Fukushima Saeko 1996 Request Strategies in British English and Japanese

7/23/2019 Fukushima Saeko 1996 Request Strategies in British English and Japanese

1/18

Pergamon

Language Sciences

Vol. 18, Nos 3- 4, pp. 671 -688 , 1996

Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved

0388-0001/96 15.00 + 0.00

S0388-0001 96)00041-1

R E Q U E S T S T R A T E G I E S I N B R I T IS H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E

S a ek o FU K U S H I M A

T s u r u U n i v e r s i ty

3 -8 - 1 T a h a r a T s u r u Y a m a n a s h i 4 0 2 J A P A N

A B S T R A C T

This paper exam ines En g l i sh p roduc t ion b y Br i ti sh sub jec ts and Japanese p roduc t ion by

Japan ese sub jec t s i n r eques t s i t ua tions . A p r ev ious s tudy (Fuku sh im a , 1994) se lec t ed

comparab le r eques t s i t ua t ions be tween Br i t i sh and Japanese cu l tu r es among which , two

s i tua tions w ere used in t h is s tudy : one wh ich w as assessed as a r eques t w i th l ow impos i t ion

on the r eques t ee and the o the r wh ich was assessed as a r eques t w i th h igh impos i t i on on the

r cques t ee .

The r esu l t s showed tha t more po l i t eness s t r a t eg i es were employed bo th in Eng l i sh and in

Japan ese whe n the degree o f impos i t i on inc r eased . A c lose r i nves t iga t ion , ho we ver ,

r evea l ed some d i f f e r ences be tween En g l i sh and Japanese r eques t s t ra t eg i es .

K E Y W O R D S

Req ues t s ; S t r a teg i es ; Po l i t eness ; Br i t ish Eng l i sh ; Japanese .

I N T R O D U C T I O N

In th is s tudy, a compar ison was made in the use of pol i teness s t ra tegies , especi ' ,d ly in

r eques t s i t ua t ions , by Br i t i sh and Japanese sub jec t s whose p roduc t ion in t he i r na t ive

l anguages was com pared . M y main concerns were to i nves tiga te (1 ) w he the r t he r e a r e any

simi lar i t ies or d i f ferences between the request s t ra tegies employed by the Br i t i sh subjects

and those by the Japa nese su b jec t s ; and i f so , ( 2 ) whe re and h ow they a r e s imi l a r o r

d i f f e ren t . Req ues t s w ere chosen , because they invo lve the exe rc i se o f po l i t eness s t r at eg i es

because o f t he i r in t r in s i c cha rac t e r , and they a r e f r equen t ly used in ou r da i ly l i fe .

M y hypo thes i s i s t ha t po l i t eness i s un ive r sa l t o a ce r ta in ex ten t , bu t t he r e may be som e

cul tural d i f ferenc es in it s real i sa t ion. As for the universal i ty of pol i teness, i t i s hyp othe sised

tha t t he h ighe r t he degree o f imp os i t i on , t he more po l i t eness s tr a t eg i es a r e em ploye d bo th in

671


2/18

672 SAEKO FUKU Stt lMA

Engl i sh and Japa nese . In t h is s t udy , two s i t ua tions wi th d i f fe ren t deg re es o f impos i t i on

were used in o rde r t o t e st th i s hypo thes i s .

Brown and Lev inson (1978 : 79 ) cons ide r t ha t t he fo l l owing fac to rs de t e rmine po l i t eness

st ra tegies in a g iven s i tuat ion:

1 . the ' socia l d is tance ' (D) of S and H;

2 . t he rel a ti ve ' po w er ' (P ) o f S and H;

3 . the absolute ranking (R) of imposi t ion in the part icular cul ture .

In t h i s s t udy , t he fac to rs o f soc i a l d i s t ance and the re l a t i ve power o f S and H were se t a s

equa l . In t h i s wa y , t he fac to r o f impos i t i on cou ld be more c lose ly i nves t iga t ed .

S ince t he pe rcep t ion o f deg ree o f impos i t i on may va ry f rom cu l tu re t o cu l tu re , reques t

s i t ua t ions wh ich had been assessed as be ing s imi l a r be tween Br i t i sh and Japanese cu l tu res

(Fu kus h im a , 1994) were used . I t i s hoped tha t a va l id compar i so n be tween the Br i t ish and

thc Japanes e da t a can be made in t h is way . The fo l lowing two s i tua t ions w ere used in t h i s

s tudy:

Throughou t t he reques t s i t ua t ions , suppose you ask reques t o f B , who i s t he same sex as

you and l ives next do or to you in the s~urle s tud ents ' hal l . B i s an acquaintan ce, b ut not a

c lose fr iend.

Si tuat ion 1 : Yo u are coo king in the k i tchen. Yo u real i se yo u have run out of sa l t . B i s a l so

cook ing in t he k i t chen .

S i tua tion 2 : Bo th you a nd B a re s t ay ing in hal l du r ing the vaca t ion . Tw o f r i ends a re v i s i ti ng

you du r ing the vaca tion . Th ey wou ld l i ke t o s t ay wi th you , bu t you have space fo r on ly one

in you r room in ha ll .

Acco rd ing to S if i anou (1992 : 121-122 ) , req ues t s can be ca t egor i sed in to two :

1 . Req ues t s fo r i n fo rmat ion ; and

2 . R eques t s fo r ac t i on .

S i f i anou I b i d . ) s t a te s t ha t t he second ca t egory , reques t s fo r ac t ion inv o lves a h ighe r deg ree

o f impos i t i on than the f i r s t ca t ego ry , reques t s fo r i n fo rmat ion . Bo th o f t he reques t

s i t ua tions in t h i s s t udy fa ll i n to t he second ca t egory , reques t s fo r ac t ion . W i th in t he same

ca tego ry , s it ua t ion 1 was a reques t fo r good s w h i l e s i tua t ion 2 was a reques t fo r he lp , and

these two reques t s i t ua t ions were a ssessed d i f fe ren t ly i n t e rms o f t he deg ree o f impos i t i on

by the Br i t ish and Japan ese i n fo rman t s . S i tua tion 1 was a ssesse d as a reques t w i th l ow

impos i t i on and s i t ua t ion 2 wi th h igh impos i t i on on the reques t ee , acco rd ing to t he re su l t s o f

a s s e s s m e n t b y b o t h B r i ti s h an d J a p a n e s e i n f o r m a n t s ( F u k u s h i m a , 1 9 9 4 ) .

D A TA C O L L E C T I O N P R O C E D U R E

Engl i sh p roduc t ion da t a by the Br i t i sh sub jec t s were co l l ec t ed in Read ing , Eng land and

Japane se p rod uc t ion da t a by the Japane se sub jec t s we re co l lec t ed in To ky o .

The sub jec t s were f i r s t p resen t ed wi th w r i tt en reques t s i t ua t ions t yped on a ca rd i n the i r

na t ive l anguages . Then , t he sub jec t s were a sked to u t t e r wha t t hey wou ld say under each

s i tua t ion in the i r na t ive l anguages . W ha t they sa id was t ape - reco rded and w as t ransc r ibed .


3/18

REQUESTING IN BRITISH ENGLISH AND JAPANESE 673

S U B J E C T S

The sub jec t s in th is s tudy w ere s e lec ted so as to have com parab i l i ty in t e rms of age , l evel o f

educa t ion and occupat ion , s ix teen Br i t i sh undergraduates and f i f t een Japanese

undergraduates s e rv ing as the sub jec t s .

D A TA A N A L Y S I S & R E S U L T S

A com par i son be tween the s t r a teg ies in Engl i sh and those in J apanese wa s m ade . S ince

Eng l i sh and Japanese a re d i f f e ren t in the i r s en tence s t ruc ture , voca bulary , e t c . , I had som e

d i f f i cu l t y i n ap p l y i n g t h e C C S A R P ( B l u m - K u l k a & O l s h t a i n , 1 9 8 4 ; B l u m - K u l k a , e t . a l . ,

1 9 8 9 ) an a ly t ic a l m e t h o d d ev e l o p ed f o r u s e w i t h E n g l i s h , F r en ch , G e r m an , D an i s h , H eb r ew

and Ru ss ian . Based on the ana lys i s metho d used by B lum -Kulk a , e t. al . (1989 ) and that by

Si l ' i anou (1992) , I t r i ed to modi fy them, by adding more ca tegor ies , o r def in ing each

ca tegory for J apanese . The fo l lowin g are the f ea tures used to ana lyse da ta in th i s study:

1 . S t ruc tures o f the Head Act and Sup por t ive Move( s )

2 . S t r a tegy types o f the Head A ct

3 . F o r m s an d t y p es o f th e H ead A c t

4 . T y p es o f t he S u p p o r t iv e M o v e ( s )

H e r e , th e t e r m s , H ead A c t an d S u p p o r t i v e M o v e a r e u s ed i n t h e s en s e o f B l u m - K u l k a ,

e t . a l . (1989: 275-276) , who def ine them as fo l lows :

l l ea d c t

is the m inim al refit wlfich can realize a request; it is the co re of tile request sequence.

S u p p o r t i v e M o v e is a un it external to the request, which modifies its impac t by e ither aggravating or

m itigating its force.

S t ruc tures o f Head Act and Suppor t ive Move( s )

B lu m -Ku lka , e t . a l. (1989:27 6) s t a t e the fo l lowing as pos s ib le s t ruc tures o f the Head Act

an d S u p p o r t i v e M o v e (s ):

(a) the minimal uni t only;

( b ) P o s t- p o s ed : H ead A c t + S u p p o r t i v e M o v e ( s ) ,

P r e - p o s ed : S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H ea d A c t ;

( c ) Mul t ip le He ads .

Based on the above poss ib le s truc tures o f the Head Act and Su ppor t ive M ov e( s ) , (b ) was

subca tegor i s ed in to th ree and (d) No Head Act s was added by the au thor , and the fo l lowing

are the poss ib le s t ruc tures o f the He ad Act and Suppo r t ive Move( s ) :

( a ) Min imal un i t on ly (Hea d A ct on ly)

(b- 1 ) Pos t -posed : Head Act + S upp or t ive M ove( s )

( b - 2 ) P r e -p o s ed : S u p p o r t iv e M o v e + H ead A c t

( b - 3 ) In b e t w een - p o s ed : S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H ead A c t + S u p p o r t iv e M o v e

(c) Mul t ip le Hea ds

( d ) N o H ead A c ts : S u p p o r t i v e M o v e ( s ) o n l y

The r esu l t s o f the s truc tures used by the Br i t ish sub jec t s a re as fo l lows :


4/18

67 4 SA EK O F U K U S ~

1 0 0

9 0

8 0

7 0

6 0

5 0

4 0

3 0

2 0

10

0 i i i i i

(a ) (b - l ) (b -2) (b -3) (c ) (d )

S i t u a t i o n 1

S i t u a t i o n 2

( a ) H A o n l y

( b - l ) H A + S M

(b-2) SM + HA

( b -3 ) S M + H A + S M

( e ) M u l t i p l e H A

( d ) S M o n l y

Struc tu res

Fig. 1 . Structures by the Br i t ish subjects

Fro m these r esu l t s , it can be s a id tha t in si tua tion 1 in which the degree of im pos i t ion was

low , the s t ruc ture ( a ) Head Act on ly was mos t f r equent ly used , bu t in s i tua t ion 2 in which

the degree of impo s i t ion wa s increased , the s t ruc ture (b ) Head Act accompan ied by

S u p p o r t i v e M o v e w as m o s t f r eq u en tl y u sed ( 5 9 . 9 % ) , an d am o n g ( b ) , ( b - 2 ) S u p p o r t iv e

M ove + Hea d Act was prefer r ed . S ince the degree of impo s i t ion increased in s i tua tion 2 ,

the sub jec t s t ended to mi t iga te the impo s i t ion by making a suppo r t ive mov e f ir s t. Ho we ver ,

in s i tua t ion 2 , the st ruc ture ( a ) Head Act on ly was s ti ll used by 33 .3% . I t m ay be no ted tha t

( d ) S u p p o r t i v e M o v e o n l y w as em p l o y ed i n si tu a t io n 2 , a l th o u g h i t w as em p l o y ed b y o n l y

one sub jec t . The s t ruc ture (d ) Suppor t ive M ove on ly was no t em ploy ed in s i tua t ion 1 .

When the degree of impos i t ion was r e la t ive ly low , the sub jec t s s t a t ed the i r Head Act , bu t

wh en the degree of impos i t ion increased as in si tua tion 2 , there was a sub jec t w ho avoided

s ta t ing the Head Act , by g iv ing on ly suppor t ive mo ves . ( e .g . Yo u kn ow I 've go t these

t w o f r ien d s co m i n g u p a t t he w eek e n d . I ' v e g o t a p r o b lem w i t h m y r o o m . A r e y o u g o i n g

to be here a t the week end? I t ' s jus t tha t I 'm hav ing a p rob lem put t ing them bo th in one

r o o m . )

The fo l lowin g are the r esu l ts o f the s t ruc tures used by the J apanese sub jec t s :


5/18

R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T I S H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 7 5

1 0 0 % -

9 0 % -

8 0 % -

7 0 %

6 0 ~

. . . , . . . . . ,

5 0 % - ii~iii i~i~

i : i : i : i : i : i

4 0 % - ~i i~iiiii~

i i ii i

3 0 % - ii ii i i

: i : : i : i

2 0 % - ii i iiiii

. . . . . . . . , ,

~ o % - i i i ii ii l

: : : i : ? i

0 %

a ) b - l ) b - 2 )

( b - 3 ) ( c ) ( d )

S i t u a t i o n 1

S i t u a t i o n 2

( a ) H A

o n l y

( b - l ) H A + S M

( b - 2 ) S M + H A

( b -. 3 ) S M + H A + S M

( c )

M u l t i p l e

H A

( d ) S M o n l y

St r uc t ur e s

Fi g . 2 . S t r u c t u r e s b y t h e Jap an e se su b j e c t s

T h e d i s t r ib u t ion o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s b y t h e Jap an e se su b j e c t s was n ot as d ive r se as t h ose o f t h e

B r i t i sh su b j e c t s . In s i t u at ion 1 , th e s tr u ct u re ( a ) H e a d Ac t on ly wa s a l so m os t f r e q u e n t ly

u s e d , a n d t h e r e st b e i n g t h e s tr u c tu r e o f ( b - 2 ) S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H e a d A c t . A m o n g t he

s t r u c t u r e s o f ( b ) , ( b - 2 ) was t h e mos t f r e q u e n t ly u se d b ot h in s i t u at ion 1 an d in s i t u at ion 2 .

I t ap p e ar s t h at t h e Jap an e se su b j e c t s p r e fe r r ed t o m i tiga t e th e f or c e b e f or e m ak in g a r e q u e s t .

In s i t u at ion 2 , in wh ic h t h e d e gr e e o f imp os i t ion w as in c r e ase d , t h e u se o f t h e st r u ct u r e ( a )

H e a d A c t o n l y d e c r e a s e d , a n d ( b -2 ) S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H e a d A c t w a s m o r e fr e q u en t ly u s e d

t h an in s i t u at ion 1 , an d ( d ) S u p p or t ive M ove on ly was a l so u se d in si t u at ion 2 , a s f ou n d in

t h e B r i t i sh su b j e c t s d a t a .

S t r a t e gy t yp e s O f t h e H e ad Ac t

T h e s t r a t e gy t yp e s o f t h e H e ad Ac t c an b e c las s i f i e d in t o t h e f o l lowin g:

( a ) D ir e c t or b a ld on r e c or d r e q u e s t s

e . g . O p e n th e w i n d o w .

( b ) S tr u c t u r a l or c on ve n t ion a l in d ir e ct r e q u e s t s

e . g . W o u l d y o u m i n d o p e n i n g t h e w i n d o w , p le a se ?

( c ) Pr agmat ic or n on - c on ve n t ion a l in d ir e c t r e q u e s t s

e . g . I t s h o t in h e r e .

( d ) C o m b i n a t i o n o f ( a ) , ( b ) o r ( c )

T h e s t r a t e gy t yp e s o f t h e H e ad Ac t u se d b y t h e B r i t i sh su b j e c t s ar e as f o l lows:


6/18

676 SAEKO FUKUSHIMA

1 0 0 - /

i

9 0 % -

8 0 -

7 0

-

6 0 % -

5 0 % -

4 0 % -

3 0 % -

2 0 % -

1 0 % -

0 % /

(a) (c) Cd)

iii

ii i

i i i i

iii

:i:

/

( b )

[ ~ S i t u a t i o n 1

S i t u a t i o n 2

( a ) D i r e c t

( b ) C o n y e n t i o n a i

( c ) N o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l

( d) C o m b i n a t i o n

S t r a t e g y t y p e s

Fig. 3. St rategy types of HA by the Br i t ish subjects

In both s i tuat ions 1 and 2 , the Br i ti sh subjects chose (b) conv ent ional indirect reques ts .

To an alyse the s trategy types of the Hea d Acts used by the Japanese subjec ts , i t i s ne cessary

to match the categor ies below with the B r i ti sh categor ies abov e.

(a) Direct or ba ld on record reques ts

Takahashi (1987) class i f ies the fol lowing examples as di rect di rect ives , and I would

conside r them as di rect or bald on reco rd reques ts . There are di f ferences in po l i teness level

among them, for ins tance, "Mado o akete kudasai" i s more pol i te than "Mado o akero," but

they all fall into the same ca tegory: d irect or bald on record.

e .g . Mad o o ake nasa i. (Open the wind ow . )

Mad o o akero . (Open the window . )

Mado o akete kudasa i . (P lease open the window . )

(b) St ructural or conven t ional indirect reques ts

The fo l lowing examples are a l so t aken f rom Takahashi (1987) , but I chose the fo l lowing

from the indirect di rectives ci ted in Takah ashi ( Ibid. ) on the bas is of conven t ional i ty. As

was the case in (a) Direct or bald on record req ues ts , there are di fferences in pol i teness level

among the fol lowing examples , but they are considered to fal l into the category of

convent ional indirect reques ts .

e .g . Ma do o akete kure masu ka . (Wil l you open the window ?)

Mado o akete it adake masuka . (Would yo u mind opening the window ?)

Mado o akerare masuk a . (Can you open the window?)

Mado o akete kudasaru yo o onegai deki masu ka . (Can I ask you to open the

w i ndow ?)

Mado o akerare ru ka doo ka to omoi m ashi te . (I wond er i f you co uld open the

w i ndow . )


7/18

R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T IS H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 77

M ado o ake te it adakeru to a r iga t ai no desu ga . ( I w ould apprec ia t e i t i f you w ould

o p en t h e w i n d o w . )

(c) Pragmat ic or non-convent ional indi rect requests

e.g. A tsui desu ne. (I t s hot . )

The s t ra tegy types o f t he Head Act emp loyed by the Japanese subjec ts a re as fo l lows:

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

(a) b ) c ) d )

Situation 1

Situation 2

(a) Direct

(b) Convent ional

(c) Non-convent ional

(d) Combinat ion

Stra tegy types

Fig . 4 . S t ra tegy types of H A by the Japanese subjec t s

The m ost f requent ly used s t ra tegy type used by the Japanese subjec ts was (b) Convent ional

indi rect requests , as was found in the data by the Bri t i sh subjects , a l though the percentage

of the use of convent ional indi rect reque sts by the Japa nese subjects wa s low er than that by

the Bri t i sh.

The major d i f fe rence be tween the resu lt s o f t he Japanese subjec t s and those of t he Br i ti sh

was tha t more d i rect reques t s were employed by the Japanese than the Br i ti sh . In s i tua t ion

1, in which the degre e of imposi t ion wa s low , almost hal f the subjects u sed di rect requests ,

and even in si tuat ion 2, in which the degree of imposi t ion increased, two subjects used this

st rategy type.

Thi s resu l t may have to do wi th the use of Japanese in re l a t i on to i n -group members ,

espec ia l ly among equal s . In Japanese , d i rec t forms are of t en used and permi t ted am ong in-

group members, especial ly when the interactants are equal in status, which was the case in

the reque st s i tuations in this s tudy . Tha t ma y be wh y di rect reque sts were often used by the

Japane se subjec ts . The use of d i rect reques t s among equal s t ends to s t rengthen the bond of

sol idari ty betwe en them. I t seem s that in Bri t ish society, negat ive pol i teness i s often

prefe rred, because distance i s highly valued in such relat ionships. I t i s somet ime s claimed

that Japa nese society i s a negat ive pol i teness oriented society (e .g. Blu m- Ku lka, 1987:

140) , bu t accord ing to my working hy pothes i s , it i s on ly so amo ng out -group mem bers . In


8/18

678 SAEKO FUKUSHIMA

Japanese soc ie ty , among in -g roup members , ba ld -on- record pos i t ive po l i t eness i s o f ten

used , s ince so l ida ri ty i s h igh ly va lued . Am ong ou t -g roup mem bers in Japanese soc ie ty ,

negat ive pol i teness is of ten used, because dis tance is h ighly valued in such re la t ionships .

Bri t ish socie ty is a lso c la imed to be a negat ive pol i teness socie ty . H ow ev er , th is does n ot

necessa r ily mean that Br i t ish peop le use on ly nega tive po l i teness . As wa s d i scussed above

regarding use of posi t ive and negat ive pol i teness in Japanese socie ty , both posi t ive and

negat ive pol iteness are used in Bri t ish socie ty , too . In o ther word s, posi t ive pol i teness is

a l so used among in -g roup mem bers in Br i ti sh soc iety . Ho we ver , the re may be d i f ferences

in exercise of posi t ive and negat ive pol i teness in Bri t ish socie ty and that in Japanes e so cie ty .

The d i f fe rences be tween them may l ie in the boundary o f in -g roup and ou t -g roup members

in each socie ty . Bri t ish and Japan ese people m ay consider people in the same s i tuation as

d i f fe ren t g roup members .

Bri t ish subjects in th is s tudy seem to have considered the person who l ives next door in a

s tuden ts ' ha l l a s an ou t -g roup member , bu t Japanese sub jec t s seem to have cons ide red the

person in the same s i tua t ion as an in -g roup mem ber . Conseq uen t ly , B r i ti sh sub jec t s used

negat ive pol i teness f requently to minimise imp osi t ions , while Japanese subjects used bald-

on-record pol i teness f requently to s trengthen sol idar i ty between in-group members .

Altho ugh th is s t i ll needs to be invest igated fur ther , the d ifferences in use of s t ra tegy type s

between Bri t ish and Japanese subjects may l ie in th is k ind of d ifference.

Forms o f the Head Ac t

Sif ianou (199 2: 125-156) categorises the forms of Head Act as fo l lows:

1 . Imperat ives

2. In terrogat ives

3 . Nega t ives

4. Declara t ives

4 .1 . Hin ts

4 .2 . Need s ta temen ts

5. Elliptical construction

Am ong the ca tegorie s above , Nega t ives can a l so be inc luded in In te r roga t ives , ( e .g .

W ould n ' t you . . . ? ) o r in Dec la rat ives (e .g . I wo u ldn ' t m ind ano the r d r ink . You cou ldn ' t

rust le som ething up for me .) Th erefo re , Negatives will be included in In terrogat ives and

Declara t ives . El l ip t ica l construct ion can a lso be included in the o ther categories . Fo r

instance, the verb is miss in g in (Call) an amb ulance, wh ich is an imperat ive . Th erefore ,

e l l ip t ica l construct ion wil l be a subcategory of Imperat ives , In terrogat ives , Declara t ives , i f

there is any in the product ion. Hints and Need s ta tements descr ibe the type of Head Act .

Ty pes o f Hea d A c t wi l l be d iscussed in the nex t sec tion . The fo l lowing a re the ca tegor ie s o f

forms of Head Act to be invest igated here:

Forms o f the Head Ac t

(a) Imperat ives

(b) In terrogat ives

(c) Declaratives

The Head Acts used by the Bri t ish subjects were as fo l lows:


9/18

REQUESTING IN BRITISH ENGLISH AND JAPANESE 679

3 0 -

i

2 0 -

1 0

0% e'

1 0 0 - /

9 0 -

8 0 -

7 0 -

6 0 -

5 0 -

4 0 -

/

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil

ii iii i iiii'i

|

a ) b )

I

c )

~ ] S i t u a ti o n 1

S i t u a t i o n 2

( a ) I m p e r a t i v e s

( b ) I n t e r r o g a t i v e s

( c ) D e e l a r a t i v e s

F o r m s

Fi g . 5 . F o rm s o f HA by the Br it i sh sub jec t s

As i s obv ious , In t e r roga t ives were t he mo s t p re fe r red fo rm in bo th s i t ua tions .

In t e r roga t ives g ive t he Heare r an op t ion to exe rc i se t he cho ice , so , m i t i ga t ing the fo rce o f

the reques t .

In s i t ua tion 1 , t he He ad Ac t w i th Dec la ra t i ves u sed nega t ion , I cou ld n ' t b o r row som e sa l t ,

cou ld I? And one o f t he Head Ac t s i n si t uat ion 2 wi th Dec la ra t i ves wa s w i th nega t ion ,

Y o u w o u l d n ' t p o s s ib l y b e a b le t o p u t t h e o t h e r o n e u p , w o u l d y o u ? A n d t h e se t w o w e r e

p r o d u c e d b y t he s a m e s u b je c t . N e g a t i v e s w e r e n o t f o u n d a n y w h e r e e l s e a n d n e i th e r w e r e

el l ip t ical const ruct ions.

T h e f o r m s o f t h e H e a d A c t s u s e d b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b je c t s w e r e a s f o l l ow s :


10/18

680 SAEKO FUKUStUMA

1 0 0

9 0

8 0

7 0

6 0

4O

3 0

0

(a) (b)

i /:

(c)

S i t u a t i o n 1

S i t u a t i o n 2

( a ) I m p e r a t i v e s

( b ) I n t e r r o g a t i v e s

( c ) D e c l a r a t i v e s

F o r m s

F i g . 6 . F o r m s o f H A b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b je c ts

Al l t h ree fo rm s were used by the Japan ese sub jec t s , even thou gh In t e r roga t ives were m os t

f requen t ly used . Tw o Hea d Ac t s i n t he ca t egory o f In te r roga t ives and a l l t he Head A c t s i n

the ca t egory o f Dex la ra ti ves i n s i t ua tion 1 were wi th nega t ives , e .g . sh io o kash i te

ku rem asenk a (W on ' t you l end me some sa l t? ) As fo r t he e ll ip t ica l cons t ruc t ion , i t appea red

l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e in t he J a p a n e s e s a m p l e , e . g . k a s h i t e . ( L e n d ) c a n m e a n L e n d m e

s o m e s a l t. o r L e n d m e s o m e o f y o u r s a l t. H e r e t he o b j ec t n o u n s , m e a n d s o m e sa lt

a re mi ss ing . Th i s may be due to t he sen t ence cons t ruc t ion o f Japanese ; t ha t i s , i n Japan ese ,

i t i s no rmal t o omi t sub jec t s o r ob j ec t s a s l ong as t hey a re unders tood f rom con tex t .

Th ere fo re , i t ma y no t be poss ib l e t o ma ke a va l id com par i son be tween Japan ese and Br i t ish

requests in th is respect .

Th e ma jo r d i f fe rence be tween the fo rm s used by the Br i t ish sub jec t s and those b y the

Japanese sub jec t s was t ha t on ly t he Japanese sub jec t s u sed Impera t ives i n bo th s i t ua t ions .

Th i s a l so re l a te s to thc d i scuss ion s i n S t ra t egy types o f t he Head Ac t . Tha t i s , i t seem s tha t

among in -g roup members i n Japanese cu l tu re , d i rec t reques t s were f requen t ly used , because

so l ida r i ty i s h igh ly va lued .

Ty pes o f t he H c .ad Ac t s

In t h i s sec t ion , t he t ypes o f t he Head Ac t w i l l be i nves t i ga t ed , because t he same fo rm can

expre ss d if fe ren t t ypes o f Head A c t . Fo r i n s t ance , t he dec l a ra ti ve can be s ta t i ng S ' s

expec t a t ion o f H ' s do ing A (e .g . I wou ld apprec i a te it i f you wou ld open the win do w . ) , o r

the dec l a ra ti ve can g ive h in t s , (e .g . I t ' s ho t i n he re . ) an d bo th o f t hem fa l l i n to d i f fe ren t

ca t egor i e s o f reques t s , i . e . , conven t iona l and non-conven t iona l reques t s re spec t ive ly .

I t r i ed t o u se t he ca t egor i e s o f reques t s t ra t eg i es by Blum-Kulka , e t . a l . (1989 : 278-281) ,

bu t som et imes I found i t d i f f icu l t t o app ly t hem to t he Japanese da t a , because o f t he


11/18

REQUE STING IN BRITISH ENGLISH AND JAPANESE 681

d i f f er e n c e s b e t w e e n J a p a n e s e a n d t h e o t h e r l a n g u a g e s u s e d i n C C S A R P . I fo u n d i t d i ff ic u lt

t o u se t he c l a ss i f i ca t i on by Blum-Kulka , e t . a l . I b i d . ) a l so because a l l t he examples

p rodu ced by the Br i t i sh sub jec t s fe ll i n to t he ca t egory o f P rep a ra to ry . The fo llowing i s

the de f in i t i on and exam ples o f P repa ra to ry

I b i d .

: 280 ) .

Preparatory: The utterance contains reference to a preparatory condition for the feasibility of the Request,

typically one of ability, w illingness, O possib ility, as conventionalized in the given language.

Can I borrow yo ur notes?

Could yo u possibly get you r assignment done this week?

I was w ondering if you w ould give me a lift.

In ana lys ing the t ypes o f t he reques t s t ra t eg i es u sed in t h i s s t udy , I t r i ed t o se t up the

fo l lowing ca t egor i e s , based on speaker ' s i n t en t ion :

(a ) S t a t i ng S ' s des i re

e . g . O p e n t h e w i n d o w .

(b - 1 ) As k ing H ' s w i l l , des i re , o r w i l l i ngness t o do A

e . g . W i l l y o u o p e n t h e w i n d o w ?

( b - 2 ) A s k i n g H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s r e q u e s ti n g H t o d o A

e . g . C a n I a s k y o u t o o p e n th e w i n d o w ?

( b - 3 ) A s k i n g H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s d o i n g A

e .g . Co u ld I bo r row your sal t?

( b - 4 ) A s k i n g H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r t he t h ir d p a r t y ' s d o i n g A

e . g . C o u l d o n e o f m y f r i e n d s st a y in y o u r r o o m ?

( b - 5 ) A s k i n g H ' s s t a t e

e . g . D o y o u h a v e a n y s a l t I c ou l d b o r r o w ?

(b -6 ) A sk ing wi th imp l i c it re fe rence t o A

e .g . Can you th ink abou t i t ? (kangae t e ku remasuka)

( c - l ) Q u e s t i o n i n g H ' s d o i n g A

e . g . I w o n d e r i f y o u c o u l d o p e n t h e w i n d o w .

( c - 2) S t a t i n g S ' s e x p e c ta t io n o f H ' s d o i n g A

e .g . I wou ld apprec i a te it i f you wou ld op en i lae w in dow .

(c -3 ) S t a t i ng S ' s des i re

e .g . I cou ldn ' t bo r row som e sa l t , cou ld I ?

(c -4 ) S t a t i ng tha t H can do A

e . g . Y o u w o u l d n ' t p o s s i b ly b e a b le t o p u t th e o t h e r o n e u p , w o u l d y o u ?

(c -5 ) Need s t a t emen t

e .g . I need your he lp .

(c -6 ) H in t s

e .g . I t ' s ho t i n he re .

(a ) , (b ) and (c ) i n t he above ca t egor i e s co r respond to t he c l a ss i f i ca t i on o f t he fo rms o f t he

He ad A c t in t he sec t ion , Fo rm s o f t he Hea d Ac t.

Th e fo l low ing a re t he t ypes o f th i~ He ad A c t s emp loyed by the Br i t ish sub jec ts :


12/18

682 SA EK O F U K U S H I

1 0 0 % - -

9 0 % -

8 0 % -

7 0 % -

6 0 % -

5 0 % -

4 0 %

3 0 %

2 0 %

1 0 %

0 %

, . , , . ,

iilill

i i i i l

i iili

~i

: i : i : i

: :

/ '

I I I I I I I F I I

T y p e s

Fig. 7. Types of HA by the Bri t i sh subjects

S i t u a t i o n 1

S i t u a t i o n 2

( a ) S ' s des i r e

(b - 1 ) H ' s wi l l

( b - 2 ) H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s

r e q u e s t i n g H

( b - 3 ) H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s

d o i n g A

( b - 4 ) H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r t h e

t h i r d p a r t y

( b - 5 ) H ' s s t a t e

( b - 6 ) I m p l i c i t r e f .

( c - 1 ) H ' s d o i n g A

( c - 2) S ' s e x p e c t a t i o n

( c - 3 ) S ' s d e s i r e

(c- .4) H ca n do A

( c - 5 ) N e e d s t a t e m e n t

( c - 6 ) H i n t s

In s i tua t ion 1 , (b -3) Ask ing H ' s perm iss ion for S ' s reques t ing H to do A (e .g . Could I

borrow your sa l t ? ), was m ost frequent ly used , fo llowed by (b-5) Asking H ' s s t at e (e .g . Do

you ha ve any sa l t I could borrow ?) . In si tua t ion 2 , i n which the degree of imposi ti on

increased , (b- l ) Asking H ' s wi l l , des i re , o r wi l l i ngness t o do A (e .g . Would you mind

put t ing one of my f r iends up for t he n igh t?) , w as most f requent ly used , fo l lowed by (b-4)

Asking H ' s permiss ion for t he th i rd par ty t o do A (e .g . Could one of my f r i ends s t ay in

your room, p l ease?) .

Th e fol low ing are the resul t s of the types of the He ad Acts used by the Japa nese subjects:


13/18

R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T I SH E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 83

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% I I I i i I J i ~ i I I /

. . - cq ~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~

Situation 1

Situation 2

(a) S's de sire

(b- 1) H's will

(b-2) H's permission for S's

requesting H

(b-3) H's perm ission for S's

doing A

(b-4) H's permission for the

third party

(b-5) H's state

(b-6) Im plicit ref.

(c-1) H's doing A

(c-2) S's expectation

(c-3) S's desire

c-4) H can d o A

c-5) Ne ed statement

c-6) Hints

Types

F i g . 8 . T y p e s o f H A b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c ts

I n s i t u a t io n 1 , ( a ) S t a t i n g S ' s d e s i r e ( e . g . k a s h i t e , L e n d ) , w a s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d ,

f o l l o w e d b y ( c - l ) Q u e s t i o n i n g H ' s d o i n g A ( e . g . k a s h i t e m o r a e n a i k a n a a , I w o n d e r i f y o u

c o u l d l e n d . . . ) . I n s i tu a t io n 2 , (c - 1) Q u e s t i o n i n g H ' s d o i n g A w a s m o s t f r e q u e n tl y u s e d

( e . g . t o m e t e k u r e n a i k a s h i r a , I w o n d e r if y o u c o u ld p u t u p . . . ) , f o l l o w e d b y ( b - 3 ) A s k i n g

H ' s p e r m i s s i o n fo r S ' s d o i n g A ( e .g . h e y a o k a sh i te m o r a e m a s e n k a , C o u l d y o u le n d m e

y o u r r o o m ? ) . T h e p r e fe r r e d ty p e s o f H e a d A c t s a re d i f f e re n t fr o m t h e o n e s u s e d b y t h e

B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s .

T v o e s o f S u p p o r t iv e M o v e s

B l u m - K u l k a , e t. al . ( 1 98 9 : 2 8 7 - 2 8 8 ) d e f i n e s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s a s f o l l o w s a n d l i st t he

f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s :

In using specific types of

Support ive Move ,

a speaker intends to mit igate or aggravate his requesL

Suppo rt ive m oves are external to the Head Act occurring ei ther before or after i t .

M i t iga t ing Suppor t ive Moves :

(a) Preparator

I 'd like to ask you some th ing . . .

(b ) Get t ing a p recom mitment

Could you do m e a favor?

(c) Gro unde r reasons, explanations or just ificat ions

Judith ,

I m issed cla ss yesterday.

Could I borrow yo ur notes?

(d) Disarmer

I know you don t l ike lending out your notes, bu t cou ld you make an excep t ion th i s t ime?


14/18

6 8 4 S A E K O F U K U S H ] ] k ~

( e ) P r o m i s e o f r e w ar d

C o u l d y o u g i v e m e a l i f t h o m e ?

I ' l l p i t c h i n o n s o m e g a s .

( f) I m p o s i t i o n m i n i m i z e r

W o u l d y o u g i v e m e a li f t , b u t o n l y i f y o u ' r e g o i n g m y w a y .

A g g r a v a t i n g s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s

I n s u l t

Y o u ' v e a l w a y s b e e n a d i r t y p i g , s o c l e a n u p

"Ha'eat

M o v e t h a t e a r

i f y o u d o n ' t w a n t a ti c k e t

M o r a l i z i n g

I f o n e s h a r e s a f l a t o n e s h o u l d b e p r ep a r ed t o p u l l o n e ' s w e i g h t i n c l e a n i n g i t , s o g e t o n w i t h t h e w a s l fi n g

up~

I n t hi s s t u d y , n o a g g r a v a t in g s u p p o r ti v e m o v e s w e r e f o u n d . T h e y a r e h i g h l y u n l ik e l y i n

these con tex t s , because t he reques t e r i s seek ing benef i t f rom the reques t ee . On ly mi t iga ting

suppo r t i ve mo ves wi ll be d i scussed he re . I added one m ore ca t egory to the above

ca t egor i sa t ions o f suppor t i ve moves : (g ) Ava i l ab i li ty check ing . Som e suppor t i ve mo ves

wh ich check the H ' s ava i lab i li ty t o pu rsue t he reques t fa ll i n to t h is ca t egory .

e .g . Are you go ing to be he re a t t he weekend?

Th e fo l lowing a re t he re su l ts o f t he ana lys i s o f Br i ti sh sub jec t s ' u se o f supp or t i ve m oves :

100% -

9 0 %

8 0 %

7 0 %

6 0 %

5 0 %

4 0 %

3 0 %

2 0 %

10%

0%

i l

(a) b ) (c) d ) (e) (f)

g )

Si tua t i on 1

S i tua t i on 2

(a) Prepara tor

(b ) P recom m i tm en t

(c) Grounder

(d) Disarmer

(e) Reward

(f ) Imp. Minimizer

(g ) A va i l ab i l i t y

Supportive oves

Fi g . 9 . S M by the Bri t i sh subjects

Gr oun der wa s t he mo s t f requen t ly used suppor t i ve m ove bo th i n si t ua tion 1 and s i t ua tion 2 .

Othe r t ypes o f suppor t i ve mo ves , such as D i sa rm er (e .g . Th i s i s a sk ing a lo t . ) and

Ava i l ab i li t y check ing (e .g . Are you g o ing to be he re a t t he week end? ) w ere added to

Gr oun der whe n the deg ree o f impos i t i on inc reased in s it ua t ion 2 . Th e num ber o f t he

suppo r t i ve mov es inc reased as the deg ree o f impos i t ion inc reased . Th e to t al num ber o f t he

suppo r t i ve m oves i n s i t ua tion 1 wa s f i ve , and tha t i n s i t ua tion 2 was twen ty -o ne .


15/18

R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T I S H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 8 5

T h e f o l lo w i n g a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s ' u s e o f t h e s u p p o r t i v e

m o v e s :

1 0 0 % - /

9 0 % -

8 0 % -

7 0 % -

6 0 % -

5 0 % -

i,

4 0 -

30% -~

2 0 %

1 0 %

0% '

Ca) Cb) (c)

(d) (e) (f) (g)

S i t u a t i o n 1

S i t u a t i o n 2

(a ) P repara to r

( b ) P r e c o m m i t m e n t

( c ) G r o u n d e r

(d) D isa rmer

(e ) Reward

( f ) I m p . M i n i m i z e r

( g ) A v a i l a b i l i t y

S u p p o r t i v e M o v e s

F i g . 1 0 . S M b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s

A s w a s s e e n i n th e B r i ti s h su b j e c t s ' u s e o f s u p p o r t iv e m o v e s , m o r e s u p p o r t iv e m o v e s w e r e

u s e d as t h e d e g r e e o f i m p o s i t i o n i n c r e a s e d , G r o u n d e r b e i n g t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d

s u p p o r t i v e m o v e t y p e i n b o t h s i t u a t i o n s . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s u s e d i n

s i t u a ti o n 1 w a s t h i rt e e n , a n d t h a t i n s it u a t io n 2 w a s t w e n t y - f i v e . A s f o r t h e o t h e r t y p e s o f

s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s , s o m e e x a m p l e s o f I m p o s i t io n M i n i m i z e r u s e d b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e ct s

w e r e a s f o l l o w s :

S i t ua t i on 1

m osh i yok a t t a r a ( I f i t i s a ll ri gh t )

S i t ua t i on 2

m osh i yok a t t a r a ( I f i t i s a ll r igh t )

c h o t t o z u z u s h i i k a m o s h i re n a i k e d o ( I t m a y b e a s k i n g t o o m u c h )

I n si t u a ti o n 1 , I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e r s a lo n e w e r e u s e d , b u t i n s i tu a t i o n 2 w i t h h i g h e r d e g r e e

o f i m p o s i t io n , I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e rs w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y o t h e r su p p o r t i v e m o v e s , s u c h

a s G r o u n d e r s .

e . g . G r o u n d e r + H e a d A c t + I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e r

G r o u n d e r + I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e r + H e a d A c t

A v a i l a b i li t y c h e c k i n g w a s u s e d o n l y i n s it u a t io n 1 b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s .

e . g . s h i o m o t t e ta r a ( I f y o u h a v e s a l t)

I n s i t u a ti o n 1 , i n w h i c h A v a i l a b il i ty c h e c k i n g w a s u s e d , n o o t h e r s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s

o c c u r r i n g


16/18

686 SAEKO FUKUSt t IMA

D I S C U S S I O N

Ove ra l l , t he hypot he s i s t ha t t he h i ghe r t he de gre e o f i mpos i t i on , t he more po l i t e ne s s

s t ra t e g ie s a re e m p l o y e d b o t h i n E n g l i s h a n d J a p a n e s e w a s c o n f i r m e d . I t c a n b e s a i d t h at

p r o d u c t i o n i n s it u a ti o n 2 w a s m o r e e la b o r a t e, w i t h m o r e s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s , b o t h i n E n g l i s h

a nd in J a pa ne s e , t ha n t ha t i n s i tua t i on 1 . Ho we ve r , a c l ose r inve s t i ga t i on o f p rodu c t i on i n

E n g l i s h a n d i n J a p a n e s e r e v ea l ed s o m e d if f e r en c e s . T h e B r i t is h s u b j e c t s u s e d m o r e

m i t i g a ti n g s u p p o r t iv e m o v e s a n d m o r e c o n v e n t i o n al f o r m s t h a n t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s.

M o r e d i r ec t f o r m s a n d l es s s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s w e r e u s e d b y t he J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s , e v e n

t h o u g h t h e n u m b e r o f s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s i n c re a s e d in s it u a ti o n 2 .

The t w o s i tua t i ons use d in t h i s s t udy we re a s se s se d a s be i ng s i mi l a r i n t e rms of t he de gre e

of i mpos i t i on be t we e n B r i t i sh a nd Ja pa ne se c u l t u re s , a nd o t he r f a c t o r s , suc h a s soc i a l

d i s t a nc e a nd re la t ive pow e r be t we e n S a nd H w e re se t a s e qua l . Th e re fo re , t he d i f f e re nc e s

be t we e n t he B r i t ish sub j e c t s a nd t he Ja pa n e se sub j e c t s i n r e que s t s t r a te g i e s c a n b e

c ons i de re d a s be i ng un i nf l ue nc e d by d i f fe re n t pe rc e p t i ons o f t he s i t ua t i ons i n t e rms of t he

d e g r e e o f i m p o s i t io n .

As t he r e su l t s sh ow e d , ove ra l l t he Ja pa n e se sub j e c t s p rodu c t i on t e nde d t o be mo re d i re c t

t ha n t ha t o f t he B r i t i sh sub j e c t s . Th i s m a y c onf i rm t he d i sc uss i on i n S tr .a t egy t ype s o f He a .d

Ac t , t ha t i s , i n J a pa ne se soc i e t y , a mong i n -group me mbe rs so l i da r i t y i s h i gh l y va l ue d a nd

pos i t i ve po l i t e ne s s a nd go i ng ba l d-on- re c ord a re e mp l oye d a s po l i t e ne s s s tr a t e g i e s . The use

of ba l d -on- re c o rd s t r a t e g i es c a n show t ha t S a nd H a re no t d i s t a n t , bu t i ns t e a d c a n s how

t h at S a n d H a r e o n c o m m o n g r o u n d .

Ac c o rd i ng t o B ro wn a nd Le v i nso n (1978 : 70) , r e que s t s a re i n tr i ns i ca l l y fa c e - t h re a te n i ng

a c t i v i ti e s , t h re a t e n ing t he a dd re s se e s ne ga t i ve f a c e . Le e c h (19 83: 106 ) c on t e nds t ha t

re que s t s , whi c h a re c a t e gor i z e d a s d i re c t i ve s , c ompr i se a c a t e gory o f i l l oc u t i ons i n whi c h

ne ga t i ve po l i te ne s s i s i mpor t a n t . In t he se po l i t e ne s s t he or i e s , i t ha s be e n wi d e l y a c c e p t e d

t ha t r e que s t s a re FTAs , a nd t he re fore , va r i ous po l i t e ne s s s t r a t e g i e s a re c hose n i n o rde r t o

a vo i d o r mi t i ga t e t he poss i b l e t h re a t s t o f a c e . B l u m- Ku l ka , e t . a l. (1985 : 114) s ta te :

rhe variety of wa ys to m ake requests is prob ably motivated by the need to minimize the imposition

involved in the act itself. Ill choo sing a strategy located at s om e point on the con tinutun o f d irectness, the

speaker reveals his o r her appraisal of the so cial situation, mid the degree to wlfich the situation cal ls for

nfinimization of the imposition involved.

S i f i a nou (1992: 99) a dm i t s t he poss i b i l i t y o f r e que s t s be i ng FT As , bu t i t is i n t e re s t i ng t o

no t e t ha t she c ons i de r s r e que s t s a s i mpl y i ng c l ose ne ss a nd i n t i ma c y .

How far, ho wev er, is it a valid assumption tha t requests always threaten the addressee s negative face and,

therefore, to w hat extent is ne gative politeness imp ortant? It cou ld be argued that this will be the case only

when negat ive face is mo re important and valued mo re than posi tive face . Req uests can also imply

l o s ene s s

and intimacy, in the sense that one must feel close enough to ask somebody else to do something,

and consequently pos itive politeness is impo rtant, too.

W he n re qu e s t s func t i on t o i mp l y c l ose n e ss , t he l i ngu i s ti c c ho i c e s a re a s fo l l ow s : (S i f i a nou ,

1992: 99)

...using a bald impe rative in a construc tion including a diminu tive may indicate concern for the addressee s

positive face throug h the em phasis of affection.


17/18

REQU ESTING IN BRITISH ENGL ISH AND JAPANESE 687

Si f i a nou (1993: 72 -73) a l so s t a t e s t ha t i n Gre e k t he re a re r e que s t s wh i c h c a nn ot be

pe rc e i ve d a s f a c e - th re a t e n ing :

Requesting such things, then, cann ot be perceived as a face-threatening, impo sing action a nd , consequently,

off-record requests in such c ontexts do not function to soften an imposition, since there is n o m p o s t o n

involved. (author s emphasis)

(Ibid. :73)

Th e a bove d i sc uss i o n re l a t e s t o t he t ype s o f soc ie t ie s : wh a t i s h i gh l y va l ue d i n e a c h soc i e t y .

A n d a l s o i n t he s a m e s o c i e t y , t h e re m a y b e r e q u e s t s w h i c h f u n c t i o n a s F T A s a n d r e q u e s t s

w h i c h i m p l y c l o s e n e s s . W h e t h e r c e r ta i n r e q u e s t s b e c o m e F F A s o r n o t m a y a l s o d e p e n d o n

t he de gre e o f i mpos i t i on , a nd t he r e l a t ionsh i p be t we e n t he i n t e ra ct a n t s . In J a pa ne se soc i e t y ,

f o r e x a m p l e , a m o n g i n - g r o u p m e m b e r s , s o l i d a ri ty i s h i g h l y v a l u e d .

Deference politeness is one of the salient features of Japanes e culture, b ut on the ot he r hand , solidarity

politeness is also impo rtant, especially when we interact with people such as fam ily mem bers, close friends

and close colleagues. (Fukushima, 1995: 42)

I n s u c h a c a s e , r e q u e s t s c a n f u n c ti o n t o i m p l y c l o s e n e s s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e u s e o f b a ld

i m p e r a ti v e s i s p o s s i b l e . A s m a n y o t h er s t u d ie s h a v e s h o w e d ( e . g . N a k a n e , 1 9 7 0 , L e b r a ,

1976 , We t z e l , 1985 ) , g roup i de n t i ty i s ve ry imp or t a n t i n J a pa n e se soc i e t y . In -grou p/ ou t -

g roup d i s t i nc ti on i s r e f l e ct e d in la ngu a ge c ho i c e . We t z e l (1985: 156) sug ge s t s a s fo l l ows :

Japanese tlfink abou t and coglfitively represent social situations in term s of their group rather than individual

iden tity ....

W h e n r e q u e s t s a r e m a d e t o o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s , a r e q u e s t e r m a y f e a r F T A s , b e c a u s e

d i s t a nc e i s h i gh l y va l ue d . Th e re fore , a r e que s t e r ma y c hoose ne ga t i ve po l i t e ne s s , o r o f f -

r e c o rd p o li t en e s s w i th m i t i g a ti n g d e v i c e s . T h i s m a y , h o w e v e r , h a v e t o d o w i t h t h e d e g r e e

of i mpos i t i on o f r e que s t s , i . e . , r e que s t s wi t h h i gh de gre e o f i mpos i t i on ma y l i ke l y t h re a t e n

t h e r e q u e s t e e s f a c e , b u t r e q u e s ts w i t h lo w d e g r e e o f i m p o s i t io n m a y n o t d o s o , a n d t h is

di f fe rence i s re f lec ted in the choice of reques t s t ra tegies .

Po l i t e ne s s doe s no t ne c e s sa r i l y me a n t he use o f i nd i re c t ne s s o r ne ga t i ve po l i t e ne s s . The

s t u d ie s b y B l u m - K u l k a ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d b y L e e - W o n g ( 1 9 9 4 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , i ll u s tr a te t h is . L e e -

Wong (1994: 509) s t a t e s a s fo l l ows :

From the Ch inese viewpoint, negative politeness is irrelevant in a con text where bein g indirect can be

perceived as inappropriate - (a) where the req uest is deem ed to be ea sily carried ou t, (b) w here bo th

interactants are familiar or socially close, (c) where the speaker is in a po sition o f pow er or au thority.

One of t he i mpor t a n t i s sue s i n t h i s s t udy wa s t he use o f r e que s t s t r a t e g i e s by B r i t i sh a nd

J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s , w h i c h r e l a te s to a d i s ti n c ti o n o f i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p .

H o w e v e r , o n e o f th e l im i t a ti o n s o f t h is s tu d y w a s t h a t i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p w a s

not c l e a r ly de f i ne d . In fu t u re s t ud i e s g roup m e m be r sh i p ne e ds t o be c le a r l y de f i ne d a nd

a l so ne e d i ng i nve s t i ga t i ng a re (1 ) whe t he r t he re a re a ny d i f fe re nc e s i n t he de f i n i t i on o f i n -

g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p b e t w e e n B r i t i s h a n d J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e s ; ( 2 ) w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e

a n y d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e b o u n d a r y o f i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p b e t w e e n B r i t i s h a n d

J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e s , i. e . , w h o a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in - g r o u p o r o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s i n e a ch

c u l tu r e ; ( 3 ) w h e t h e r a n d h o w t h e d i f f er e n c e s o f i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p d e f i n it io n

a nd d i s t i nc ti on i n f l ue nc e t he r e a l is a t ion o f po l i t e ne s s , i f the re a re a ny d i f fe re nc e s . In t h i s

s t ud y , on l y s i t ua ti ons to ma ke a r e que s t to a pe r so n i n e qua l s t a t us we re us e d . A


18/18

688 SAEKO FUKUSHIMA

membership distinction may also apply to people of equal status, but in future studies the

situations with different social distance and relative pow er between S and H also need to be

investigated.

R E F E R E N C E S

Blum -Kulka, S. & Olshtain , E. (1984). Requests and Apologies: A Cross-Cultural Study

of Speec h Act Realization Patterns (CC SAR P). App lied L inguistics 5/3, 196-213.

Blum-Kulka, S . , H ouse, J . & Kasper , G. (eds . ) . (1989) . Cross-cultural pragmatics:

Req uests and apologies. Ablex , Norwood , NJ.

Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness in requests: Same or different? Journal

o f Pragmatics 11 131-146.

Blum-Kulka, S. , Danet, B. & Gherson, R. (1985). The Language of Requesting in Israeli

Society. In: Language and Social Situation. (Forga s, J . P . e d.) . pp. 113-139. Springer-

Verlag, New York.

Bro wn , P. & Levinson, S. (197 8). U niversals in language usage: Politeness phenomena.

In:

Q uestio ns and politeness: Strategies in social interaction.

(Goody, E. S. ed.) . pp.56-

310. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Fuku shim a, S. (1994). Tow ards Greater Comparabili ty in Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. The

Tsuru University Review 41 57-66.

Fukushima, S. (1995). Solicitousness: what i t is and how it works. Tsuru Studies in

Eng lish Linguistics and Literature 23 39-50 .

Lebra, T. S. (1976). Japa nese Pat terns o f Behavior. University Press of Hawaii ,

Honolu lu , HI .

Leech, G. N. (1983). Principles o f Pragmatics. Longman, L ondon .

Lee-W ong, S. M. (1994). Imperatives in Requests: D irect or impolite- Observations from

Chinese. Pragmatics 4/4. 491-515.

Nakane, C. (1970).

Japanese Society.

Penguin Books, H amm ondsworth .

Sifianou, M. (1992). Politeness Ph enom ena in E ngla nd and G reece: A Cross-Cultural

Perspective. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Sifianou, M. (1993). Off-record indirectness and the notion of imposition. Multi l ingua 2-

1, 69-79.

Takahashi, S . (1987).

A Co ntrastive Stud y o f ltwlirectness Exem plified in L1 Directive

Speech Acts Performed by Americans and Japanese. Unpublished MA Thesis,

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Wetzel , P . J . (1985). In-Group/Out-Group Deixis: Situational Variation in the Verbs o f

Giving and Receiving in Japanese. In:

Languag e and Social Situation

(Forgas , J . P .

ed.) . pp.141-157. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Fukushima Saeko 1996 Request Strategies in British English and Japanese

Documents

Transcript of Fukushima Saeko 1996 Request Strategies in British English and Japanese