From Rhetoric Musical Figures to Cognitive Types:

From Rhetoric Musical Figures to Cognitive Types: An Italian Lamento Strolling Along the Streets of Madrid

by

Rubén López Cano [email protected]

www.lopezcano.net

SITEM (Universidad de Valladolid) Seminario de Semiología Musical (UNAM)

University of Helsinki

Rubén López Cano 2002

Los contenidos de este texto están bajo una licencia Creative Commons. Consúltela antes de usarlo.

The content on this text is under a Creative Commons license.

Consult it before using this article.

Cómo citar este artículo: How to cite this article: López Cano, Rubén. 2002. “From Rhetoric Musical Figures to Cognitive Types: An Italian Lamento Strolling Along the Streets of Madrid”; paper presented at 9th International Doctoral and Postdoctoral Seminar on Musical Semiotics. University of Helsinki, November 13-17, 2002. (Paper edition forthcoming) On-line version: www.lopezcano.net (Consultado o descargado [día, mes y año]) (Accessed [Day Month Year of access])

From Rhetoric Musical Figures to Cognitive Types Rubén López Cano


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1. Introduction. Ojos pues me desdeñáis is a lovely song with an intense Spanish baroque flavour.

However, would you believe me if I told you that this song is a Lamento of the likes of

Lamento de Ariannna by Caludio Monteverdi or Dido´s lament by Purcell? (see ex. 1).

Ex. 1 Ojos, pues me desdeñáis by Spanish composer José Marín (ca. 1618-

1699) (Lázaro 1997: 150-153).



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Cont. Ex. 1 Ojos, pues me desdeñáis by Spanish composer José Marín (ca.

1618-1699) (Lázaro 1997: 150-153).



4


1618-1699) (Lázaro 1997: 150-153).



5


1618-1699) (Lázaro 1997: 150-153).

It is commonplace that Spanish baroque music genres, forms, and styles are quite

different from the contemporary music of other European countries. This affirmation is

basically true.1 During the 17th Century the whole of Hispanic culture seems to have

anchored itself in renaissance traditions avoiding new developments being introduced then

by the Italian musical vanguard. However, if we analyse this song within the scope of the

enactive semiocognitivist approach,2 we can see how it could be understood as a singular

example of an Italian or pan-European Lament.

1 For introductory and semiotic studies on 17th Century Spanish art song see López Cano (2001a, 2001b, 2001a, 2002b). 2 The enactivistic approach has been introduced into cognitive studies by biologist Francisco Varela and others scholars (see Varela, Thomson and Rosh 1992, Maturana 1995-1996 and Maturana and Varela 1980). Against naive realism and radical constructivism, enactivism claims the world emerges from the simultaneous interaction between objects,



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2. The Promenade in Madrid of an Italian lament

2.1. Sentencia 1.

In the first section we find the words: “Disdainful eyes”. This is a kind of sad

recognition. The poetic voice appears to say: “Dear eyes (and here the word “eyes” is a

synecdoche pars pro toto of the beloved), I love you deeply but I feel that you do not love

me. You heart does not respond to my love”. The state of depiction of the frustrated lover

expressed in these words is also intensified by music. The entire melodic movement of the

sample descends step by step. In the tradition of the theories of musical rhetoric figures

from the Baroque, this kind of fall was called catabasis (cf. López Cano 2000: 152).3 And

also, the melodic line is broken by short rests in imitation of sighs: the rhetorical suspiratio

(cf. López Cano 2000: 198-9). The end note of the fragment is a low D, the lower note of the

entire song: in rhetoric this was considered a kind of poetical exaggeration called hypobole

(a special case of hyperbole) (cf. López Cano 2000: 156-158).

Nonetheless, there is a much more important feature in this section: the fragment covers

a complete octave. It starts on a D and ends on the same pitch but in a octave lower (see bars 1

and 8). The repetition of the same element at the beginning and end of the same unity (x...x) is

called in musical rhetoric theory epanalepsis. When this repetition occurs in larger fragments

(x.../...x) it is called epanadiplosis. These figures belong to a family of rhetorical resources called

rhetorical circle. They define an important Stylistic type of lamenti. We can find epanalepsis or

epanadiplosis in many other laments. For example, let’s consider the introductory section of

Lamento de Arianna by Claudio Monteverdi (see ex.2)

environments and perceptual capabilities of organisms. The enactivistic approach has been introduced in musical semiotics in recent writings by Reybrouck (2001) and López Cano (2002f, 2002f and forthcoming). During the past 7th ICMS in Imatra (2001), the issue was introduced by Reybrouck and others in the special session devoted to pragmatism. The issue of understanding processes has been reintroduced in musical semiotics by Tarasti (2001 and 2002). 3 For a critique about the recent use of Musical rhetoric theories and its possible developments in semiotical studies see López Cano (2002c).



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Ex. 2a Lamento de Arianna by Claudio Monteverdi. Introductory Epanalepsis

Epanadiplosis

Anticipatio notae

Tetracordo descendete



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Ex. 2b Lamento de Arianna by Claudio Monteverdi. Anticipatio notae

We find also another epanalepsis in the entire macrostructure of Lagrime mie, a lament

by the composer Barbara Strozzi (Diporti di Euterpe, Venice, 1659).

Marín, moreover, develops in a very original way another strong stylistic type of lament.

The whole fragment is structured in two descendent tetrachords. The former goes from D to A

(bars 1-4), and the latter descends from G to D (bars 5-8). The continuous repetition of those

tetrachords gives an ostinato flavour to the movement. According to Ellen Rosand, the ostinati

descendent tetrachords are a kind of emblem of the lament genre (cf. Rosand 1979 and 1980).

Continuous ostinati also takes part in the rhetoric circle resources. Descendent tetrachord

ostinato as a stylistic type of lamenti could be actualised by a variety of different tokens.

Stylistic types and tokens function similarly as the peircian type-token dichotomy. “A type

is an ideal or conceptual category defined by features or a range of qualities that are essential

to its identity... a token, on the other hand is the perceptible entity that embodies or manifests

the features or qualities of the type” (Hatten 1994: 44-45). From the point of view of the

enactivistic approach, types are based on direct (perceptual) or cultural (transmitted) knowledge

of the world. They give prescriptions about how the embodied and embedded musical mind

interacts perceptually and cognitively, mentally and physically with the objects it considers as

tokens of this type. Both type and token are alternative phases of the same cognitive process

(Lidov 1999: 118). This process has much to do with categorisation mechanisms, one of the

leading subjects of recent musical cognitive research.4

It is possible to find one tetrachord ostinato in Amor, or Lamento della Ninfa by Claudio

Monteverdi (Book VIII of Madrigals) (See ex. 3).

4 For an introductory study of categorisation in cognitive science see Gardner (1987) and Margolis and Lawrence (1999). The most important compendium of experimental research on categorisation is Lakoff (1987). Lakoff y Johnson (1999) develop a philosophical reflection derived from this research. Umberto Eco’s approach to the theme is through



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Ex. 3 Amor, or Lamento della Ninfa, by Claudio Monteverdi. Ostinato Descendent

Tetrachord

In Dido’s Lament by Purcell, we can also find a chromatic version of the descendent

tetrachord ostinat (see ex. 4).

Ex. 4. and Figure 4. Dido’s Lament by Purcell. Chromatic Ostinato Descendent

Tetrachord.

the scope of perceptual semiosis (Eco 1999). For a study on categorisation in music see Zbikowski (1995, 1997 y 2002) and De Bellis (1995). For one application to the study of musical genres see López Cano (2002g).



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In Lagrime mie by Barbara Strozzi, it appears as a small section near the end of the song

(see ex. 5).

Ex. 5. Lagrime Mie by Barbara Strozzi. Ostinato Descendent Tetrachord

Ellen Rosand claims that it is possible to find many different tokens for this tetrachord

ostinato type. It could appear in chromatic versions, with inversions, suspensions, syncopations,

or in an isolated way without repetition, with the overlapping of voices, of phrases, and with any

kind of dissonances or alterations (Rosand 1980: 413). In Ojos pues me desdeñáis, Marín

proposes an original token of the lamento’s stylistic type descendent tetrachord ostinato. Its

main characteristics are twofold: 1) it appears in the main voice and not in the bass line; and 2)

its fragmentation in two different tetrachords gives it a pseudo ostinato character.

2.2. Sentencia 2: the refrain.

If in the first section we found a melancholic mood, a depressed atmosphere and pseudo

obsessive thoughts, in Section 2 we can see very interesting movement in the affect qualities of

the song. With the text Look not on me/ for I am loath that thou shouldst see/ how thou killest

me, the lover admits he is scorned by his beloved. However, in a fictitious dialogue with her, he

recovers his dignity and pride, saying: “OK. I admit it: I am dying for your love: you are killing

me. But I will not allow you to see how I suffer for you”. This kind of reaction is supported by the

music in the following way:



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The bass line begins to move in a imitative style. We find some persistence in melodic

design by descendent fourths but also we can perceive fourths in ascendant motion. An

inflexion to F major occurs in bar 21. Also, the bass line transforms its rhythmical structure from

a trochaic foot to a tribach one. A dotted rhythm appears in bar 22. Iambic rhythms (short-long)

appear as a kind of inversion of the trochaic rhythm of the introduction (long-short). This figure

is a antimetabole or hipallague (cf. López Cano 2000, 200-201 and 206-207) and expresses

contrary ideas. In bars 24 and 25, the movement suggests a cadence to D minor. However,

after the A major chord, we find a violent rupture of the movement. This is called ellipsis (cf.

López Cano 2000, 194-5): the broken cadence avoids D minor and introduces directly G major

as dominant of C.

But the most important feature of this part is surely the ascendant progression of perfect

cadences V-I in the repetition of the words “el ver” (b. 27-32). This is known in musical rhetoric

as gradatio. In this section the voice achieves the highest pitch of the whole work (hyperbole) in

a strong contrast with the slow and lower voice of the introduction (see ex. 1).

This is a vehement passage of reactive fury. In the lamento tradition we observe other

examples of this kind of reaction to pain (see ex.6.).

Ex. 6. Lamento de Arianna, by Claudio Monteverdi. Reactive fury



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Moreover, in this fragment we note other important features: we notice the ascendant

progression in the voice that does not move simultaneously with the guitar gradatio. There is

asynchrony between both movements. The voice goes ahead of the guitar movement. To play

insieme, the voice should have waited for one beat, and moreover it should have fallen to C in

the first beat of bar 28. However, it did not wait for its proper moment and, to the contrary,

rushed directly to the third beat of bar 27. This sequence shows this kind of “aphasia” (see ex. 1).

This manner of bringing forward an event is called anticipatio notae and it is not

uncommon in lamento songs (see ex. 2)

Anticipation is a symptom of the principal affect that governs the voice: in the same way

that the pitch jumps from its proper place, Arianna also in Ojos pues me desdeñáis loses her

poise, her self-control. Kierkegard taught us that anticipation of future events is a symptom of

the anxiety and anguish.

2.3. Sentence III: taking it easy.

The third section is less easy to understand within European lament tradition. In this

section we cannot easily find tokens of stylistic types of lamento genres. One of the reasons for

this is the strophic structure of this section: there are different words sung with the same music.

In this case, the link between words and music changes. In my opinion, this section shows one

of the main features of the art song 17th Century Hispanic culture: humour, irony and a special

way of hiding true passion (cf. López Cano 2001a and 2001b and Aktories and López Cano

2002).

The words of the first strophe communicate something like this: “Dear ‘eyes’, please do

not send me more suffering, as when you disdain me, you lose your beauty and become ugly.”

The music belongs to a strong musical topic of dance (it seems like a italian chaconna but I

have not identified yet the correct dance type) (see ex.1.). In my opinion, the music in this section tries to eliminate the painful dimension achieved

in the song. The voice wants to diminish its own pain: “you don’t love me but I don’t care”.

However, in bars 10 to 18, a critical moment occurs in the dance movement: a descendent

gradatio with chromatic steps (Pasuus duriusculus) and strong dissonances as false relations

(B-H, bar 10) and fourth augmented and fifths diminished (see ex.1.). This moment recalls the real pain in the voice. But, quickly, in the following bars, it tries to

recover the “calm” of the dance air (see ex.1.).

Following this section, the song returns to Section 2, the reactive process to fury. The

whole expressive process of the song could be depicted as shown in figure 1.



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Disd

ain

an

d re

late

d re

activ

e af

fect

s

Dejection

Fury (as reaction)

Disdain Dejection, depression,

rhetoric circle

Lament zone

2. Dignity process

Change of affect F major, antimetabole hipallague

Rupture with depression ellipse

Reactive vehement fury hyperbole, catalexis, anticipatio notae, ascendant gradatio

Simulation of calm (take it easy)

Dance-song

Hidden and intense pain descendent gradatio, fifths

diminished, passus duriusculus

Return to “calm” Dance-song

1. Lamento

3. Less pain (?)

Figure 7. Expressive movement in Ojos pues me desdeñáis.



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3. Stylistic types. The results of this analysis allow us to extract some important conclusions about the

nature of stylistic types.5 They are not structural matrices or simple collections of specific traits,

neither are they stocks of general rules for the production of specific stylistic tokens. Similar to

Umberto Eco’s notion of cognitive types (1999), stylistic types are enormous cognitive

databases destined to help musical competence to categorise correctly (or effectively) musical

objects. They also give instructions for the recognition and identification of stylistic tokens, as

well as instructions for establishing adequate strategies and operations for developing ulterior

cognitive processes. According to recent interactive cognitive theories such as the Autopoiesis

theory (Maturana 1995-1996 and Maturana and Varela 1980), the enactivistic cognitive

approach (Varela, Thomson and Rosh 1992), or Lakoff and Johnson's metaphor and embodied

mind philosophy (1980 and 1999), the construction of cognitive types for objects in the human

mind is closely related to the way in which we interact physically and cognitively with them. This

includes body interaction with musical objects (López Cano 2002g and 2002h).

According to theses approaches, I propose the following hypothesis about the possible

nature of stylistic types, their modes of being and the information they contain:

• Iconic relations: Stylistic types can prescribe iconic relations between types and tokens, not

according to a sufficient and necessary list of properties but in correspondence of

prototypes.6 They could be mental images, iconic translations of abstract phenomena,

Marr’s 3D images (Marr 1985), general reproductions of morphological features (or salient

traits) and also products of propositional rules and instructions (see below).

• Schemata: frames and scripts, flow charts, body action sequences, narrative sequences

and networks of complex actions (as perceptive actions).

• Instructions: systems of propositions, orders and instructions to guide the competence to

activate correct strategies or processes, to put in action ready-made routines or to “invent”

emergent strategies to explore rare tokens.

• Sinaesthesic information: cognitive types and multimedia sources of information, thymic

elements, smells, tactile, kinetic and thermal qualities.

• Interactive possibilities: Affordances: (according to Gibson's ecological perceptual vision

approach) they are the "performances" (services) of the object: what does the object invite

us to do with it?

4. The role of musical rhetorical figures: Musical rhetorical figures are not elements of a lost code we have recovered to

understand the correct signification of baroque music in a philological way (López Cano 2002c).

5 This concept was introduced by Robert Hatten (1994). In this paper I pretend to explore the cognitive enactive nature of this concept. 6 For an introduction to prototype theory, see Matrinelli (2002). See also the detailed study by Lakoff (1987).



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They are one part of a whole of information contained in the cognitive stylistic types: a trace of

complexes iconic translations developed by the musical mind to expand its understanding

capacities. They are one of the first ways by means of which musical theory begins to name

stylistic types and the intersemiotic operations of musical competence. Musical rhetorical figures

could be considered as a part of the nuclear content of Stylistic types. In Eco’s terms, the

nuclear content of one cognitive type is the stock of interpretations produced by culture in order

to make public the hidden information contained in cognitive types.

5. The layers of musical semiotic competence activity in vocal music. In Sections 1 and 2, we saw a constant appearance of stylistic types of Italian and

European lamento genre. However, in the third section things changed. The use of a dance

type as a way to hide real affects, and the introduction of depressive moment in order to reveal

them could be considered as a Stylistic type of Spanish art song from the Baroque. We can also

consider it as a special way of interaction of words and music not prescribed by any lyrical

genre. This is an important issue not satisfactorily resolved by semiotic studios of vocal music.

Let us consider some leading ideas about vocal music in musical semiotic studies.

The Belgian linguist Nicolas Ruwet (1972) put on the table two of the main questions

about vocal music:

1. The relationship between word and music is dialectic. One does not assimilate the

other, nor do both express the same. Their interactions could go from intersemiotic

convergence to contradiction.

2. Vocal music signifies the collision of two “semiotic systems”, but, it produces another

reality, a third semiotic system more complex and at variance with its two components.

Unfortunately, the epistemological limitations of the ruwetian structural semiolinguistic

approach prevents him from going further in this basic idea.

Gino Stefani (1976), for his part, developed this ideas as follows:

1. Intersemiotic dialectic between words and music is an inter-intepretative semiotical

relationship. Music does not limit itself to translating the meaning of words as following the

tradition of word painting. Both music and words, each in its own time, interprets the

signification of the other. Each of the respective semiotics intervenes in the realm of the other to

conform the global meaning of the song.

2. Intersemiotic counterpoint7 produces a kind of tertium quid, global and unified

semiotics of the song. This tertium deals with the lyrical genre to which the song belongs. The

genre prescribes the way by means of which music and words are articulated into a specific

song.

The problem with Stefani’s approach is its slavery to the notion of code. Large lists of

rules and codes cannot explain musical semiosis.8 As a result of Stefani’s use of the code

7 This term is mine. 8 One of the main contributions of Stefani to musical semiotics is his Theory of musical competence. This fine and fundamental contribution has been based on Umberto Eco’s codes theory. But there is one historical and theoretical paradox: Stefani’s musical competence theory was first published in 1982. Two years later, in 1984, Eco published his Semiotic and the philosophy of language. The last chapter of this book is a rigorous self-critique of his own code theory.



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oncept and his resistance to making considerations about style, he is unable to resolve the

following paradox: on one hand, the lyrical genre determines how music and words must be

articulated in a song belonging to that genre; but on the other hand, according to Stefani, the

intersemiotical activity between words an music in every single song produces the tertium. The

tertium, understood as a global semiotic of song, is simultaneously both the product and the

generator of the intersemiotic counterpoint in vocal music.

I shall try to resolve this problems in my own approach to vocal music. My theory rests

upon the concept of musical competence. In general terms, I understand it in the same way as

Stefani: “the inner ability to produce sense with or about music”. However I believe that

competence is a kind of operative force which leads to action: cognition is action, mental but

also physical action. Musical semiosis is also action: the sign production. It could be oriented or

constrained by social rules or peircian habits, but it is always a creative sign production. Do

things like codes exist? Yes, but in a metaphorical way: I prefer to see them not as strict rules

that competence must apply mechanically, but more like limits, border lines, or frontiers which

constrains creative competence activity.

Musical competence in the case of vocal music works through different layers of action

according the Figure 2. (see I envision three main layers in vocal music semiosis (cf. López

Cano 2001a, forthcoming and Aktories and López Cano 2002). The first is a layer of

autonomous semiotics. The second is an intersemiotic counterpoint zone: the semiotic interplay

between words and music. The third is a zone of the teritum quid: the unified semiosis.

Competence does not travel from “basic” layers to others: it works at the same time in all

possible layers. The music-mind works in a complex parallel system. It could work profoundly, in

any of the three layers, to produce understanding, depending on the level of knowledge

possessed by the subject in each of the different areas (López Cano 2002d).

In this sense, the musical mind could search within instrumental genres (music as

autonomous) or in its literary competence (words as literature), elements to construct semiosis

over the vocal work. The lower levels of assimilation between words and music have only a

theoretical existence. The real intersemiotical counterpoint between both occurs not in direct

relationships, one by one, between them, but when one of them (or maybe both) is able to

establish a strong basic topic (musical topic, literary topic or lyric topic). Topic is a concept that

existed in musical theory from the times of musical rhetorics theories. Recent studies in musical

semiotics has developed profoundly this notion. In other articles, I have reconstructed several

theoretical dimensions of this concept (López Cano 2002e and 2002f). In my theory, musical

topic is much more than a thesaurus of characteristic figures, or a communicational surface

structure, or a musical reference or complex signs.9

Eco proposes going beyond the limits of the notion by employing of two main concepts: the encyclopaedia notion and the competence concept (!). See López Cano (forthcoming) for further remarks of this. 9 Leonard Ratner (1980) defines topics as “subjects of musical discourse”. They appear as a form of thesaurus of characteristic figures developed by music contact with “worship, poetry, drama, entertainment, dance, ceremony, the military, the hunt, and the life of lower classes”. “Topics appear as fully worked-out pieces i.e. types; or as figures and progressions within a piece, i.e., styles” (1980: 9). Eero Tarasti (1994: 26) considers topics as typified structures of communication at the level of the surface narrative program. Kofi Agawu (1990) defines topic in terms of a saussurean sign: topic is a signifier correlated with the signified. The signifier is a certain disposition of the musical dimension of melody, harmony, metre, rhythm, and the like; the signified is a “conventional stylistic unit (fanfare, Sturm und Drang,



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Paratextual markers

Instructional markers

Intersemiotical troping: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche

Reflexivity of intersemiotical discourse: Rupture of discourse levels, irony, regressive readings and

allegory

Dialogy

Asynchrony

Synchrony

Convergence

Further processes on intersemiotical translation toward a unified semiosis

Layer 1: autonomous semiotics zone Layer 2: intersemiotical counterpoint zone Layer 3: unified semiosis zone

Lyrical genre Style as competence: Prescriptions, stylistic types, routinely mechanisms

and emergent strategies

Music as autonomous

Words as literature

Lower assimilation levels

Noise Agglomeration

Framming Topicalization agents

Topic expansion

Topic transformation

Intersemiotical translation processes

Rhetorical resources

Unified semiosis Continuous production processes of entities and properties on an unique

global semiotics

Stylistic growth and competence expansion

Figure 8. Layers of competence activity on vocal music semiosis Figure 2. Layers of competence activity on vocal music semiosis).



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A musical topic emerges when musical competence is able to create a whole world

around one musical fragment, or an entire work, into which it inserts the music. It is the cognitive

route we have selected to understand music. It is a kind of constrained cognitive area within

which musical competence works. This task environment determines the strategies and

processes by means of which musical competence must be established to work in both a

creative and a socially regulated way.

Intersemiotical interaction in vocal music produces different topical phenomena:

paratextual marks and instructional markers occur when one isolated element in words or music

gives instructions for the correct interpretation of one element of the other semiotic (music or

words). Topic expansion and transformation are produced when the intersemotical action

changes the main semiotic properties of the topic. The emergence of unified semiotics is

derived directly from this topical work. However, two other classes of intersemiotical phenomena

intervenes. 1. Intersemiotic translations: when words and music expresse the same, or

collaborate with similar strategie; and 2. Rhetorical processes: when a not-coincidence in these

strategies produces intersemiotical tensions. In such cases, the work begins to require special

understanding strategies and emergent processes arise from common mechanisms.

Not only do these layers and processes contribute to building the tertium quid or unified

semiosis. Lyrical genres understood as stylistic competencies also provide pertinent elements

as prescriptions regarding how music and word could be ensembled in vocal works belonging to

this genre. However, each musical work is unique and original and it is impossible to predict

how a specific work will use the prescriptions of genre rules. Between lyrical genres and the

unified semiosis of each song, a circular process of stylistic growth and competence expansion

occurs.

This is my hypothesis as to how the paradox of tertium quid as the ubiquitous producer

and product of intersemiotical play between words and music in vocal music can be resolved.

Valladolid and Helsinki, November 2002

References:

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