations in the model construction process.
1.1.2 Scottish Water and its resource systemsScotland, with respect to global water availability, is a water rich country. In terms of actual water
availability Northern Europe has 34.6 x 103m3 per year per capita average for the past 60 years; when
compared to the average for the entire of Europe (4.9 x 103m3) it is clear that there is a uneven
geographic distribution of available water throughout Europe (Gleik, 1993). It is important not to
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
9/79
3
construe this data as a reflection of unlimited water resource capability; there are problems with water
resources in relation to the public supply of water. A wide variability exists in the ability for the water
authority, Scottish Water, to maintain water supply during peak demands and during droughts.
In 2002, Scottish Water was crated by the merger of three water authorities in accordance with the
Water Industry [Scotland] Act 2002. Scottish Water is accountable to the Scottish Parliament through
the Scottish Ministers, it is publically owned. It remains a product of the amalgamation of 210 water
boards and local councils since 1968. This unification provides the authority with a unified, consistent
and strategic approach to Water Resource Planning that strengthens the operations it defines from its
Water Resource Plan (WRP). The WRP (Scottish Water, 2009) is a regulatory document that has been
developed in collaboration with the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA). Its aims are
to:
Define Scottish Waters long term water resources strategy to ensure the consistent supply ofdrinking water to protect public health and facilitate economic growth, while abstracting and
using water in a sustainable way to provide a value for money service for customers.
Provide a twenty five year assessment of the Supply Demand Balance across Scotland at azone-level that is consistent with good practice in the UK.
Justify investment to restore deficits in the Supply Demand Balance in a prioritised waterresource zones during the next investment period and beyond.
The WRP therefore represents the interests of: environmental and water resource regulation,
economic regulation, customer interests and consumer quality respectively (Scottish Water, 2009).
The Water Resource Plan is subject to the model of planning guidance SEPA provides. As such,
Scottish Water is requested to produce data for all Water Resource Zones (WRZs) defined within
Scotland. WRZs are defined as the largest possible zone in which all customers experience the
same risk of supply failure from a resource shortfall (Scottish Water, 2009). For the 2007/2008
period, 230 water resource zones exist across Scotland. Due to the low population density in Scotland,there is a large variation in the distribution of WRZs. A large quantity of WRZs are located in the
Highlands and Islands, which supply isolated communities; contrasting with the eleven centrally
located WRZs that supply almost half the population of Scotland (Scottish Water, 2009). Such an
extensive collation of WRZs is unfamiliar to the majority of water management authorities; in
England and Wales companies usually have one to ten WRZs. Therefore, the environmental agency
guidelines that request data on all WRZs seems a task implicated with difficulties on a number of
levels: specifically the collation of data for 230 WRZs and their constituent water sources.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
10/79
4
Avera ge Dem and (Ml/d)
Argyll and Bute 46
Ayrshire and Inverclyde 66
Central Scotland 110
Dumfries and Galloway 31
East Lothian and Borders 25
Fife 26
Fort William 21
Grampian 36
Inverness and Central Highlands 28
North West Coast 21
Orkney 18
Shetland 23
Skye and Lochalsh 32
Tayside and Rural Forth Valley 18
Western Isles 23
Wick 8
Scotland Total 2009/10 481
13.9 28.7 7 7
2,044 5,035 220 278
127 372.6 13 16
13.4 26.8 22 22
10.7 22 13 14
6.7 14.6 28 28
3.3 7.5 19 19
8.7 19.6 10 11
148.5 420.2 11 17
86.2 201.6 20 24
143 357.3 1 11
8.9 17.9 19 19
78.3 131.1 5 18
59.5 145.3 11 17
255.8 440.4 8 14
1,265.40 2,712.20 11 30
Avera ge
Demand (ml/d)
Population
(000s)
Number
of WRZs
Number of
WTWs
Number of
Sources
41.8 65.9 32 33
FIGURE 1.2.1:SCOTTISH WATER MEGA-ZONE REGIONAL GROUPING WITH ALLOCATED WATERRESOURCE ZONES(WRZS).IMAGES USED WITH PERMISSION (SCOTTISH WATER,2009).
Water resource zones are grouped geographically into sixteen mega-zones, shown in figure 1.2.1. The
disparity of population density across Scotland is notably significant, elucidating the need for an
additional WRZs for every small pocket of population across a large area; these are classified as
standalone zones. In studying the population given in thousands it is a frequent trend that a smaller
population per mega-zone have a greater number of WRZs i.e. the population of central Scotland:
2,712,200, which is supplied by 11 WRZs whereas Argyle and Bute have a population of 41,800 and
are supplied by 32 WRZs. However, this is not a rule as such; some low populations also have a low
number of WRZs i.e. Wick, a population of 28,700 and 7 WRZs (Scottish Water, 2009).
Water resource zones are supplied by Water Treatment Works (WTW), the distribution of which is
directly influenced by the occurance of standalone zones. Each standalone zone is supplied directly by
a single WTW, making 202 WTW zones that are supplied by a sole WTW across Scotland. The
remaining 28 WRZs have more than one WTW. The Central Scotland mega-zone incorporates the
cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow; the 11 WRZs within Central Scotland contain 30 WTW and serve
54% of the household population of Scotland (Scottish Water, 2009). The interconnectivity provided
between these zones reduces the risk of supply failure within the mega-zone; although, there is a
difference in risk between certain zones over others (Scottish Water, 2009). The risk of supply failure
is considerably greater in the standalone zones as there is limited or no connectivity between the
WTW. Efforts are being made by Scottish Water to further plans that would ensure a greater
interconnectivity between standalone zones and reduce the risk of supply failure amongst these areas.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
11/79
5
The supply demand balance from raw water sources to the water treatment works output for each
water resource zone is essential for effective water management across Scotland. A suppy system
incorporates the assets of collection, storage, transfer and treatment up to the output of the water
treatment works (Scottish Water, 2009). It is the part of the supply system concerning collection that
is of greatest interest for defining water sources in Scotland. Scottish Water Report that for 2007/2008
there were 532 sources providing water for supply to the population of Scotland; see figure 1.2.2.
Large population centres in Central Scotland, such as Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee and Stirling are
supplied by a small number of large reservoirs, whereas isolated communities in remote parts of
Scotland rely upon numerous small reservoirs. This follows the trends identified from the disparate
state of WRZ distribution across Scotland.
FIGURE 1.2.2:SURFACE WATER SOURCES UTILISED BY SCOTTISH WATER.IMAGE USED WITH PERMISSION
(SCOTTISH WATER,2009).
The distributions of raw water sources across Scotland are illustrated by map of WTW localities
across the country; see figure 1.2.3. The majority of the 59 loch sources are located in the northwest
of Scotland. Groundwater sources are found throughout Scotland; there are 42 spring sources and 54
borehole systems that make up 96 in total. 207 river sources are divided into: 103 indirect sources,which feed reservoirs and 104 pure river sources, which are generally larger in the east and smaller in
the west. Impounding reservoirs, of which there are 170, and their contributing feeder river sources
provide 82% of raw water to water treatment works in Scotland. Direct river sources provide 10% of
raw water, whilst lochs and groundwater each provide 4% and 4% respectively (Scottish Water,
2009).
1.1.2 The role of hydrologic modelling in Scottish WaterHydrological assessment occurs on a variety of levels dependent upon the project at hand. Scottish
Water (2009) identified various scenarios where hydrological assessment is required for a watermanagement authority. There is a division highlighted between internal projects i.e. a Scottish Water
capital project with water quality or growth considerations and Scottish Water capital projects with
environmental consideration. This study will focus on hydrological assessment associated with the
eventual calculation of yield; a requisite for the supply-demand balance for all Scottish Water capital
projects including Scottish Waters Water Resource Plan (Scottish Water, 2009).
Yield is expressed in terms of the maximum continuous output that can be supplied in drought severe
enough that on average its occurrence would cause a failure of supply one in forty years (Scottish
Water, 2009). The use of conceptual rainfall-runoff models, such as Hysim, for estimation of stream
flows is universal in water management authorities. This flow data requires some method of
transformation before yield can be calculated. The estimation of yield requires either the estimation of
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
12/79
6
a natural flow duration curve (FDC) or its 95 flow percentile (Q95). Software such as Hysim-Aquator
is capable of yield estimates directly from Hysim simulation data, whilst the Report 108 based
Method (Institute of Hydrology, 1992) may also be used to estimate yield using one regression
equation (Gustard et al., 1992). In addition, Scottish Government Directions on Environmental
Standards (SGES) determine an allowance of abstraction given as a percentage of the FDC (Scottish
Water, 2009). There is therefore a great necessity to represent catchment flow data in its Q95 and FDC
form. Techniques from which an FDC may be obtained are: gauged records, Hysim modelling and
Low Flows Enterprise calculation.
A long term record of gauged flow for the focus catchment is undoubtedly the most accurate, reliable
and practical method of FDC production. Empirical observations will always be of greatest value to
the hydrologist, yet lengthy continuous gauged flow data for Scotland, and indeed much of the world,
is not available. Furthermore, in the context of individual water management authorities such as
Scottish Water, their abstraction sites are not close enough to long term gauges for representative
FDCs to be derived. Where funding and time permits, it is beneficial to initialise flow gauging for
sites (Mott Macdonald, 2010). It is suggested that there is suitability in short term direct flow gaugingif enough analysis into finding a suitable analogue is undertaken. For the implementation of flow
gauging to be effective in a project there must be a local, long term analogue. If such an analogue
cannot be found then the gauging period for the catchment in focus must be greater than four years,
which may extend beyond practical means for the project. If a local, long term analogue can be found
and gauged data is provided that is over three years in length then transposition will be used between
catchments and allow a revised FDC that better represents the focus catchments. Methods of
transposition between catchments are detailed by Jacobs (2010); however there is no comparison
between the efficacies of this procedure compared to the representation of the focus catchment by a
rainfall-runoff model. A modelling strategy would inevitably require, and use, the same proximal,
long term target catchment. Comparison between the resulting FDC would illustrate the value ofinitiating flow gauging at a focus site.
Low Flows Enterprise (LFE), developed by Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH), is a software
package that is used to estimate the flow duration curve at ungauged sites. Wallingford
Hydrosolutions currently maintain this software. The Scottish Environmental Protection Agency use
LFE as the elected method for FDC derivation at ungauged sites in Scotland. Scottish Water has
purchased LFE and is capable of providing LFE estimates on request. LFE obtains FDC through the
selection of 5 Region-Of-Influence (ROI) gauged catchment sites, which must be determined to be
similar to the donor catchments hydrological statistics. These five ROI provide an individual FDC,
which is rescaled by the mean flow for the subject site; this is calculated by a separate model within
the LFE software.
Hysim-Aquator permits the transfer of flow data and its derivative FDC or Q95 to calculate a yield.
Aquator achieves this through the simulation of daily transfers and abstractions for a given WRZ and
represents this as a one in forty yield. The Hysim-Aquator method for yield calculation was developed
in 2001, as a Scotland and Northern Ireland Forum for Environmental Research (SNIFFER) project. It
is a combined software package comprising of the hydrological rainfall-runoff simulation model
Hysim and Aquator, which is a water resource system model.
Hysim as stand-alone software is a daily rainfall-runoff model. Its intended use is to simulate a
historic daily river flow series based on historic daily rainfall and potential evapotranspiration; whilst
taking into account artificial influences such as: groundwater abstractions, river abstractions or river
discharges (Manley, 1978).
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
13/79
7
Aquator was developed especially for the aforementioned SNIFFER project. It uses output from the
Hysim model as an input for the simulation of a water resource system; Hysim was also specially
adapted for this project. The daily storage of a reservoir or loch may be simulated based upon a
balance of inputs and outputs in terms of demands, compensation and freshets. Aquator is capable of
modelling a number of demand centres as well as the key components of a resource system, such as:
pumping stations, water treatment works, pipelines, hydro-generators, river abstractions and
groundwater abstractions (Manley, 1978). The application and accuracy of Hysim-Aquator is limited
by the availability of good quality input variables and parameters; guidance is provided by Scottish
Water on the processing of input data.
Background of Scottish Waters Hysim models
31 individual Hysim rainfall-runoff models are currently in use for 70 WRZs. These models are
consequently responsible for covering 250 source catchments, which in turn feed 90 WTWs
For the 31 independent donor catchments there are three catchments that provide gauged data for the
implementation of 40% of the Hysim models; these are: Green Burn located at Loch Dee, data is usedfor 29 catchments and 8 WRZ models, River Creed located at Creed Bridge, data is used for 18
catchments and 12 WRZ models, River Calder located at Muirshiel, data is used for 35 catchments
and 6 WRZ models. Other source catchments are used for Hysim model calibration; however these
catchments have been applied to two or three models only (Scottish Water, 2009).
The 31 Hysim models were developed as part of larger studies than the models themselves; in these
studies it was thought pragmatic to apply a single calibrated model to a range of catchments, despite
more representative catchments being available for calibration. The models that use Green Burn and
River Calder for calibration amongst others- have not been critically reviewed in order to assess the
on-going validity of these calibrations since there original development in 2001 and 2002. However,the necessity of applying a single model to a number of hydrologically different catchments such as
Creed Bridge illustrates the lack of alternative gauged catchments available on the Western Isles and
Northern Isles.
To continue the discussion of validity, the data quality upon which the models are based is also in
question. The River Calder gauging station at Muirshiel is noted to be downstream of the River Calder
abstraction intake and is therefore artificially impacted; the catchment is also identified by SEPA as
unsuitable for use as an analogue. This issue is not brought to attention in the 2001 report by
Camphill, from which the River Calder calibration is derived. There is significant reason to question
the validity and revisit the calibration considering the wide scope of its application.
Short term gauges have been used for the calibration of Hysim models: using one year of gauged data,
the Geimisgarve and Clibh catchments are applied. These short term gauges were developed
specifically for the Water Framework Directive (WFD) WR1 SR06 project (Scottish Water, 2006),
which required models for a large number of remote islands in Scotland. These short term gauges
were used as alternative calibrations for comparison with an adopted Creed Bridge model. The
calibration for Clibh was accepted in three models and Geimisgarve was accepted for a single model.
This position highlights the difficulty in establishing good Hysim donor parameter-sets for the large
number of remote sites in the North Western Isle, the Western Isles and the Northern Isles. It has
meant that the normal practise for Hysim calibration cannot always be followed i.e. the recommended
record length would usually require at least 5 years of representative, gauged data.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
14/79
8
A program of additional Scottish Water flow gauging sites was implemented since 2006 as a direct
result of the conclusions drawn by the WFD WR1 SR06 project. This aided the confirmation of river
flows at key project sites, which was not previously possible and helped strengthen observations made
in those catchments. The resulting flow records cannot be used for direct calibration of Hysim models
until the representative record length exceeds 5 years; ideally 7 years. However, the flow records may
be used for indirect validation of existing Hysim flow records in order to help agreement upon a FDC
for specific water sources during consultation with SEPA. SEPA will use the LFE instead of this FDC
unless flow gauging can provide a high level of confidence to the Hysim modelled flow.
Hysim-Aquator models are developed for reservoir or loch multiple-source system and generally not
used for WRZs that are only supplied by river intakes. The criteria for their disuse is a system for
which there is no storage available; exceptions do exist, such as the River Dee sources, which are used
to extend gauged flow records. The rationale for excluding rivers is that river sources are generally
smaller with low yields and therefore lower priority. It has been a concern that Hysim models do not
perform well around the 99th
percentile of flow (Q99). This issue is not as critical in systems with low
storage as it is normally the combined impact of the whole flow regime and storage capacity availablethat determines the system yield. In contrast, a river with no storage has a yield that is determined
based on the lowest daily flow values from the driest 3 or 4 years within the flow record. Therefore,
any poor model performance at these very lowest flows can have a significant impact on yield
sensitivity for river-only systems (Scottish Water, 2009).
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
15/79
9
FIGURE 1.2.3:THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCOTTISH WATER CALIBRATION GAUGES AND MODELLED WATERTREATMENT WORKS THROUGHOUT MAINLAND SCOTLAND AND ISLANDS.IMAGE TAKEN FROM JACOBS (2010).
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
16/79
10
Region of influence: identifying hydrological similarity without geographical constraints
SEPA quality approved catchments are presented on figure 1.2.4. These catchments are categorised
by their LFE derived Q95(%MF) flow descriptor, which is used to identify LFE ROI groupings across
Scotland. The purpose of using Q95(%MF) is to eliminate the requisite for regional boundary grouping
and can allow a number of catchments to be regionally grouped without boundaries. This is important
due to the number of isolated source catchments in Scotland, such as islands, which would be
unaccounted for if boundary regionalisation of catchments was pursued. LFE ROI catchments are
mapped based upon Q95(%MF) values, which reflect regional variation in hydrological regimes. Five
main regional groups are established, grouped by Hydrometric Area (HA) boundaries. Such a
simplification of grouping causes a few stations to be in the wrong grouping such as Killing and
Cultybraggan (Scottish Water, 2009). These stations have more hydrological similarity to stations in
the North West region, yet are included in the central region due to the HA being of the Tay. In
addition, Alness and Diriebught House stations have a better hydrological fit with the North East
Region (Scottish Water, 2009).
Further elaborations on using ROI as an alternative for regionalisation are discussed in subsequentchapters that discuss the literature surrounding catchment selection for parameter derivation and
application. Scottish Water adopts this scheme of LFE ROI groups across Scotland in order to identify
suitable catchments for use in the validation of optimal parameter-sets. If the desire is to estimate
flows for an ungauged catchment with a Q95(%MF) of 6% it is possible to refer to the 5% 10% Q95(%MF)
group and establish a number of target catchments for validation. This is useful tool as there is a
reliable potential analogue gauge available that represents natural flow regimes that are mostly
checked for hydrometric quality. In this LFE approach for obtaining suitable catchments, a distance
factor is neglected unlike the SEPA analogue selection tool as it was developed to be reliant on
proximity between catchments.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
17/79
11
FIGURE 1.2.4:LOW FLOWS ENTERPRISE (LFE)REGION OF INFLUENCE (ROI) STATIONS AND SUGGESTED
ANALOGUES BY THE SCOTTISH ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION AGENCY (SEPA).95th
PERCENTILE OF FLOW AS A
PERCENTAGE OF MEAN FLOW (Q95(%MF)) IS ILLUSTRATED BY THE COLOUR AND SIZE KEY.TAKEN FROM JACOBS(2010).
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
18/79
12
1.2 The use of Hysim rainfall-runoff modelling by Scottish WaterScottish Water rely upon the use of a conceptual hydrological rainfall-runoff that is calibrated to
nearby hydrologically analogous catchments in order to produce yield estimations for the majority of
surface water supply systems in Scotland. Yield is defined as the maximum continuous output for
given surface water source that can be supplied during a dry period of a stated severity. Yield
estimations require flow data and, due to the lack of long term site specific flow gauging within a
reasonable proximity to abstraction sites, representative target catchments are required for flow
estimation in ungauged rivers. Unlike other locations in Britain such as England, there is not the same
length or level of detail to historical flow records that affords the direct use of flow gauging records
for yield estimation. These direct flow gauging installations are usually restricted to timescales under
three years and are not suitable for direct application in model calibration. A requisite for model
calibration is a good record of at least seven years of gauged flow data (Scottish Water, 2009).
Therefore, direct flow gauge installations are usually used exclusively to provide validation of the
optimal parameter-set for the catchment.
The conceptual rainfall-runoff hydrological simulation modelling software used by Scottish Water is
Hysim, which is continuously developed by Water Resource Associates. Hysim can be integrated
within Oxford Scientifics water resource system model Aquator in order to produce estimations of
yield for a given catchment. It is the case that uncertainties in Hysim modelling strategy and
procedures have the potential to significantly undermine the confidence in Scottish Waters yield
estimates. This has the implication of making any planning or investment schemes, based on the
estimation of yield, less reliable. The Hysim-Aquator yield modelling process has been used by
Scottish Water for over 10 years and it is understood that there is a lack of repeatability in some of
their Hysim models. It is assumed that this is due to the number of times certain models have been
updated or even the lack of a consistent guidance framework for application, which is often protracted
by the use of different consultants.The data input, parameterisation and calibration processes for Hysim are aimed to be as objective and
consistent as possible, yet these uncertainties are still apparent. The uncertainty and related sensitivity
associated with these three key processes of modelling are not quantified. It would seem pertinent to
quantify uncertainties and sensitivities within these processes in order to strengthen the reliability and
confidence in model flow estimations and thus gain a more accurate yield estimate.
Scottish Water identifies potential uncertainties sourced from inconsistencies in modelling procedure
that are related to the project specific circumstances of the model genesis (Scottish Water, 2009). For
instance, when genesis lies in large projects, the focus of the project can lay beyond the scope of
detailed flow estimation and appraisal of models. Such projects often produce models that have lessimportance placed upon the quality of the model calibration and input data. It is also the case that
Hysim models created and adapted by different companies that offer different approaches to the
construction of models and weight internal protocol over guidance available from Scottish Water.
Neuman (2003), states that the bias and uncertainty that result from an inadequate conceptual
mathematical model are typically larger than those introduced through an inadequate choice of
parameter values; it is essential to choose the correct donor catchment and target catchment for model
calibration and transposition respectively. In light of this, there is a strong need to create a clear and
pragmatic methodology for the selection of a parameter-set for use on a target catchment that is
ungauged. In order to avoid the aforementioned caveats of model construction it would be beneficial
to construct a library of Scottish Water acknowledged Hysim models that could be applied to
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
19/79
13
ungauged catchments with a good degree of confidence; as outlined in the closing notes of Jacobs
(2010).
There is considerable justification for an improvement in the method in which a model is calibrated
and applied to an ungauged catchment using an analogue catchment. Without improvement, any
future work where Hysim models are updated or new models developed will continue to provide
inaccurate estimations of flow for a given catchment. A common recommendation, based on a poor
correlation between calibration and direct gauged flows, is to scale the estimated Hysim flow series to
agree with SEPAs low flows enterprise flow duration curve (Scottish Water, 2011). LFE estimates
may also be uncertain and lead to misleading yield estimates and be an inadequate result for the
estimation of yield by Scottish Water.
1.2.1 Quantifying the uncertainty associated with parameterisationA number of literature sources discuss methods of validation for models in order to evaluate the
uncertainty that exists in a particular model. This paper requires the evaluation of uncertainty
associated with parameterisation. Seibert (1999a) gives a thorough review of the meaning and
application of the term validation in a hydrological modelling context. A series of applications
incorporating all current methods of validation with specific outcomes is detailed. A method for
gaining a measure of model parameter uncertainty in between hydrologically similar, gauged
catchments is identified by Seibert (1999a) as the proxy-basin test. Calibration takes place on a single
catchment and validation of the optimal parameter-set is achieved by the transposition of these
parameters to another gauged catchment. Seibert et al. (1999b) used a conceptual rainfall-runoff
model, the Hydrologiska Byrns model (HBV), to calibrate a single catchment and validate this
calibration on a further two catchments of similar character in the Black Forest, Germany. An
expression of model efficiency was studied for every application of the calibrated parameter-set. In
the optimisation of one parameter-set and application on the similar two catchments the average
measure of efficiency was 0.76 (1 corresponding to a perfect fit). When calibrated in thehydrologically analogous catchments and parameters were applied to the original catchment the
measure of efficiency was 0.84. These steps are characteristic of the proxy basin method and elucidate
that there is less uncertainty associated with the model with 0.84 thus quantifying uncertainties
associated with parameter choices.
The proxy-basin test of validation provides a significant solution to the main objective of this
investigation: to quantify the uncertainty associated with parameterisation when estimating flow in
ungauged catchments. It is essential to use the framework of the proxy-basin test in order to evaluate
the uncertainty associated with the parameter-set construction methods that are proposed. As indicated
by the aforementioned study by Seibert et al. (2009b) a measure of model efficiency according to theNash-Sutcliffe Efficiency Criterion is the preferred method of evaluating the performance of a model.
In previous studies commissioned by Scottish Water i.e. Jacobs (2010), the model efficiency for
Hysim is not used to calibrate or evaluate the performance of the model; instead the FDC and
associated flow descriptor statistics (Q95, MF, Q95(%MF)) are used as a measure of accuracy and
therefore an evaluation of the performance of the model with a specific parameter-set. A concern in
this approach is highlighted through conference in this study due to the fact that FDCs, unlike model
efficiency neglect the temporal aspect of model performance. Additionally, it is possible for an
estimated FDC to exactly match a recorded FDC whilst the model efficiency is very poor. However,
in studies by Westerberg (2011), which involved the analysis of FDC calibrations in 23 basins, the
FDC calibration method was found to have potential for calibration to regionalised FDCs for
ungauged basins; reducing the initial model uncertainty by approximately 70% (Westerberg, 2011).
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
20/79
14
Therefore the use of FDC in calibration and as a comparative measure of accuracy is used throughout
this report.
1.2.2 ROI as a method of regionalisationUsing the framework of proxy-basin validation in order to evaluate the accuracy of parameter-sets -in
accordance with the scheme outlined by Seibert et al (1999b)- requires a method of regionalisation
for the application of parameter-sets. The process of transferring information from neighbouring
catchments to the catchment of interest is generally referred to as hydrological regionalisation
(Blschl and Sivapalan, 1995). It is used to make predictions about hydrological quantities at sites
where data are absent or inadequate, frequently for design purposes (Beran, 1990). Three
regionalisation methods are used to identify suitable gauged catchments, from which the optimised
parameter values are used to estimate flow for the target ungauged catchment:
i. The regression method establishes a relationship between the optimised parameter values andcatchment climate and physical attributes. Parameter values are then estimated for the
ungauged catchment from its attributes and the identified relationship.
ii. The spatial proximity method uses parameter values from the geographically closest gaugedcatchment because neighbouring catchments are expected to behave similarly due to shared
physical and climatic characteristics
iii. The physical similarity method transfers the entire set of parameter values from a physicallysimilar catchment.
Varying the method by which parameters are transferred from the optimal parameter-set of a donor
catchment to the target catchment is the source of the full parameter and partial transposition methodsthat are evaluated for associated uncertainty in this study. Therefore a degree of regionalisation must
be factored into the choice of donor and ungauged catchments. The spatial proximity method, where
the geographically closest gauged catchment has its parameters transferred to the target catchment
would be somewhat adequate for application in Scotland. However, this is unlikely due to the high
variation in catchment character across Scotland, owing to underlying geologies and marine
landforms for which there are Scottish Water source catchments assigned.
Scottish Water utilise ROI as an approach to regionalisation in order to categorise suitable donor
catchments and target catchments for parameter transfer. Acreman & Wiltshire, 1987 first suggest this
approach with the premise that the technique allows each donor catchment to have a unique set of
target catchments, which inclusively constitute the region for that catchment. Thus, there are no
boundaries indicating a specific variable and donor catchments within a specific area do not need to
have the same target catchments. According to Feaster and Tasker (2002) the ROI is defined as a set
containing the n closest stations. The ROI is defined as the set of all stations closer than a distance R
(in predictor variable or geographic space) from the site or, if the number of stations in that set is
smaller than some minimum allowable number n, the n closest stations. Scottish Water use predictor
variables such as: location, SAAR and BFI to identify donor and target catchments. In order to test the
validity of Q95(%MF) in such a role, Q95(%MF) is used to help select the catchments for parameter transfer.
ROI in application is seen on figure 1.2.4, using gauged values of Q95(%MF). As such, Q95(%MF) ROI will
be used as a proxy for regionalisation methods in the allocation of donor and target for the provided
SEPA catchments in this study.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
21/79
15
1.2.2 Modelling flow in ungauged catchments, a calibration scheme compatiblewith Scottish Water and Scotland
A previous study for Scottish Water by Jacobs Engineering UK Limited (Jacobs, 2010) investigated
approaches to Hysim rainfall-runoff modelling and the resultant impact on yield sensitivity. The
particular focus of this study was to investigate the sensitivity of Hysim models to the choice of target
catchment as well as the impact of using different calibration periods (record length and
representativeness). The resulting variable Hysim model outputs were then tested in Aquator water
resource system models using different catchment sizes and reservoir storage volume to assess the
impact in terms of yield sensitivity and uncertainty. As well as presenting conclusions on model
sensitivity and consequential yield sensitivity -the former of which will contribute to the discussion of
this paper- the study provides a tailored procedure for flow estimation in ungauged catchments using
Hysim for Scottish Water.
As this study is interested in isolating the uncertainty associated with parameterisation it is imperative
to adhere to a standard method for input data selection and calibration procedure whilst updating these
existing processes where improvements can be made without perturbing the uncertainty in parameter
choice. The Jacobs (2010) study is therefore used as the reference of a data processing, selection and
model calibration procedure that suits Scottish Water. Using this approved calibration procedure as a
framework will allow this paper to take advantage of the outcomes of the Jacobs study and further
develop the standard calibration method to suit the objectives of this paper. As there is no method for
evaluating the choice of parameter-set in ungauged catchments provided by the Jacobs study it would
be useful to extend this calibration procedure to formalise a standard method for testing a donor
parameter-sets ability to estimate flows in an ungauged catchment.
The total process accounted for in the Jacobs (2010) study covered: donor catchment selection, targetcatchment selection, data acquisition, data quality control, calculation of catchment statistics,
calculation of catchment parameters (catchment area, time to peak, rooting depth and interception
storage), the calibration of the donor catchment using Hysim, comparison of estimated flow to
recorded flow and final calculation of flow estimation descriptors (Jacobs, 2010). The procedures
outlined by Jacobs (2010) serve as a foundation for the development of this studys methodology due
to the bespoke nature of their outcomes to suit Scottish Water guidelines.
Jacobs (2010) aimed to ensure consistency and repeatability in the Hysim calibration procedure by
removing the degree of user subjectivity from the process i.e. eliminating the manual adjustment of
parameters. It was suggested in the study that an increase in user subjectivity would exist between thecalibrations of multiple catchments. Also identified was the trade-off between subjectivity and level
of detail, time spent, user experience and quality of the calibration. The calibration process was
designed to enable relative differences in resulting yields to be discussed with the same procedure
followed in the calibration process. This is important as subjectivity was identified as a key cause of
sensitivity in the use of Hysim by Scottish Water (2009). In the calibration methodology for this
report it is necessary to achieve the best possible calibration and so manual calibration is essential for
some calibrations. However, manual adaptation of parameters beyond the standard calibration
procedure must be limited to a number of attempts for best fit between estimated and recorded flow;
thus, limiting the subjectivity. In addition, the Jacobs (2010) report identified that the uncertainty
associated with different catchment choice appears to be slightly larger than the uncertainty associatedwith choice of record length and found that an eight year calibration offered the most reliable
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
22/79
16
estimations of flow. Selected catchments for this study therefore have an eight year period of good
quality recorded data in order to eliminate the influence of other uncertainties upon the observations
of this studys aims.
Additionally, Jacobs (2010) suggested that there was an increase in yield sensitivity with a reduced
flashiness of catchment. It should be noted that, due to the small sample size involved in the study,
these conclusions were considered provisional within the report itself. It would be useful to explore
these provisional conclusions in this papers discussion of uncertainties associated with the character
of target of catchments chosen.
A final remark of the Jacobs (2010) study was the suggestion that collating a library of pre-
calibrated Hysim project files would be an adequate solution to limit uncertainty and reduce the
labour involved with detailed calibration for each application. Producing a library of well calibrated
Hysim projects, each with a quantified uncertainty and clear construction method would allow
Scottish Water or external consultants to use a model where justified. Essentially, this study evaluates
the proxy basin methodology for estimating flows in ungauged catchments. If uncertainty is reduced
due to the use of single method of parameterisation for hydrologically analogous catchments then thissingle method can be used to produce a number of calibration parameter-sets that could each be used
on a large number of hydrologically analogous catchments with a known level of uncertainty; thus
creating a pragmatic and cost effective estimation of flow in ungauged catchments.
1.3 Key questions and summary of methodsIn this thesis three key questions are addressed upon completion of the stated objectives of the study:
i. Is it possible to use the proxy-basin test framework to quantify the uncertainties associated withparameter transposition?
ii. Is there a method of parameter transposition that has a lower uncertainty associated with itsapplication?
iii. How can this information be used to create a more pragmatic model application scheme withinScottish Water?
In order to support these hypotheses, the objectives of the report were accomplished with the
following procedural methodology:
i. Selection of 16 gauged catchments that are approved by SEPA and are representative ofcatchments that are utilised by Scottish Water. This is accomplished through the comparison of
hydrological statistics between catchments and mega-zones, and supplemented by discussion with
Scottish Water.
ii. Use of ROI as a regionalisation method for grouping potential donor and target catchmentsaccording to Q95(%MF) flow descriptor. Allocation of donor and target catchments according to
availability and quality of data as well referring to existing use within Scottish Water.
iii. Update and improve existing Scottish Water catchment calibration models if encountered. Updatedata used in projects where possible and choose a different time period where beneficial.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
23/79
17
iv. Development of two parameter transposition method identified as full transposition and partialtransposition methods. Evaluation of the performance of these parameter-sets on each group of
target catchments using one calibrated donor model according to the proxy-basin test framework;
elucidating uncertainty associated with these parameter-sets.
v. Comparison of catchment characteristics in relation to parameter-set performance in order toexpand upon conclusions made about uncertainty in target catchment selection mad by previous
studies.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
24/79
18
2 Materials and Methods2.1 Analogue and target site selection from SEPA catchmentsHydrological representativeness
There are 207 Scottish Water river sources within Scotland, of which 103 feed reservoirs and 104 are
standard river sources. The standard river sources are directly applicable for the investigation of
runoff and approximation of yield for a water source; therefore, 104 rivers distributed throughout
Scotland are suitable candidates for flow estimation studies. In total, 24 catchments referred to as
analogue catchments by SEPA- were refined from those selected by SEPAs analogue selection tool
and evaluation expertise at Scottish Water. Data for these 24 catchments were obtained from the
respective parties and covered the entire recorded period for flow, precipitation andevapotranspiration; the specific derivation of which is covered in later chapters.
In order to represent the range of water resource catchments that water authorities in Scotland utilise
for water supply in Scotland it was essential to compare the hydrological statistics of catchments to
the average statistics of Scottish Water mega-zones that are identified on figure 1.2.1. The
hydrological variables that were studied included:
A value of catchment area was referenced from the UK Hydrimetric Register (UKHR) deliveredby the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) (2008).
Standard annual average rainfall (SAAR) was referenced from the UKHR. Base flow index (BFI); a value derived from gauged daily flow data. This represents the
contribution of the slow flow or groundwater flow in the total measured runoff at the catchment
outlet , giving a degree of flashiness i.e. the frequency and rapidity of short term changes in daily
runoff values (Deetris & Lital, 2008). This was referenced from the UKHR.
Base flow index (BFI HOST SCOT); a base flow value that is derived from Low Flows Enterpriseresults.
95th percentile flow value as a percentage of the mean flow (Q95(%MF)); a value derived fromgauged daily flow data where available,else Low Flow Enterprise modelling was used. This value
is a commonly used measure of flashiness and other runoff characteristics; it illustrates the flow
that is exceeded 95% of the time as a percentage of mean flow.
It should be noted that Polloch, Skeabost and all mega-zones use the calculated BFI hydrology of soil
types Scotland (HOST SCOT) value, which is obtained from LFE results. BFI HOST SCOT is not a
substitution for gauged BFI and has been flagged as producing inadequate results in uses by Jacobs
(2010); however, this does not directly affect the choices made to exclude specific catchments.
Previous studies by Jacobs (2010) critically assessed catchments using factors of: artificial
influence, standing water area, record length, Institute of Hydrology grading quality and any further
information that would be influential to the suitability of the gauged data for a catchment. This
revealed features that could perturb the natural flow of the river and cause error in the evaluation
phase of the experiment and were taken into account when selecting catchments for experimentation.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
25/79
19
Confirmation of ROI grouping
Using ROI for Q95(%MF) catchments were grouped into four Q95(%) groups. The plot of aforementioned
catchment statistics were observed in order to interpret the suitability of Q95(%MF) for grouping
catchments of hydrological similarity. Each group was then elected a donor catchment, chosen for its
reliability as a presently used model and representativeness of typical flow per Q95(%MF) group. The
remaining catchments within each group would then be denoted as target catchments. In total there
were sixteen catchments identified for use in the study: four donor catchments and twelve catchment
analogues; these are displayed on table 2.1.1. The distribution of these chosen catchment analogues
across Scotland in relation to their Q95(%MF) group is illustrated on figure 2.1.2.
Of the twenty four catchments that refined from SEPA provided analogues there were eight omitted
from the study. These eight catchments represented Q95(%MF) groups that were below 5% and above
13%. These catchments were not used for the evaluation of transposition performance; however, they
were included in observations of catchment representativeness (see figures 3.1.1 to 3.1.3).
TABLE 2.1.1: DESIGNATION OF DONOR AND TARGET CATCHMENTS.DONOR CATCHMENTS ARE INDICATED IN BOLD,ALL OTHER CATCHMENTS ARE CATCHMENT ANALOGUES.
Group
Station
Name
Area
(km)
SAAR
(mm)
BFI
(gauged)
BFI-HOST
(SCOT)
Q95
(%MF)Braevallich 24.10 2745 0.22 0.22 6.5%Glen Strae 36.62 2772 0.26 0.21 5.2%Polloch 8.05 2650 0.23 0.23 5.5%Deephope 30.99 1486 0.32 0.26 6.1%Durkadale 19.60 1145 0.28 0.42 8.8%Barsolus 32.83 1150 0.35 0.38 9.0%Inverlochy 47.09 2946 0.26 0.24 7.1%Skeabost 80.55 2218 0.26 0.26 7.9%Luss 35.47 2296 0.35 0.28 9.4%Candermill 25.50 1034 0.40 0.31 9.2%Creed Bridge 44.83 1462 0.25 0.44 9.3%Dargall Lane 2.07 2439 0.21 0.28 9.8%Lathro 24.60 1164 0.54 0.43 11.0%Brockhoperig 38.59 1732 0.37 0.34 11.4%Kinross 33.60 1266 0.56 0.42 12.1%Whitburn 31.95 1032 0.32 0.30 11.5%1
1-13%
9-11%
7-9%
5-7%
Selection of time periods
It was essential to make sure that each chosen catchment had a period of gauged data that was at least
ten years in length and that this was of good quality. Ten years was considered the calibration period
length for previous studies by Jacobs (2010). Ten years allowed for two years for model warm-up and
the eight years of calibration data. Scottish water recommends a minimum of seven years of datarecord; therefore this is more than satisfactory. The data to be used was: rainfall, evapotranspiration
and flow data; making a total of 48 sets of data that would be subject to scrutiny.
The selection of time periods of data was dictated by the availability, quality and representativeness of
rainfall, flow and potential evapotranspiration input data. It was chosen that there would be one time
period for each Q95(%MF) group, making four time periods in total. Selection was achived by comparing
the data between the four catchments in each group then deciding which time period is most complete
and which is most respresentative of each individual catchment. It was thought best to keep the time
series the same across each four catchments in each Q95(%MF) group in order to similarise climate limits
upon inputs across Scotland for the Q95(%MF) group and therefore enable a fair test. If climate
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
26/79
20
conditions across Scotland differed from the average for a given day, month or year then these trends
would impact all catchments in direct comparison with each other.
In some instances Scottish Water calibrations existed for catchments that this study had allocated
donor catchments. It was seen as useful to improve these models by updating existing data where
improved data was available and selecting or extending time periods where possible.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
27/79
21
FIGURE 2.1.2:CHOSEN CATCHMENTS FROM SEPA PROVIDED CATCHMENTS, AN INDICATION OF Q95(%MF)ROI
GROUPING IS PROVIDED.SUPPLIED BY SCOTTISH WATER ON REQUEST.
2.2 The Hysim conceptual rainfall-runoff model
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
28/79
22
The conceptual rainfall-runoff model employed for this study is Hysim, a Hydrological Simulation
model developed by the Water Resource Associates (WRA). WRA are a network of consultants in
water resources, water quality, hydrology, groundwater hydrology and flooding. Their clients include
some of the most important water management bodies in Europe i.e. the European Union, United
Kingdom Environmental Agency, National Power, French government, British Waterways and
SNIFFER. SNIFFER is a research and development company that works cooperatively with Oxford
Scientific Software to develop catchment rainfall-runoff models as well as models for water resource
system simulations such as the estimation of yield (Entec UK, 2003). The development of Aquator-
Hysim was undertaken by SNIFFER on behest of Scottish Water for the surface water yield and
operational reliability project. The combined program is considered the best practice methodology for
estimation of yield (Scottish Water, 2009) and improves previous estimations of yield. Consequently
an integration of the Aquator with the rainfall-runoff model in use for England, the Hydrologic
Resource Centre reservoir resource Simulator (HEC-ResSim), is currently in development (US Army
Corps of Engineers, 2011).
Hysim is founded upon two IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System (FORTRAN)subroutines. Initially the model processes both the hydrology and hydraulics of a catchment
separately. The hydrology routine is based on seven reservoirs within the catchment. These are
illustrated on figure 2.2.1.
FIGURE
2.2.1:F
LOW CHART OFH
YSIM HYDROLOGY CALCULATION ROUTINE.T
AKEN FROMM
ANLEY(2006).
In the model it is parameters that determine the capacity of and the rate of transfer between each
storage as well as the equations that determine transfer processes. Parameters are designated through
calibration of the model, they are constant throughout time. Variables in the model describe the
volumes in each storage and rates of transfer, they vary with time.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
29/79
23
Parameters alterations are split into three sections within Hysim, these are data, basic and advanced.
In accordance with the Jacobs (2010) standard calibration methodology, which is based upon
guidance in the Hysim User Manual (Manley, 2006), the data specific and advanced hydraulic
parameters remain at their default values for this study. The basic hydrological parameters that are
changed within this report are illustrated at their default values on figure 2.2.2.
FIGURE 2.2.2:BASIC PARAMETER VALUES FOR ALTERATION DURING THE CALIBRATION PROCESS.SCREENSHOT
FROM HYSIM V5.00(MARCH 2010 BUILD).
Data requirements for Hysim are practically obtainable in the field, they are: potential
evapotranspiration, potential snowmelt, precipitation, the net value of discharges and abstractions,
groundwater abstractions. Input formats are monthly, daily, hourly; though daily is usually sufficient
and is the format used for all data in this study. However, it worth noting that data used for input isnot required to be in the same time-step format for either hydrological or hydraulic subroutines.
Spatially, the data can be distributed amongst user specified sub-catchments. This can be
advantageous in reflecting heterogeneity in the hydrology or meteorology across the catchment area;
however, this is not required for the study at hand.
In the current version of the model: Hysim v5.00 (March 2010 build), there are in excess of six
different output data. The most critical of these output data are the daily mean simulated flows,
recorded flows as well as the basic statistical analysis and monthly summaries. If sub-catchments or
channels are setup there is a generation of flow for every time increment. There is also an output for
recorded and simulated daily flow for each reach. Actual evapotranspiration is also available as anoutput of the model should it be required.
A measure of efficiency or accuracy of the simulations is required in order to evaluate the success of a
model and adjust parameters with the goal of achieving an optimal parameter-set. Hysim provides a
packaged graphics tool for instant hydrograph comparison between the recorded and simulated flow.
Hysim also provides a summary of the daily and monthly difference statistics. Additionally Manley
(2006) indicates that efficiency, the percentage of explained variance, can be calculated:
(2)
In this case Qm represents mean daily flow, Qo is observed daily flow, and Qs is simulated daily flow.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
30/79
24
2.3 Derivation of inputsFlow rainfall and evapotranspiration data
Historic flow data is provided by SEPA for each of the candidate catchments. Time series data of
historical flow measurements is compared to simulated flow in order to evaluate the accuracy of the
simulation. The quality of recorded flow data varied between catchments; data could be of a poor
standard or missing for days, weeks, months or years in an otherwise complete record. A solution of
infilling the missing data was necessary in order to provide a complete record of flow for a small
number of the 16 catchments. Two approaches were found to be successful for flow infill. The most
accurate infilling of missing data requires the construction, calibration and simulation of a model
based on the catchment with the poor flow record. This process follows the same process of model
development as outlined in this study. Simulated values may then be substituted for the
corresponding missing values in the recorded flow record. This method required good quality and
availability of other input data as well as a complete parameter-set for the catchment. This method
was therefore only suitable for the donor catchments as these were the only complete, fully calibrated
models. In the case of infilling missing data for the analogous catchments, an average of ten years of
values was obtained, taking the five years preceding and superseding the missing value in the flow
record. Both methods provided successful representations of recorded flow that was otherwise
unavailable and allowed more accurate statistical comparisons to be drawn between simulated and
recorded flow for catchments.
In previous studies by Scottish Water, rainfall was obtained from daily measurement gauges local to
the catchment. This procedure was prior to the first Water Resource Plan; it involved the
identification of suitable rainfall gauges and infilling gaps or extending records in order to identify
rain gauging weights, completed externally from Hysim. Importing this data into Hysim allowed the
generation of daily, aerial, weighted rainfall for a catchment. 37.5% of all Hysim models used thismethod in order to compute rainfall until recent revisions (Scottish Water, 2009).
Discussed in Scottish Waters Hydrology Guidance (2010), the Met Office has recently revised their
method for providing gridded rainfall data across the United Kingdom. Data is currently available for
a 5km2
gridded data set, from the start of 1958 up to the end of 2009. The updated Met Office gridded
rainfall is used for input into Hysim for the eight catchments.
The derivation of a suitable potential evapotranspiration (PET) series depends upon data availability
for specific catchments. Typically, daily PET series can be generated by Hysim for the period 1918 to
1998 using a tool developed as part of the SNIFFER project (SNIFFER, 2001). This method is used
for calculations of PET for the eight catchments; however, data will only be available to the end of1998. Methods for extending PET beyond 1998 exist; Scottish Waters preference for PET extension
is the acquisition of MORECS PE weekly 40km2
data grids, which are superimposed onto existing
data from 1995 to 1998; providing a prediction beyond 1998. Due to the implicated costs of acquiring
and updating MORECS data, this is not be used for PET estimation in this study. The preferred
method in this study is the application of an average annual PET value from the calculated Hysim PE
data series. A monthly average is applied from the last 10 year time period of study and extended to
fill the remaining time period. Where this is not possible it is recommended by Jacobs (2010) to scale
yearly averages of near-catchment PET data provided by the Centre of Hydrology according to
relationships derived from overlapping periods of data. Daily values of PET were obtained from the
average of preceding Hysim data. In some cases this was an essential step due to the lack of availabledata for internal Hysim PET calculations. Although PET input data was more uncertain, the accuracy
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
31/79
25
of rainfall data is seen as more critical for modelling. This is reflected in the single parameter
optimisation method outlined in appendix 8.1. It was found that PET factor could be adjusted in
recognition of its unreliability in order to improve estimations.
Parameters
Initial parameters were estimated by referring to hydrological data available for the catchments. These
data are illustrated in figure 3.2.1; manually calculated parameters were: catchment area (km2), time
to peak (hrs), interception storage (mm) and rooting depth (mm). These parameter values are
approximations based upon methods of calculation according to the Hysim User Manual, Manley
(2006), which use ordnance survey map observations of area and forest cover. The remaining
parameters of the Hysim model were kept at their default values shown on figure 2.2.2. It was
important to use these specific parameters for alteration as they are those historically observed in
previous evaluations of Hysim performance by Jacobs (2006).
Catchment area was obtained from the NRFA Hydrometric register from the Centre of Ecology and
Hydrology (CEH) (Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, 2008).
Time to peak controls the simulation of the response of minor channels within the catchment; both the
Hysim User Manual (Manley, 2006) and the The UK Flood Estimation Handbook (Institute of
Hydrology, 1999) give the equation for calculation as:
(2)
L is the length of the stream, S is slope of the stream in m/km and Tp is time to peak in hours.
Interception storage represents the storage of moisture with flora; with moisture being added to this
storage from rainfall. It is therefore an approximation of the proportion of the vegetation density ofsurfaces for a catchment. A value of 2.0mm is normal for grassland and urban areas and up to 10.0mm
for woodland (Manley, 2006). Soil rooting depth is also dependent upon studying vegetation
coverage, typically it is between 500 and 1000; woodlands may be as high as 5000mm.
Time to peak, interception storage and soil rooting depth were calculated through observations of
1:10000, 1:25000 and 1:50000 Ordnance Survey (OS) maps. This was made available by the OS
Openspace Application Programming Interface (API) as an overlay for Google Earth (Brock, 2009).
Accessing OS maps via Google Earth allowed the plot of river courses and presentation of elevation
transects across a rivers course. It also allowed accurate calculations of vegetation coverage areas,
where the proportion of grassland/moorland to woodland was required for interception storage andsoil rooting depth.
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
32/79
26
2.4 Hysim model calibrationOnce satisfied with the input data, as well as the initial input parameters for the proposed modelling
scenario, the recommended modelling strategy for Hysim was approached. This strategy has been
consistently developed alongside Hysim, for this study it follows the guidance manual by Manley in
2006. Due to the extensive version of history and continual maintenance of Hysim by developers, it
was of high priority to check that the current version of Hysim in use was fully up to date before
beginning modelling.
The strategy suggests selecting discharge data that is representative of the natural flow regime, of
good quality and of suitable length. A period of data of ten years length is used in the previous studies
by Jacobs (2010). This accounts for two years of at the beginning of the record that represents the
model warm-up period and an additional eight years of accurately simulated flow. Model warm-up is
a key process of runoff modelling, the two years signify part of the simulation period but not part of
the analysis period (Manley, 2006). A period of ten years was therefore chosen for each of the
catchments, of which two years would be considered warm-up and was not included in analysis.
The input data: flow, evapotranspiration and precipitation are stored in individual files, with a
separate file for the parameter-set. Hysim references these individual files using a single project file.
Once a project file was created, a standard calibration methodology was applied; this is detailed in
appendix 8.1. The goal of calibration is to select an optimum set of parameters that achieve simulation
values that are the closest to recorded values.
1. Initial parameters estimated from calculated derivations of catchment area, time to peak,interception storage and rooting depth. All other parameters left as default.
2. Single parameter optimisation for PET3. Extremes of Error Estimate (EEE) for horizon boundary permeability, base horizon
permeability, upper interflow and lower interflow.
4. Manual alteration of parameters according to known relationships between parameter andflow estimations.
Single parameter optimisation is an automatic calibration process within Hysim for a single
parameter. As potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the most uncertain parameter this is used in the
single parameter mode run, so as to provide the best estimation for this parameter. In previous
calibrations by Scottish Water this parameter choice for single parameter run was rainfall factor; this
does not correspond with the guidance provided by the Hysim User Manual (Manley, 2006). If thereis good coverage, with a sufficient density and spread -as with improvements made to the quality of
Met Office provided 5km2 gridded rainfall- then the use of PET for single parameter optimisation is
suitable. In some cases, using single parameter optimisation for PET produced unrealistic parameter
values and dubious flow estimations. In these instances it was more beneficial to use the precipitation
factor for single parameter optimisation. EEE is also an automatic calibration process within Hysim
for multiple parameter estimation. Hysim simultaneously optimises four parameters; these are:
horizon boundary permeability, base horizon permeability, upper interflow and lower interflow.
Manual estimation was a necessary step in achieving an optimal parameter-set. This was done
according to noted relationships between parameter and flow estimations, which was only possibleafter considerably experience of using Hysim. As such, this was extensively time consuming. Once
-
7/29/2019 FULLTEXT01- Rainfall Runoff Modelling
33/79
27
enough expertise was acquired, it seemed valuable to make no more than ten attempts of manual
calibration, otherwise the model would become over-parameterised; over-parameterisation greatly
increases subjectivity, which should be avoided in models. By manually altering parameter values it is
possible to combine the requirements of a manual calibration with the advantages of automatic
calibration in order to provide a closer fit between simulations and observations in accordance with
Boyle et al. (2000).
2.5 Development of parameter transposition methodsIt was important to quantify the uncertainties associated with the choice of different parameter-sets.
This was accomplished by developing two different methods of parameter transposition. Th