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Industrial Training Report: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 2009

1.0 EXECUTIVE REPORT

I have gained lots of experiences and lessons during my industrial training at Kilang

Sawit Felcra Nasaruddin (KSFN) for ten weeks. From the beginning of this training until the

end, I have done sort of analysis in this mill laboratory as this laboratory responsible for quality

control of its crude palm oil and palm kernel production. First, for daily activities, I have done

analysis of oil losses in press cakes, sludge, mesocarp, empty bunch, fibre cyclone, abnormal and

unripe bunch by doing extraction. Every extraction was used hexane as a solvent and it took

approximately forty-five minutes to complete each extraction, or until the colour of the solvent

(hexane) remains clear. Second, there have been analyses of softener and boiler feedwater. The

softener was only tested for its hardness, whereby the boiler feedwater should be tested its

hardness, pH, Total dissolved solid (TDS), caustic alkalinity, sodium sulphite, and sodium

chloride. Third, there were also analyses of kernel efficiency for the samples such as dry kernel,

wet kernel, wet shell, bagged kernel, ripple mill, light particles, press cakes and fibre cyclone. I

was also doing FFA analysis for the dispatched oil. The parameter for the good oil is below

5.00%. The chemicals used in analysis of FFA are I.P.A as a solvent, phenolphthalein as an

indicator, and sodium hydroxide as a titrant. Besides, I went to mill to see and learn the stages in

processing the crude palm oil and palm kernel, starting from the loading ramp until production of

crude palm oil and palm kernel production. There are several compulsory rules that should be

obeyed by the workers while working in the mill such as use the safety helmet, safety boots and

ear plugs for self-protection. I was also given chance to climb up to the top of settling tank to see

whether sludge present in the oil and BST tank in order to see the measurement of the crude

palm oil depth inside the tank. I was also brought to see the full stages of water treatment began

with clarifier. We have to climb the clarifier which has about 20 feet height in order to see

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clearly the water that have been collected from the tube well flow into clarifier and then treated

with sodium hypochlorite and then ran through water tank. From the water tank, the water will

be filtered before flow to treated water storage tank. The water from the water storage tank will

go to the softener tank. Here some clear chemical reaction will be taken part which the hardness

of the water which is ion-exchange softening and lime softening. Then come to deaerator. The

function of deaerator is to remove dissolved gases that can cause boiler tube corrosion. Then

lastly, the water will be transferred to boiler feed to be heated to generate steam for the purpose

of heat energy production to be used in the mill. Then, I also visited effluent treatment plant. The

plant was quite huge. I can see the way the sludge from the mill flowed first to cooling ponds and

then went to anaerobic ponds and then oxidation ponds before will be removed to the nearby

river. The water at the last pit before being removed out was clear brown colour and gave no

smell. That is all the general information about the job or work that I have done and experienced

here.

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2.0 INTRODUCTION

2.1 ORGANIZATION BACKGROUND

Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA) was established in

1966 with the objective to develop rural sector by helping its community to participate in

national economic activities hence to improve their standard of living. FELCRA then is known

as FELCRA Berhad since September 1st 1997 due to its corporatization. It has become a fully

government owned company. With the change of its corporate entity, FELCRA is now able to

explore new business opportunities aligned with national development aspiration. FELCRA

Berhad which is armed with plantation management and core activities skills now diversifying

its activities into industrial and service sectors as well as other growing sector. FELCRA

Corporate Mission is:

1. Stay true to the philosophy of “No. 1 Grateful Participant” and continue to grow with

them through its motto “Growth With Equity”.

2. Managing, overseeing and protecting the interest of the targeted group which is

Participant Community.

3. Executes Social Obligation Programme and redevelop existing plantations into a

more profitable sector.

4. Diversify its profitable activities while planning and executing export oriented

programme. Simultaneously FELCRA Berhad is also aiming to achieve a successful

conglomerate identity.

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Their Corporate Vision is to remain as No. 1 Plantation House and continue to grow with

other related activities.

Kilang Sawit FELCRA Nasaruddin (KSFN) which is located at KM 37 Jalan Tronoh,

Bota Perak Darul Ridzuan is the second mill of FELCRA Berhad. Its areas is about 20 hectares.

It is first developed and operates in 1988 with the mill capacity is 30 tm/hour. KSFN major

production is Crude Palm Oil and Palm Kernel.

My industrial training for about 10 weeks at KSFN was supervised under Mr. Abdul

Wahid bin Yusoff in the mill laboratory. The roles of the mill laboratory personnel can be

summarized as:-

1. Responsible for testing product quality and losses at the variable stations and carrying out

tests related to process and quality control.

2. Responsible for monitoring product quality (production, dispatch and storage) and losses.

3. Responsible for informing the mill management problems on quality, losses and aspects

related to process and quality control.

4. Assist mill management to conduct investigation into problems on quality, losses and

aspects related to process and quality control.

5. Responsible for efficient raw water treatment at optimum chemical consumption.

6. Responsible for boiler water analysis.

7. Responsible for monitoring boiler water characteristics and taking corrective action to

prevent scale formation and corrosion in boilers and to enable clean steam to be produced

at optimum cost.

8. Responsible for the preservation of the mill laboratory.

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2.2 ORGANIZATION CHART

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2.3 INTRODUCTION OF PALM OIL

Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) was first recognized in West African countries. It has been

used spreadly as a cooking oil among West African people. European merchants trading with

West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use in Europe, but as the oil was bulky and

cheap, palm oil remained rare outside West Africa. In the Asante Confederacy, state-owned

slaves built large plantations of oil palm trees, while in the neighbouring Kingdom of Dahomey,

King Ghezo passed a law in 1856 forbidding his subjects from cutting down oil palms.

Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders, for use as an

industrial lubricant for the machines of Britain's Industrial Revolution, as well as forming the

basis of soap products.

Palm was introduced to Java by the Dutch in 1848[3] and Malaysia (then the British

colony of Malaya) in 1910 by Scotsman William Sime and English banker Henry Darby. The

first plantations were mostly established and operated by British plantation owners, such as Sime

Darby. From the 1960s a major oil palm plantation scheme was introduced by the government

with the main aim of eradicating poverty. Settlers were each allocated 10 acres of land (about 4

hectares) planted either with oil palm or rubber, and given 20 years to pay off the debt for the

land.[citation needed] The large plantation companies remained listed in London until the

Malaysian government engineered their "Malaysianisation" throughout the 1960s and 1970s.[4]

In Malaysia, B.C. Sekhar was instrumental in setting up the Palm Oil Research Institute

of Malaysia (Porim) and was its founder and chairman. Sekhar established Porim as one of the

premier centers for oils and fats research in the world.

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3.0 DUTY REPORT

3.1 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

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3.1.1 Reception Station

FFB Truck

For grading Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB), the current practice used is human graders. The

FFB is graded according to degree of freshness, ripeness, size of the bunch stalk, percentage of

loose fruit and formation of FFB according to the standard set by MPOB. The FFB must be

processed as soon as possible to ensure the better quality of the palm oil. The figure below shows

the grading of the FFB.

Ripe Bunch

Underripe Bunch

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Weight Bridge

Loading Ramp

Grading FFB


Dura Bunch

Overripe Bunch

Unripe Bunch

Dirty Bunch

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Diseased Bunch

Empty Bunch

Long-Stalk Bunch

Loose Fruit

Old Bunch

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Pest Damaged Bunch

Rotten Bunch

Small Bunch

3.1.2 Sterilization

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Sterilization in palm oil milling is the most important

process because it will determine the efficiency and

effectiveness of the downstream process and even refining in

order to produce high quality palm oil. Sterilization of FFB is

the process whereby the FFB is loaded in cages and pushed

into sterilizers where they are cooked under the temperature of

140oC at steam pressure 40 psig for 45 minutes. The purposes of sterilization are to deactivate

the lipolytic enzymes which can increase the amount of Free Fatty Acid (FFA) in bunches. This

process also looses the fruit from bunch to facilitate stripping, removes the impurities, softening

the mesocarp of the fruit to facilitate further treatment of the fruit during digestion and pressing,

and heating and partial dehydration of the nut for easier kernel recovery. Sterilizer condensate is

drained after every sterilization cycle. To ensure the quality of the palm oil, the FFB must be

processed within 24 hours.

3.1.3 Stripping

In this process, the sterilized FFB is hoisted and emptied into the rotary drum stripper.

The purpose of stripping/threshing is to separate the fruit from the bunch stalk through repetitive

lifting and dropping of the bunch by gravity forces. The

empty bunch will be discarded.

3.1.4 Digestion and Pressing

Digester is used to mash the loose fruits so that

the mesocarps are separated from the nuts under a high

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temperature of about 95oC. It facilitates the oil release

with the help of thermal and mechanical energy. The

digester used consists of a steam-heated cylindrical

vessel fitted with a central rotating shaft carrying a

number of beater arms. The fruit is broken up through

the action of the rotating beater arms.

Hydraulic press is fitted with a plunger that match cage diameter. Pressing is done while

mash is hot (80-90oC) at psi. Hot oil water mixture with suspended solids is expelled through

perforations leaving press cake in cage. Press cakes are the mixed fibre and nuts, press cakes

will then enter into a depericarper drum.

3.1.5 Clarification

The purpose of clarification is to separate the oil from its entrained impurities. The crude

oil produced from the press process contains mixture of palm oil, water, cell debris, fibrous

material and non-oily solids. Hot water is added to mixture to reduce its viscosity. The dilution

provides a barrier causing the solids to fall to the bottom of the container and the lighter oil flow

into crude oil tank.

The diluted mixture passed through vibrating screen to remove coarse fibre. The screen

mixture is boiled from one or two hours and then allowed to settle by gravity in the large tank so

that the palm oil being lighter than water and will separate and rise to top. The clear crude oil is

emptied into a reception tank. This clear oil still contains traces of water and dirt. The parameter

of the moisture must be reduced to 0.15- 0.25 percent in order to prevent the increase FFA

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through autocatalytic hydrolysis of the oil. The oil is then continuously skimmed from the top to

a content of 0.6 percent water and 0.2 percent impurities. Temperature in the tank is kept in 95oC

to enhance the separation process. Hence, the oil from the crude oil tank will be flowed to

continuous settling tank/ clarifier tank.

In clarifier tank, the mixture oil separated produces crude palm oil and sludge. The crude

palm oil will be transferred to oil tank whereby the sludge will be flowed to sledge tank. Sludge

is a mixture phase that still contains oil. The sludge is then reprocessed to get the remained oil.

Decanter is normally used to process the sludge becoming 3 phase which light phase,

heavy phase and solid. Light phase is a liquid that contain the most amount of oil. Therefore, this

liquid phase should be transferred to crude oil tank to reprocess. Heavy phase is a liquid that

contain small amount of oil. This heavy phase will be transferred to fat pit before being flowed to

effluent pond. At fat pit, oil is produced because of the heavy phase accumulation. The oil then

flowed to crude oil tank to reprocess. While solid is a mixture that contain maximum of 3.5

percent oil from the sample weight. Solid that produced will be applied in farm.

3.1.6 Crude Palm Oil Storage

The purified and dried oil is transferred to a tank for storage prior to despatch from the

mill. Normally, the temperature of oil storage is maintained around 50oC by using hot water or

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low-pressure steam heating coils to prevent solidification and fractionation. Iron contamination

from the storage tank may occur if the tank is not lined with a suitable protective coating.

Kernel Recovery

3.1.7 Depericarpring

Depericarper and Polishing Drum

Depericarping commonly refers to the process of removing fibre from the nuts. This is

achieved through the use of a rotating drum fitted with baffles. The fibre-nut mixture is fed into

the drum rotating at 15rpm. The baffles elevate the fibre-nut mixture and allow them to drop. As

they fall, a current of air is passed through them which blows the partially dried fibre to the exit.

3.1.8 Nut Cracking

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Nut Cracker

Cracking is achieved when the kernel passes through two rollers rotating in opposite

directions. Movement of the rollers imposes pressure on the kernel and causes the shell to break,

releasing the kernel. In other mills, nuts are cracked by a centrifugal cracker. Nuts fed into the

cracker are thrown out of slots and hurled against a cracking ring. The nutcase breaks upon

impact and releases the kernel. One disadvantage associated with the centrifugal cracker is that

nuts with long fibres at the tail may not crack if the fibre side comes against the cracking ring.

3.1.9 Kernel and Shell Separation

Generally, there are two ways of achieving this and both of these mimic that of the

traditional set up. These methods are known as dry/pneumatic and wet separation.

In the dry separation, which is likened to winnowing in the local set up, fragments of

light shells and those with long fibres that may have densities a little lower than that of the

kernels are blown out of the separator.

The second (wet) separation is achieved through the use of water and clay viscous

mixture. The clay is used to help the shells to sink to the bottom while the kernels float on top of

the water-clay mixture. After separation, the kernels are dried before being pressed for the oil.

The clean nuts may then be conveyed to a nut silo for drying.

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nuts kernel & shell

Winnower Hydro Clay Bath

3.2 ROUTINE TESTING FOR PROCESS AND QUALITY CONTROL

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For process control, it is necessary to sample the waste product discharged for evaluation

of oil and kernel losses and several other oil, sludge, kernel and other samples are also analysed.

For quality control purposes it is obvious that regular samples of the oil as produced and

sent to the storage tanks from the factory must be taken and analysed and that, further, samples

of each of oil dispatched from the mill after storage in these tanks must be examined.

The various samples that are needed for a full process and quality control are:

3.2.1 MPD ( or Material Passing to the Digesters)

MPD

MPD (or Material Passing to the Digesters) is the total fruit, calyx leaves,

apikelets and undeveloped fruit that have been thrashed out of sterilized bunches.

MPD analysis has two important functions in process control which is first to provide

quantitative assessment (partial) of the quality and composition in the fruit that is being

processed. Second, MPD results may be used as a feedback for altering or setting

optimum process conditions especially in the pressing station, to minimize oil losses.

3.2.2 Oil in sterilized fruit ( FFA)

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FFA analysing

FFA (or Free Fatty Acids) are formed by the splitting of the fatty acids from the

triglycerides and FFA tests assess the degree of this acid formation. FFA has been the

principal criterion of palm oil quality. An upper limit of 5% FFA at port is imposed by

consumers and oil with FFA higher than 5% is considered inferior and a discount is

levied because of greater loss of oil during refining. To keep within the 5% standard set

by consumers, producers must achieve an oil of about 3% FFA at mill end, allowing 2%

for acid rise during storage and transit.

FFA is determined by direct titration with sodium hydroxide using

phenolphthalein indicator. The free fatty acid is calculated as palmitic acid from the

formula:

% FFA = 25.6 x t x N W

Where t = titration in ml

N = normality of sodium hydroxide

W = weight of oil used

3.2.3 Diluted crude oil from screw presses (oil content by volume)

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Crude Palm Oil Dilution

The crude oil from the screw press contain say, approximately 10% of Nos (non-

oily solid) and about 25% of water will be very viscous and almost impossible to pump,

screen or settle satisfactorily.

Due to this reason, it must be diluted with hot water before the clarification

process is started. Samples of the diluted crude oil must be taken and examined

frequently during milling in order to control the degree of dilution.

During milling, a sample of 500 ml of the diluted crude oil passing to the crude

oil tank is taken. These samples are taken to the laboratory at once and analysed by

centrifuging. This is done by thoroughly stirring the 500 ml sample and filling two

graduated laboratory centrifuge tubes to the 10 ml mark without delay.

The volume occupied by the oil is noted after centrifuging and expressed as

percentage to the total volume of sample.

Dilution by volume of crude oil (%) Approximate oil by volume in diluted

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crude oil (%)0 64.350 41.455 40.160 38.865 37.670 36.575 35.580 34.585 33.690 32.795 31.8100 31.1

Assumption has been made for the calculation of the undiluted crude oil would

have contained 60% by weight of oil.

A dilution around 70% is found to be the satisfactory compromise between over-

dilution and under-dilution. A dilution of 70% means the volume of warm water is 70

parts over 100 parts of volume of crude oil.

3.2.4 Continuous Settling Tank Oil Samples ( Moisture Contents )

Settling TankThe continuous settling tank function as converting the incoming stream of

screened, heated, diluted crude oil into a stream of top oil and sludge.

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It is desirable to monitor the tank performance throughout milling although the

tank operates automatically and normally gives an adequate separation.

The procedure used in this analysis is similar to that the described for sampling

and centrifuging of diluted crude oil samples.

The oil percentage by volume in the sludge is recorded and also the percentage of

water (mixed with dirt) in the top oil.

Regular checks of this nature and recording the results, together with temperature,

useful information about the behavior of the continuous settling tank is obtained and any

undesirable trends may be observed and action taken in time.

3.2.5 Oil Before and After Oil Purifier (Moisture and Dirt Contents)

It is normal routine practice to sample this oil as it passes from the crude oil tank

to the oil purifier and to measure its moisture and dirt contents in order to ensure the

continuous clarifier is giving satisfactory top oil.

A compromise solution which is found to give reasonable reliable results

provided processing conditions do not change too frequently during the day is to collect

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one sample for every hour from each sampling point in a small bottle fitted with a

screwed cap. The bottle capacity is 100 ml and would be filled to the brim and capped

with no attempt being made to bulk the oil.

All the small sample bottles of oil are labeled and sent to the laboratory and are

quickly bulked there to give a large composite sample from each point.

The composite sample from each point is analysed for mixture and dirt content

after well mixed.

It may be noted if more than one oil purifier is in use, separate oil samples should

be collected for each.

3.2.6 Production Oil

The oil from the oil purifier that is passed through vacuum dryer before pumping

to storage and it is necessary to sample the oil as produced from the pipeline taking the

oil to the storage tank.

The similar method as described in previous section is used to prevent accidental

loss of moisture.

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A 500 ml sample is prepared in the laboratory by bulking and quickly mixing the

individual samples and filling and capping the 500 ml laboratory sample bottle.

This sample is examined for percentage of moisture content, percentage of FFA,

percentage of insoluble impurities and peroxide value. The peroxide value may be

measured on a bulked sample made by mixing similar remainders of the daily samples

accumulated over three or four days if required.

3.2.7 Storage oil

Samples may be taken once a week from each storage tank and analysed for FFA,

VM, Dirt and PV in order to check on any deterioration occurring between production

and despatch.

The oil should be sampled from the bulk storage tank as according to the

sampling procedures for sampling oil from the bulk storage tanks.

This procedure is useful as it indicated what tonnages and qualities of oil are

available for despatch in each tank.

3.2.8 Despatched oil

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It is also necessary to test the oil on despatch in addition to sampling and

analysing production and storage oil.

If the oil leaves the mill by road tanker, each tanker load must be sampled

immediately after loading whilst it is still well mixed.

The despatch oil should be tested for its DOBI. DOBI is a ratio of carotene (pro-

vitamin A) and secondary oxidation (extinction at 269 nanometers). Carotene breaks

down as more and more secondary oxidized products are formed as the oil deteriorates.

Dividing the two gives an indirect net result of oxidation that is amplified and is picked

up by the DOBI test. The test is carried out using a spectrophotometer, which measures

the absorption of a known light wavelength by carotene and the secondary oxidation

products present in the oil.

Badly oxidised oil is difficult to refine and products made from it will be off-flavour, off-

colour and have poor shelf life. Such products can be easily detected by the palate even at very

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low concentrations. This simply means the oil smells and tastes bad. The DOBI readings can be

used to differentiate CPO as the colour of the final oil is as shown.

3.2.9 Sludge Ex-Sludge Centrifuge

It is important to control the oil loss in effluent from the sludge centrifuge as the

oil can vary considerably.

Sludges

Efficient oil recovery is a necessary pre-requisite for subsequent successful

treatment of the effluent.

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One oil-loss determination per day covering the bulked sample from all

centrifuges would be sufficient for control purposes. If high Oil/Nos figures are obtained

from this sample, individual centrifuges can be checked.

3.2.10 Sterilizer Condensate (Oil Loss)

The sterilizer condensate should be sampled and analysed for the oil content.

Sampling of one cycle per sterilizer per shift is normally adequate for daily control of

individual sterilizers.

Acceptable oil contents in sterilizer condensate are in the range 0.4-0.8% of the

condensate. Oil contents higher than 0.8% may be due to a combination of the presence

of excessive quantities of losses fruit in the bunch and conditions of sterilization.

Sterilizer Condensate

3.2.11 Sterilized empty bunch (oil loss)

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Empty bunch

The objective of sampling the sterilized empty bunch is to determine the oil loss.

Oil loss on dry matter should be lower than 6%. Higher values are mainly caused

by the high percentage of injured fruitlets and/or excessive stereilization and/or high

percentage of over-ripe fruitlets.

3.2.12 Press Cake

Press

The sampling objective of the press cake is to determine the oil loss in the fibre

and the percentage of nuts broken in the press. Besides, the oil loss on wet nuts and the %

fibre nuts in the press cake are also determined.

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The residual oil of fibre is dependent upon the type of extraction press used. The

fibre can have oil content on non-oily solids (Nos) as high as 11%. Oil content of fibre

from screw and zuto-hydraulic presses can be as high as 9% and 10% oil/Nos

respectively.

Many factors can affect oil losses in fibre. The most likely are temperature of

digesters and sterilization.

The percentage of broken nuts is usually less than 3% in the case of manual-

hydraulic presses, 10% in screw presses and 15% in auto-hydraulic presses. If higher

values are obtained, this may be due to fruit composition (low fibre/nut ratio in press),

poor digestion, mash composition and excessive press-pressures as in the case of the

screw press, and over-drainage of digester as in the case of auto-hydraulic presses.

3.2.13 Fibre from Depericarper Cyclone

Fibre Cyclone

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Some of the nuts and kernels are smashed during press-extraction process. Debris

part is light enough to be blown off in the depericarper. The sampling objective is to

determine the magnitude of the kernel loss. This should be examined daily.

The moisture content of the fibre also being measured in order to assess the

drying efficiency of the cake conveyor and also the Nos content of the fibre is determined

to know the kernel extraction efficiency. The percentage of kernel to fibre should not

exceed 2%.

3.2.14 Nuts before Nuts Silo

Nuts

These nuts are sampled and analysed for the moisture content of kernel in the

nuts. The moisture determination of the nuts from the press cake should be carried out

daily.

3.2.15 Nuts- Ex Nut Silo

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Kernels

These nuts are sampled and analysed for a moisture content of kernel in the nuts

and the percentage of kernel to dry nuts. These measurements should be carried out daily.

3.2.16 Cracked Mixture Ex-Nut Cracker

Broken Kernels

This cracked mixture should be sampled and analysed for percentage of broken

kernels in the cracked mixture and the nut cracking efficiency. These measurements

should be carried out daily and serve as a check on the performance of the nut cracker.

3.2.17 Light Particle ( Kernel Losses)

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The measurement of the kernel losses in the light particle should be carried out

daily. The loss should not be exceeding 4.0% by weight.

3.2.18 Kernel Ex-Hydroclaybath

Wet Kernels

This kernel is analysed to ensure the content of shell and dirt in the kernels

coming out of the top of the kernel hydroclaybath is not excessive and there is not an

abnormally high proportion of broken kernels. This analysis has to be done daily.

3.2.19 Wet Shells Ex-Hydrocclaybath

Wet Shells

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A sample of the wet shells is taken and sampled daily in order to check the

content of kernels in the wet shells passing from the shell hydrocyclone is not excess.

3.2.20 Kernel Loss on Dry Nut Basis

The kernel loss on dry nut basis should be carried out at least once a week in

order to have an overall perspective of the extraction efficiency of the kernel plant.

3.2.21 Bagged Kernels

Bagged Kernels

The bagged kernels should be analysed daily to determine the percentage of shell,

dirt, broken kernels, moisture, oil content of the kernel, discolourisation test and the FFA

of the palm kernel oil.

3.2.22 Despatched Kernels

If the bagged kernels remain in store at the mill for several weeks before

despatch, the moisture content may change somewhat and it may be desirable for control

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purposes to sample and measure the moisture and the shell and dirt contents of the bags

kernels in a particular shipment the oil content of the kernel and FFA of the palm oil are

also measured and they may be measured on a bulked sample made by mixing the daily

sample accumulated over three or four days.

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3.3 ESTIMATION OF THE OIL EXTRACTION EFFICIENCY

The method used in the estimation of the weight of waste products and the determination of oil

losses at the following point:

i) On the bunch stalk. The oil is absorbed from the fruit during the course of sterilizing

or stripping.

ii) In the press fibre. When the digested sterilized fruit is pressed, a small amount of oil

always remains in the press fibre and is measured by samping the cake and analysing

the fibre.

iii) On the nuts. The surface of the nuts is in contact with the oily fibre and a very small

amount of oil becomes absorbed on the surface of the nuts and must be measured.

iv) In the waste water (sludge), from the clarification station. This water always contains

a small proportion of oil, which is mostly absorbed on the finely divided non-oily

solids present.

Oil Extraction

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3.4 ESTIMATION OF EFFICIENCY OF KERNEL EXTRACTION

The kernel losses that are measured occur at the following points:

i) In the cyclone fibre for example in the fibre that passed out of the top of the nut/fibre

separator and is transported by air to the cyclone where it is deposited. These kernels

are present because of some nuts are inevitably broken during pressing nad some of

their kernels are released and are carried over with the fibre.

ii) In the wet shell emerging from the hydrocyclone bath. Some of these kernels are free

means unattached to shell and either as whole or as broken pieces. Some may have

small pieces of shell attached and others present in split nuts before cracking so that

part of a kernel is still firmly attached to a large piece of shell.

iii) In the dry shell and dust removed by blowing from the cracked mixture. The

proportion of blowing to total shell may vary and will depend upon the velocity of the

air in the CM blower. Some of the small nuts may also yield kernels if the

hydrocyclone causes them to be recycled to the crackers.

iv) In the kernel winnowing rejects. It may occasionally necessary to reduce the shell

content of the kernels leaving the dryer before they are bagged.

Kernel Loss Analysis

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3.5 BOILER WATER TREATMENT

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water under pressure is transformed into steam by the

application of heat. In the boiler furnace, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into heat,

and it is the function of the boiler to transfer this heat to the contained water in the most efficient

manner. The boiler should also be designed to generate high quality steam for plant use.

A boiler must be designed to absorb the maximum amount of heat released in the process

of combustion. This heat is transferred to the boiler water through radiation, conduction and

convection. The relative percentage of each is dependent upon the type of boiler, the designed

heat transfer surface and the fuels.

The proper treatment of boiler water is important to ensure the operation of steam boiler

operates effectively with the aim of:

i) Prevention of scaling in boiler

ii) Prevention of corrosion in boiler

iii) Prevention of stress corrosion cracking

iv) Prevention of steam contamination

Scale deposits on the waterside heating surfaces can cause poor heat transfer and loss of

thermal efficiency. They can also lead to overheating of the metal and the development of

corrosion beneath the deposit. Foaming of the boiler water can result in entrainment and

carryover of water and boiler salts into the steam system.

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Water Treatment Schematic

3.5.1 External Treatment

External treatment is applied to water prepared for use as boiler feed water, usually refers

to the chemical and mechanical treatment of the water source. The goal is to improve the quality

of this source prior to its use as boiler feed water, external to the operating boiler itself. Such

external treatment normally includes clarification, filtration, evaporation, softening, deionization

and deaeration.

3.5.1.1 Clarification

The process of clarification is used to remove must suspended solid particles and some

dissolved matter. To speed up the process, chemical coagulants are injected to gather small

particles into larger masses. The resulting sludge is removed from the bottom of the unit and the

clarified water is drawn from the top by overflowing into a launder.

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Clarifier Chemical: Sodium Hypochlorite

3.5.1.2 Filtration

Filtration removes precipitate solids. Filters contain one or more layers or granular

media- sand, gravel, and the like- that remove particles of decreasing size as water passes

through. There are two types of filters used: gravity or open filter and pressure filter. The

pressure filter moves water through increasingly fine granular layers at higher speed than the

gravity filter. The filtration process reduces the solids in clarified water from 20- 30 ppm to 1

ppm or less.

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3.5.1.3 Softening

Water softening is a treatment to remove impurities in water such as calcium,

magnesium, iron and silica which can cause hardness to water. Common treatment used in water

softening is lime softening and ion exchange.

Lime softening is involves such a complicated chemical reactions. This reaction is

important to change the calcium and magnesium compounds in water into calcium carbonate and

magnesium hydroxide which are least soluble compounds and will eventually remove from the

bottom of the water. The pH of the water must be raised by the addition of lime in order to

produce calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. Normally, calcium compounds in water

will be removed at a pH of about 9.0 – 9.5 whereby magnesium compounds require a pH of 10.0

– 10.5. When soda ash is used to remove noncarbonated hardness, higher pH is required which is

10.0 – 10.5 for calcium compounds and 11.0 – 11.5 for magnesium compounds.

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Removal of Carbonate Hardness

1. Addition of lime (calcium hydroxide) to react with CO2 in the water before it softens the

water. The reaction is:

Carbon dioxide + Lime = Calcium carbonate + Water

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaC03 (ppt.) + H2O

2. For Magnesium compounds, the reaction is slightly different. First, magnesium

bicarbonate reacts with lime and produces calcium carbonate (which precipitates out of

solution).

Magnesium bicarbonate + Lime = Calcium carbonate + Magnesium carbonate + Water

Mg(HC03)2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaC03 + MgC03 + 2H2O

3. Then the magnesium carbonate reacts with lime and creates more calcium carbonate and

magnesium hydroxide. Both of these compounds are able to precipitate out of water.

Magnesium carbonate + Lime = Calcium carbonate + magnesium hydroxide I

MgC03 + Ca(OH)2 = CaC03 + Mg(OH)2

Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness

1. Noncarbonate hardness compound will have different reaction from the carbonate

compound. To remove noncarbonated compound, soda ash will be added to the water

along with lime. The reaction is:

Magnesium sulfate + Lime = Magnesium hydroxide + Calcium sulphate

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MgS04 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaS04

2. The resulting compounds are magnesium hydroxide, which will precipitate out of

solution, and calcium sulphate. The calcium sulphate then reacts with soda ash:

Calcium sulphate + Soda Ash = Calcium carbonate + Sodium sulphate

CaS04 + Na2C03 = CaC03 + Na2S04

3. The resulting calcium carbonate will settle out of the water. The sodium sulphate is not a

hardness-causing compound, so it can remain in the water without causing problems.

The second method is ion exchange softening. Ion exchange softening exchanges calcium

and magnesium ions in water for sodium ions as the hard water passes through a softener. The

softener is similar in design to a pressure filter, with resins in place of the filter media

During treatment, water enters the softener and is directed by a baffle. The water passes

through a bed of resin underlain by a bed of gravel, and then is collected by an under-drain and

piped out of the softener.

The resins are insoluble solids with attached cations or anions capable of reversible

exchange with mobile ions of the opposite sign in the solutions, which pass through them.

Zeolite is one of various types of resins that can be used in ion exchange unit. In ion exchange

softening, sodium ions are attached to the insoluble solids of the resins. Sodium ions are

exchanged for calcium and magnesium ions in the water when water passes through the softener.

The calcium and magnesium ions are retained on the resin grains. Sodium ions then replace the

calcium and magnesium in the water that leave the softener.

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Since sodium ions do not cause hardness, the treated water will have zero hardness. To

prevent corrosion due to excessively soft water, some quantity of the source water is blended

with the softened water downstream of the softener to ensure that the product water has

permissible hardness. Ion exchange softening is effective at removing both carbonate and

noncarbonate hardness and is often used for waters high in noncarbonate hardness and with a

total hardness less than 350 mg/L.

Regeneration

After backwashing, the softener is ready to be regenerated. This is the part of the process

in which sodium is replace the magnesium and calcium ions on the resin so that the softener can

be used to treat more hard water. A salt solution, known as brine, is allowed to flow through the

softener for about an hour in order to regenerate the resin.

The salt dissociates into its constituent ions – Na+ and CI- when dissolved in water. The

sodium ions replace the calcium and magnesium ions on the resin in the following manner

(where “R” preceding an ion means that the ion is bound to the resin.

RCa + NaCl → RNa + CaCl2

RMg + NaCl → RNa + MgCl2

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Regeneration of Resins in Softener

Calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, and excess sodium chloride flow to waste during

regeneration. The figure above shows the regeneration process in ion exchange softener. The

brine must be rinsed out of the softener after the brine has been given a sufficient contact time.

During the rinse cycle, fresh water is passed through the unit as it would be during treatment, but

with the effluent going to waste. Usually rinse takes about 20 to 40 minutes. Since the calcium,

magnesium, and sodium salts are corrosive and toxic to the environment, both the spent brine

from regeneration and from the rinse must be disposed of carefully. Spent brine is sometimes

discharged in sewers or into streams at very high dilutions. Alternatively, the brine can be

disposed of in a landfill.

Softener Tank

3.5.1.4 Deaeration

The purposes of deaeration are:

i) To remove oxygen, carbon dioxide and other noncondensable gases from feed water

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ii) To heat the incoming makeup water and return condensate to an optimum

temperature for:

- Minimizing solubility of the undesirable gases

- Providing the highest temperature water for injection to the boiler

Oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia are the most common source of corrosion of boiler

water system. Of these dissolved gases, oxygen is the most aggressive. Even a small

concentration of this gas can cause serious corrosion. One of the most serious aspects of oxygen

corrosion is that it occurs as pitting. This type of corrosion can produce failures even though only

a relatively small amount of metal has been lost and the overall corrosion rate is relatively low.

The degree of oxygen attack depends on the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the pH and the

temperature of the water.

Because oxygen pitting is the most common cause of economizer tube failure, this vital

part of the boiler must be protected with an oxygen scavenger, usually catalyzed sodium sulfite.

In order to assure complete corrosion protection of the economizer, it is common practice to

maintain a sulfite residual of 5-10 ppm in the feed water and, if necessary, feed sufficient caustic

soda or neutralizing amine to increase the feed water pH to between 8.0 and 9.0.

Below 900 psi excess sulfite (up to 200 ppm) in the boiler will not be harmful. To

maintain blowdown rates, the conductivity can then be raised to compensate for the extra solids

due to the presence of the higher level of sulfite in the boiler water. This added consideration (in

protecting the economizer) is aimed at preventing a pitting failure. Make the application of an

oxygen scavenger, such as catalyzed sulfite, a standard recommendation in all of your boiler

treatment programs.

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Normally, plant oxygen levels vary from 3 to 50 ppb. Traces of dissolved oxygen

remaining in the feed water can then be chemically removed with the oxygen scavenger. Oxygen

scavengers are added to the boiler water, preferably in the storage tank of the deaerator so the

scavenger will have the maximum time to react with the residual oxygen. Under certain

conditions, such as when boiler feedwater is used for attemperation to lower steam temperature,

other locations are preferable. The most commonly used oxygen scavenger is sodium sulfite.

It is also easily measured in boiler water. In most cases it is the oxygen scavenger of

choice. There are instances in some higher pressure boilers (generally above 900 psig), that some

of the sulfite may decompose and enter the steam, causing problems in the condensate systems

and condensing steam turbines. In these cases, substitute (usually organic-based) oxygen

scavengers can be used.

Phosphate is used almost as often as oxygen scavengers. However, phosphate also plays

several important roles in boiler water treatment:

It buffers the boiler water pH to minimize the potential for boiler corrosion

It precipitates small amounts of calcium or magnesium into a soft deposit which can then

accumulate in mud drums or steam drums rather than as hard scale.

It helps to promote the protective oxide film on boiler metal surfaces

Common phosphate compounds added to treat boiler water include sodium phosphate

(monosodium phosphate, disodium phosphate or trisodium phosphate) or sodium polyphosphate.

They all function approximately the same; the choice of which to use depends on the quality of

the boiler water and the handling requirements of the user.

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3.5.2 Internal Treatment

The purpose of an internal treatment is to

1) React with any feed-water hardness and prevent it from precipitating on the boiler

metal as scale;

2) Condition any suspended matter such as hardness sludge or iron oxide in the boiler

and make it non-adherent to the boiler metal;

3) Provide anti-foam protection to allow a reasonable concentration of dissolved and

suspended solids in the boiler water without foam carry-over;

4) Eliminate oxygen from the water and provide enough alkalinity to prevent boiler

corrosion.

The most common used of chemical in internal treatment of boiler water is:-

1) Sulphite-based Chemical

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Function as preventing oxygen pitting and general corrosion on boiler tubes and internals.

2) Phosphate-based Chemical

Function as preventing hard scale formation and other deposition on the boiler internal heating surfaces.

3) Alkali-based Chemical

Function as preventing hard scale formation and maintaining the correct pH and alkalinity condition in the boiler water.

4) Sludge Conditioner

Function as rendering boiler sludge and precipitation in a mobile condition thus preventing them to settle on boiler surfaces as scales and deposits.

3.6 ANALYSIS OF BOILER WATER

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The procedure below is used to test boiler water.

Chloride- i) 50 ml boiler water

ii) 5 - 10 drops potassium chromate

iii) Titrate with silver nitrate until the solution turns brown

FORMULA: X times 20

Hardness i) 100 ml boiler water

ii) Add hardness tablet

iii) Pour in Ammonia Buffer Solution

iv) Wait until the solution turns blue color

v) If the color unchanged, titrate with EDTA solution until the solution turns blue.

pH i) Take 100 ml boiler water sample.

ii) Test the pH with pH tester.

TDS i) 100 ml boiler water

ii) 3 drops phenolphthalein – red color

iii) Titrate with Acetic Acid 30% until the solution color turns neutral

iv) Test with DS meter

Caustic i) 20 ml filtered boiler waterAlkalinity

ii) 5-10 drops phenolphthalein

iii) 1 gm Barium Chloride Solid

iv) Titrate with Sulphuric Acid 0.02 N until the red solution turns to neutral.

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FORMULA: X times 50

Sodium i) 0.5 g starch SoubleSulphite

ii) 50 ml boiler water

iii) 4 ml Sulphuric Acid 6.5 %

iv) Titrate with Potassium Indate Iodide until the solution turns blue

FORMULA: X times 25

3.7 EFFLUENT TREATMENT

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Nowadays, most of the palm oil mill effluent (POME) is treated by biological process in

which based on aerobic and anaerobic ponding system. Effluent treatment using ponds is an

economical ways to produce effluent that highly purified. This treatment system uses proper

maintenance and monitoring as the process relies solely on microorganisms to break down the

pollutants.

KSFN Effuent Treatment Plant

3.7.1 Anaerobic Pond

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Anaerobic pond is normally used to treat high concentration industrial waste without the present

of oxygen. All the activity in the pond is in anaerobic decomposition. The pond is about 8 to 12

feet deep. Scums are formed on the surface of the pond to avoid the air from mixing with the

waste water. The bacterial activity in anaerobic process can be summarized as

From the figure, we can see that the organic matter is break down and converted to organic acid

with gaseous by- products of carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulfide. The digestion

process in which gasification process then occur in order to convert the organic acids to methane

and carbon dioxide. Acid- splitting methane forming bacteria are strict and lobes and very

sensitive to environmental conditions of temperature, pH and anaerobiosis. The general

operating temperature and pH conditions for anaerobic sludge digestion are:-

Temperature- Optimum 98OF (35OC)- General Operating Range 85OF to 95OF

pH- Optimum 7.0 to 7.1- General Limits 6.7 to 7.4

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CO2, CH4

Organic matter H2S Organic Acid CH4 and CO2

Acid-Forming Bacteria Acid-Splitting Methane Forming Bacteria


3.7.2 Aerobic/ Oxidation Pond

In aerobic pond, oxygen present throughout the pond and all the activity is in aerobic

decomposition. The deep of the pond is only 2 feet, so that the sunlight can reach through the

depth of the pond, which will let the algae grow throughout. The oxygen will gives off to allow

the aerobic microorganism to live. The aerobic action involving bacteria is illustrated as

follows:-

Organics + NH4 + O2 light

Protozoa Algae

Bacteria + NO3 + CO2 + H2O

In aerobic breakdown, most of dissolved oxygen is supplied by the photosynthetic activity of

algae in the ponds and no artificial aeration is provided. The organic loading on the lagoon is

maintained at a level which allows a symbiotic relationship between bacteria and algae to exist

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whereby the photosynthetic algae utilize the CO2 released in the respiration and bacteria benefit

through the release of the oxygen by the algae.

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4.0 RECOMMENDATION

No doubt, I feel thankful to be able to experience an industrial training. By doing

industrial training for about ten weeks, I have gained knowledge and experience which I cannot

reach during my lecture.

But, ten weeks duration time for industrial training is not enough to me to experience the

work completely as I have not been able to carry out any project or research. So, I am

recommending the university authority to make the duration for industrial training longer in

order to get more knowledge and experiences.

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5.0 CONCLUSION

I am very happy and thankful to UTM for providing this obligation industrial training for

my course. With this beneficial training, it helps me to understand more about the theory that

have been learned during my lecture. I am able to apply to the job that I have done here. Besides,

I can see clearly how chemical reactions play its part in boiler water treatment, effluent treatment

and routine analysis in this mill laboratory.

Through this training, it gives me the beneficial information about the real working

sector. I am also able to improve my communication skill and get mingle around with people

with different job level.

Last but not least, the hardship that I have been through when applying the place for my

industrial training make me realize that searching for job is may as hard as this. So, with this

training, I set myself to grab any chance, knowledge and experience so that I can apply it for my

future career. By now, I am ready to seek for a job after I have graduated someday.

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REFERENCES

Alice K., Peter K.V. (2007). Commercial Crops Technologies. Horticulture Science Series. 8,

304-305

Igwe J.C., Onyegbado C.C. (2007). A Review of Palm Oil Mill Effluent (Pome) Water

Treatment. Global Journal of Environmental Research. 1, 1-9

Lawrence K.W., Yung T.H., Howard H.L. (2004). Handbook of Industrial and Hazardous

Wastes Treatment. CRC Press. 2nd edition. 720-722

Malek M.A. (2004). Power Boiler Design, Inspection and Repair. Mc. Graw Hill Professional.

525

Oke.P.K. (2007). Development and Performance Evaluation of Indigenous Palm Kernel Daul

Processing Machine. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 4.701-705

Schroeder C. D. (1991). Solutions to boiler and cooling water problems. Springler. 2nd edition.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Photos

Appendix 2: Palm Oil Mill Processing Chart

Appendix 3: Boiler Water Treatment Flow Chart

Appendix 4: Boiler Water Test Result Form

Appendix 5: Oil Loss Result Form

Appendix 6: Kernel Loss Result and Calculation Form

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