From Harmonious Community Life to Creative Coexistence

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From (Harmonious) Community Life to(Creative) CoexistenceConsidering Daisaku Ikeda’s Educational Philosophy inthe Parker, Dewey, Makiguchi, and Ikeda “Reunion”

JASON GOULAHDePaul University

A great human revolution in just a single individual will help achievea change in the destiny of a nation and further, will enable a changein the destiny of all humankind.

—Daisaku Ikeda (2004, viii)

Educators must never look down on their students. Someone who isnot willing to do everything they can for their students is not a realeducator.

—Daisaku Ikeda (2009b, 4)

My disciples, be champions of humanity.—Daisaku Ikeda (2008, 196)

This article anticipates the symposium “Reuniting Parker, Dewey, Maki-guchi, and Ikeda: Education for Community and Citizenship across Lan-guage and Culture” to be held on March 26, 2011, at the Francis W.Parker School in Chicago, Illinois, and to be sponsored by the Francis W.Parker School and the School of Education at DePaul University. Thesymposium will gather students; parents; community members; teachers;educators; and scholars, such as Larry Hickman, Jim Garrison, WilliamSchubert, Ming Fang He, Theresa Austin, Takao Ito, Andrew Gebert, andGonzalo Obelleiro, to discuss the educational philosophies of Francis W.Parker (1837–1902), John Dewey (1859–1952), Tsunesaburo Makiguchi(1871–1944), and Daisaku Ikeda (1928–) and the relevance of their phi-

Schools: Studies in Education, vol. 7, no. 2 (Fall 2010).� 2010 Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. All rights reserved. 1550-1175/2010/0702-0008$10.00

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losophies in the twenty-first century in general and under No Child LeftBehind and Race to the Top in particular.

The symposium planning committee selected the final paragraphs ofDewey’s 1934 essay The Need for a Philosophy of Education (Dewey [1934]2008) as a guiding conceptual framework for presenters’ talks across thefour thinkers. This essay could have been written yesterday, as the issuesDewey contemplates still challenge us and have come into even sharperfocus in a post-9/11, globalized world. Specifically, Dewey argues that therapid and expanding industrialization affecting individual groups, tribes,and race, on the one hand, and an “unprecedented wave of nationalisticsentiment, of racial and national prejudice, of readiness to resort to forceof arms” (203), on the other hand, warrant a social aim of education.Dewey states:

An environment in which some are limited will always in reactioncreate conditions that prevent the full development even of those whofancy they enjoy complete freedom for unhindered growth. . . .Unless the schools of the world can unite in effort to rebuild thespirit of common understanding, of mutual sympathy and goodwillamong all peoples and races, to exorcise the demon of prejudice,isolation and hatred, they themselves are likely to be submerged bythe general return to barbarism, the sure outcome of present ten-dencies if unchecked by the forces which education alone can evokeand fortify. ([1934] 2008, 203–4)

In this article, I focus on Daisaku Ikeda’s philosophies of human edu-cation (ningen kyoiku), human revolution (ningen kakumei), and creativecoexistence (kyosei), and I seek at once to position them in the East-Westecology of ideas undergirding the Parker, Dewey, Makiguchi, and Ikeda“reunion” theme of the symposium and to explain how they address theaforementioned concerns Dewey identifies in The Need for a Philosophy ofEducation.

Daisaku Ikeda’s Educational Philosophy: A Brief Context

To fully understand Ikeda’s educational philosophy, it is necessary to lookat Makiguchi and Makiguchi’s direct disciple, Josei Toda (1900–1958),1

whom Ikeda took as his mentor at the age of 19. In a recent book on

1. For more on Makiguchi, Toda, and Ikeda, see http://www/tmakiguchi.org, http://www.joseitoda.org, and http://www.daisakuikeda.org.

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Ikeda’s philosophy of peace, Olivier Urbain (2010) argues that Toda metMakiguchi in Tokyo in 1920 and that “they discovered a common passionfor a type of education that enables individuals to flourish” (52). This typeof education focused on children’s absolute happiness through epistemo-logical empowerment and an ever-expanding capacity to create values ofaesthetic beauty; individual gain, or benefit; and social good. Ikeda clarifiesthat “Makiguchi asserts that ‘benefit,’ which is associated with the interestsof the individual, must be balanced with the value of goodness, whichstrives for the common good of society” (Ikeda in Chandra and Ikeda 2009,103). Makiguchi called his approach soka, or value-creating, education, andhe believed that a value-creating life was a determined, socially contributive,and fundamentally happy one.

Makiguchi helped Toda secure a job in education, and Toda quicklytook Makiguchi as his life mentor. When Makiguchi was involuntarilytransferred for refusing to show preferential treatment to children of au-thorities, Toda followed. When Toda opened his own school, he appliedMakiguchi’s soka education philosophies and edited and published Maki-guchi’s years of experiential and philosophical notes into what becameMakiguchi’s seminal educational work, Soka kyoikugaku taikei (The Systemfor Value-Creating Pedagogy [1930–34] in Makiguchi 1981–88, vols. 5 and6; hereafter The Pedagogy). In addition, when Makiguchi converted in 1928to the school of Buddhism propounded by the thirteenth-century reformerNichiren, Toda also converted. In the same year that they published ThePedagogy, Toda helped Makiguchi cofound the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai as anorganization of conscientious educators based on actualizing the principlesof Nichiren Buddhism. On July 6, 1943, Makiguchi and Toda were arrestedand imprisoned for refusing to capitulate to Japan’s governmental policiesof militarism and Shinto worship; specifically, they were arrested for failingto show the emperor proper respect ( fukeizai) and for violation of the PeacePreservation Law. Makiguchi died in prison in 1944; Toda was released in1945 and immediately set out to rebuild the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai, changingthe name to the Soka Gakkai (Society for creation of value), seeing itsscope and purpose in society beyond the limits of education only.

Ikeda met Toda in 1947 at a meeting of the Soka Gakkai and joinedthe organization 10 days later. Ikeda became the third president of the SokaGakkai in 1960, two years after Toda’s death, internationalizing and ex-panding the organization. During the 50 years of Ikeda’s leadership, SokaGakkai International has become a UN nongovernmental organization andhas grown to more than 12 million members in 192 countries and terri-


tories. Ikeda has maintained, refined, and applied Makiguchi and Toda’svision by living the Buddhist principles of compassion, wisdom, and courageand by advocating the empowerment of ordinary individuals through Bud-dhist humanism and through peace, culture, and education.

Ikeda’s 50 years of leadership represent a startling diversity of activity.His complete works total more than 100,000 pages (and they are stillgrowing), and he has held dialogues with more than 1,500 leading thinkersand political figures, such as Mikhail Gorbachev, Linus Pauling, JohanGaltung, Arnold Toynbee, and Norman Cousins. Many of these dialogueshave been published as full-length works (e.g., Galtung and Ikeda 1995;Gorbachev and Ikeda 2005; Pauling and Ikeda 2009; Toynbee and Ikeda1976). Ikeda has founded numerous cultural and educational institutions,including the Institute for Oriental Philosophy (with offices in France,Hong Kong, India, Japan, United Kingdom, and Russia), the Boston Re-search Center for the Twenty-first Century (in the United States; it wasrenamed the Ikeda Center for Peace, Learning, and Dialogue in 2009), theToda Institute for Global Peace and Policy Research (in Japan and theUnited States), the Min-On Concert Association (in Japan), the Fuji ArtMuseum (in Japan), and the Victor Hugo House of Literature (in France).Ikeda has been awarded the UN Peace Prize and over 300 honorary doc-torates and professorships from the world’s academic community.

In addition, soon after assuming the presidency of the Soka Gakkai,Ikeda founded the secular Soka schools based on Makiguchi and Toda’seducational vision of value-creating pedagogy. The Soka schools includekindergartens in Brazil, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, and Singapore;elementary schools in Brazil and Japan; secondary schools in Japan; awomen’s college in Japan; and comprehensive universities in Japan and theUnited States. Ikeda’s institutionalization of soka education has made itperhaps Japan’s most internationally practiced pedagogical approach. More-over, Andrew Gebert and Monte Joffee (2007) argue that, in addition tothe practice of value-creating education in the formal Soka schools, nu-merous teachers around the world are implementing its principles in theirown local contexts.

In 2008, the John Dewey Society named Ikeda and the Soka schoolsthe society’s first lifetime honorary members, and past presidents of thesociety Larry Hickman and Jim Garrison are currently engaged in a dialoguewith Ikeda about the confluence of Soka education and Deweyan philos-ophy (see, e.g., Hickman et al. 2009–10), and a number of scholars havebegun to examine Ikeda’s ideas alongside those of Dewey (e.g., Rockefeller

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2009). This article seeks to contribute to this growing but still limited bodyof literature and does so by excerpting passages from Ikeda’s major and minorwritings on education.

Understanding the Mentor-Disciple Relationship in the IkedaPhilosophy

Ikeda never met Makiguchi (Ikeda 2009a), but he came to understand thelatter’s desire to establish a university grounded in value-creating pedagogythrough interactions with Toda. Ikeda ([2005] 2006) recounts that Mak-iguchi once said to Toda: “In the future, we must found a school basedon the value-creating (Soka) pedagogy that I have been formulating. If wecan’t do it during my lifetime, please do it in yours” (11). And that, basedon Makiguchi’s request of Toda, Toda later said to Ikeda: “Daisaku, let’sestablish a university, Soka University. I hope this can be achieved in mylifetime, but that may not be possible. Should that be the case, Daisaku,I’m counting on you to do it.” Ikeda reports: “In that instant, a brightflame, the dream of Soka University, was kindled in my heart” (10–11).This account is important for understanding Ikeda’s approach to peace,culture, and education as president of Soka Gakkai International, for itillustrates the mentor and disciple relationship (Makiguchi-Toda, Toda-Ikeda) that has been the guiding concept undergirding Ikeda’s actions andbeliefs. For example, Ikeda argues:

One hundred years ago, when the social standing of women inJapan was extremely low, the founding president of the Soka Gak-kai, Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, worked passionately to expand ad-vanced educational opportunities for women out of the belief thatit is they who will build a better society. He established a programthat offered correspondence education to women who were unableto receive a secondary education after graduating from primary school,compiling learning materials and editing a related periodical. He wasalso instrumental in establishing a facility that offered free classes towomen with limited financial resources to learn sewing and embroi-dery, skills that constituted a major element in Japanese girls’ edu-cation at the time. It was as heir to his spirit that I created the corre-spondence programs at Soka University and founded Soka Women’sCollege. (Ikeda 2010, 12; emphasis added)

In terms of education as process, Ikeda also invokes the mentor anddisciple relationship:


Needless to say, Soka education does not purport to teach anyreligious doctrine. Yet it is based on a solid and, I believe, universalworldview. If I were to express this in a single phrase, it would bethe spirit of shared commitment between teacher and student, mentorand disciple.

Just as a diamond can only be polished by another diamond, it isonly through intense human interaction engaging the entire person-ality that people can forge themselves, raising themselves up to evergreater heights. It is the relationship between teacher and learner,between mentor and disciple, that makes this possible. ([2005] 2006,181)

This theme of mentor and disciple relationship is also central in Ikeda’sdialogue with Dewey scholars Larry Hickman and Jim Garrison (Hickmanet al. 2009–10). In one section, Garrison says to Ikeda: “Of course thetriplet of Makiguchi, Toda, and Ikeda, too, is interesting because it showsthe continuity of the mentor-disciple relationship. You [Ikeda] have followedthe path they trod before you and, in doing so, have made a highway thatothers, too, can follow. Obviously I don’t mean this literally, but in a certainsense Makiguchi’s greatest achievement is Toda. Toda’s great achievementmay have been Ikeda” (Hickman et al. 2009–10, pt. 3, 60).

Garrison then links this concept to Deweyan philosophy: “The secondof my two components concerns the teaching partner. Whereas in your[Ikeda’s] terms the Mystic Law governing the life force of the universe isalways the teacher, for Dewey the experience of nature shared with thestudent is always the teacher. Dewey’s idea and yours seem analogous. Inthe experience of nature, both mentor and disciple cooperate and inquirealong the way” (Hickman et al. 2009–10, pt. 3, 63).

I believe it is this principle of the oneness of mentor and disciple—a two-way shared commitment, not one of receptive passivity on the part of thedisciple, as Garrison correctly indicates in the dialogue (Hickman et al. 2009-10, pt. 3, 64)—that most undergirds Ikeda’s approach to human education,the first aspect of Ikeda’s educational philosophy I wish to address.

Ikeda’s Concept of Human Education—in Light of Mentor andDisciple

As the principle of mentor and disciple played a key role for Makiguchiand Toda and for Toda and Ikeda, Ikeda argues that such a shared com-mitment is an important point of “human education” that can be traced

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back through the history of humankind to the brilliant light emanatingfrom the mentor and disciple relationship of Socrates and Plato (Ikeda inHickman et al. 2009–10, pt. 3, 57). Moreover, in looking at the themeof the “reunion” among Parker, Dewey, Makiguchi and Ikeda, this conceptof shared commitment not only existed between Makiguchi and Toda andbetween Toda and Ikeda but also in the shared commitment and relation-ship between Parker and Dewey. On another level, it existed between theyoung Makiguchi and the elder Parker (see Goulah 2010b; Ito 2007a) andbetween Makiguchi and Dewey; Makiguchi met neither Parker nor Dewey,but he referenced their work numerous times in advocating his philosophyof value-creating education and contributive social self-actualization.

On yet another level, this concept of shared commitment existed inthe link between Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) and the fourthinkers highlighted in the symposium. Pestalozzi’s work influenced Par-ker’s, Dewey’s, and Makiguchi’s educational philosophies directly andindirectly through their readings of Johann Friedrich Herbart and Fried-rich Froebel. In addition, the Soka Kyoiku Kenkyu (Soka Education Research)editor, Takao Ito (2005, 2007b), cogently discusses when the young DaisakuIkeda, as editor of the Japanese boys magazine Shonen Nihon [Boys’ Japan],wrote an article in 1949 under the pen name Shin’ichiro Yamamoto onPestalozzi, titled “Pestalozzi The Great Educator.” Ikeda himself recountsthis in Watakushi no rirekisho [My Recollections] (Ikeda 1978; cf. Ikeda 1980):“And I myself wrote under the pen name of Shin’ichiro Yamamoto, abiography of the educator Pestalozzi. I had long been impressed by hisselfless passion for education” (Ikeda 1978, 104–5; cf. Ikeda 1980, 62).Moreover, in the section of My Recollections titled “Suspension of Boys’Japan,” Ikeda brings his editorial view (and, thereby, his early essay onPestalozzi) together with his founding of the Soka schools: “Finally Boys’Japan has taken a step toward an entirely new world, a new universe. . . .We hope that this magazine will give courage and strength to boys whowill create the new world” (Ikeda 1978, 106; cf. Ikeda 1980, 64). He adds:“But thinking back on it now, I believe that my dream of entrusting thefuture to the next generation of boys and girls has been realized in the fieldof education through the Soka Academy and Soka Girls’ Academy, as wellas in the planned Soka Kindergarten and Elementary School” (Ikeda 106–7; cf. Ikeda 1980, 64).2

2. The comprehensive Soka schools had only begun to be established at this point.Soka Junior and Senior High Schools opened in 1968; Soka University was founded in


Ito draws from Ikeda’s notes in which Ikeda states that he was forcedto write the essay on Pestalozzi at the last moment because the personscheduled to write it for the magazine could not finish by the publicationdeadline; so Ikeda wrote a “sketch on the life of Pestalozzi” using as afoundation notes he took on Evening Hours of a Hermit, which he read ina local reading circle at the age of 19. Ikeda recalls that this book byPestalozzi, in particular the concept of “Pestalozzian experience,” was alsoused in the reading circle as material for a thorough discussion on democraticeducation new to Japan.

This episode takes on importance when considering Ito’s argument thatIkeda’s often-used phrase of “human education” (ningen kyoiku) also comesfrom that period and from Pestalozzi. Specifically, Ito (2005) provides apassage from page 54 of the Japanese version of Pestalozzi’s Evening Hoursof a Hermit that Ikeda read as a 19-year-old in which the technical term“human education” appears three times. Pestalozzi uses the term to arguefor a type of school education modeled after home education that happensunder the gaze of a mother’s eye, where the means to a child’s academic andmoral cultivation happen through direct observation of the close at hand andthrough experiences in nature. Under such education, Pestalozzi argued, thechild’s happiness is the teacher’s happiness, and the child’s joy is the teacher’sjoy (Ito 2005). Ito (2007b) continues to argue that Pestalozzi’s influence—the concept of human education in particular—on Ikeda has manifested ina number of ways, chief among them in his serialized historical novel, TheHuman Revolution (Ikeda 2004) and in his speeches at Soka University.

First, Ito (2007b) states that in 1965 Ikeda writes in The Human Rev-olution: “A philosopher once said that the purpose of education is not toproduce machines but to develop people” (Ito 2007b, 15; see also Ikeda1995, 26; cf. Ikeda 2004, 1:13).3 Although the reissued abridged Englishtranslation of The Human Revolution (Ikeda 2004) attributes this phraseto Toda, Ito argues that “a philosopher” in the original Japanese (and inthe first English translation [Ikeda 1995]) is Pestalozzi. In addition, Itoadds, the following phrase that appears a couple pages later also comesfrom Pestalozzi: “Good seeds yield strong plants and eventually bear beau-tiful blossoms. Good children will become fine young people, who in turn

1971 and Soka University of America in 1987; see http://www/daisakuikeda.org for thefounding dates of each of the Soka schools around the world.

3. In the reissued abridged English translation, this sentence reads: “The purpose ofeducation, Toda believed, is not to produce machines but to develop people” (Ikeda 2004,1:13).

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will develop into excellent leaders of society” (Ikeda 1995, 28; cf. Ikeda2004, 1:14; see also Ito 2007b, 15).

In more specific terms, how do these statements represent human ed-ucation, and how is the concept defined and realized in Ikeda’s approachto value-creating education envisioned by Makiguchi and Toda? In a specialMakiguchi issue of Educational Studies, Goulah and Gebert (2009, 126)argue: “Ikeda has used the formula ningen kyoiku to describe the educa-tional philosophy and practice that has developed on the basis of Maki-guchi’s pedagogy. . . . Literally ‘human education,’ this phrase could betranslated as humanistic, humane, or human/people-centered education; itprobably indicates all these aspects. There is, thus, in the Soka schools andamong educators inspired by the philosophy, a strong emphasis on thehuman qualities of teacher-learner interactions.”

Goulah and Gebert (2009) argue: “Teachers in the schools point to theexample of Ikeda himself, who, through his many visits, small gifts, andencouraging messages to students, has modeled humanistic educationalinteractions for faculty members” (126). A couple of examples are helpful.In discussing his interactions with Soka University students in the earlyyears of the school, Ikeda (2008) recounts how, as the school’s founder, hepersonally encouraged the students who were establishing a school news-paper and contributed his own money to purchase a proper printing press.Ikeda (2008) writes that “he was determined to do whatever he could tosupport the students. He also hoped they would become journalists whocould discern between right and wrong and would speak out fearlessly fortruth and justice” (121).

In another example, Ikeda recalls how he encouraged the members ofthe university’s new baseball team, which, at the time, did not even havea proper field on which to practice. Ikeda recalls how he surprised the teamwith a visit to one of their practices at a time when they were in a slumpand presented them with Los Angeles Dodgers memorabilia he had receiveda week earlier from Dodgers players.

After giving them the gifts, he encouraged them, saying: “In sports,it is inevitable that sometimes you win and sometimes you lose. Theimportant thing, however, is that no matter what the outcome, youcontinue to grow and win as an individual” (Ikeda 2008, 125). Onanother occasion, Ikeda again surprised the team to encourage them,this time hitting balls to the players:

The club members may have in fact been catching the sincerehopes and expectations of their school’s founder. Some even had tears


in their eyes as they fielded [Ikeda’s] hits. The sound of the ballcracking against the bat echoed across the grounds for a long time.

The club members were determined to win and live up to [Ikeda’s]expectations. . . . In later years, as an expression of his hopes for theclub’s victory and glory, [Ikeda] offered them the following guidance:“First, win with your minds, then win with your ability. Practice isthe game, and the game is practice.” The tradition of building one’scharacter through baseball was steadily created at Soka Universitywith the support of the school’s founder. (Ikeda 2008, 128)

Much of this volume of The New Human Revolution focuses on Ikeda’sfirsthand experiences founding Soka University and interacting with manyof its early students and faculty. In all of it the mentor and disciple rela-tionship as the font of human education, in the spirit of Pestalozzi, Mak-iguchi, and Toda, is evident. In one explicit example, Ikeda recounts aspeech he delivered at the school in which he told students: “There are noeasy paths through life and that facing and overcoming difficulties is thestarting point of our education as human beings” (Ikeda 2008, 184). There-after, invoking Pestalozzi, he conveys to students in the first and secondclasses their important mission, also as founders, in sharing his commitmentto the ideals upon which the university was founded:

The Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi once called on thestudents of the academy he established: “My friends, my fellow foun-ders who have built the foundation of this academy with me, whohave assisted me with deep friendship in this difficult period of es-tablishment, who have shouldered with me the heavy weight of thesesignificant years with patience and love—if it were not for you, myenterprise would have seen its end soon after it began.”

[Ikeda], too, was expressing his heartfelt gratitude to his belovedSoka University students by calling on them to be the school’s foun-ders alongside him. (Ikeda 2008, 184–85)

More than 30 years later, Ikeda echoed this encouragement and hiscommitment to the warm relationship between teacher and student, mentorand disciple, in the opening of his commencement speech to the firstgraduating class of Soka University of America: “To the first graduatingclass of Soka University of America (SUA), Aliso Viejo, who are my life,my hope, my pride, I wish to extend my heartfelt congratulations on themarvelous occasion of your graduation. Each of you is a great pioneer, an

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honored founder of SUA. All of you are victors. Each of you is a brilliant,precious jewel; you possess a noble mission” (Ikeda [2005] 2006, 165).

Returning to The New Human Revolution, Ikeda (2008) argues: “Genuineeducation takes place when a mentor resides in one’s heart” (192). He thenstates: “Both President Makiguchi and President Toda were educators. Howhappy they would be if they could see today’s Soka University students, theleaders of the twenty-first century! True educators are willing to devote theirlives to protecting and nurturing their students. That is why I am exertingmyself to the extent that I am. As long as the students are growing, I amprepared to do anything, whatever the personal cost may be. Education mustbe carried out with such powerful commitment” (Ikeda [2005] 2006, 198).

Ikeda’s approach to human education, then, can most easily be definedby his shared vision with Makiguchi and Toda (and, by extension, Pestalozzi,Herbart, Froebel, Parker, and Dewey) for developing contributive citizens inthe nurturing relationship between teacher and student whereby ordinaryindividuals are empowered to transform their beliefs and behavior and createvalue toward personal and social benefit (Goulah 2010a). Ikeda calls thisinternal transformation through human education a process of “human rev-olution” (ningen kakumei), which I address next.

Ikeda’s Concept of Human Revolution

Around the same time that Toda entrusted Ikeda to establish a Soka Uni-versity, Ikeda states that the Japanese Minister of Education Teiyu Amano(1884–1980) wrote: “‘The fundamental pillar of any educational reformmust be a clear determination to realize human revolution’” (Ikeda [2005]2006, 11). According to Ikeda (Huyghe and Ikeda 2007), the term “humanrevolution” seems to have been coined by Shigeru Nambara, president ofTokyo University, shortly after the end of World War II because, “in thosetimes, he realized that, more than changes in exterior political systems, thepeople of Japan required the adaptability and support that self-revolutioncould provide” (144).

Ikeda argues that because of the lack of solid philosophical foundationor because of political and economic interests, Nambara and Amano’s loftyideal of human revolution was soon forgotten. However, at about the sametime, Josei Toda employed Amano’s words in his explanations of the practiceof Buddhist teachings (Ikeda [2005] 2006) and used the term “humanrevolution” as the title of his autobiography written under the pen nameMyo Goku. Urbain (2010) argues that Toda popularized the term “human


revolution” in Japan, but that it was Ikeda, again in the spirit of mentorand disciple, who promoted it globally.

In his 2002 UN peace proposal, Ikeda explicitly defines his use ofhuman revolution: “Altering the course of human history—throughoutwhich ‘peace’ has been but an interlude between wars—will require ofeach individual a profound inner resolution, a truly existential determi-nation to seek their fundamental, inherent humanity and to transformtheir entire being. In the SGI we call this ceaseless struggle for innerrenewal ‘human revolution.’ It is the steadfast effort to construct ‘thedefenses of peace within our own hearts and minds as proclaimed in theConstitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO)’” (Ikeda 2002c, 5).

It was also in the spirit of mentor and disciple that Ikeda wrote theHuman Revolution (Ikeda 2004) and The New Human Revolution (Ikeda1995–2010) and applied the concept of human revolution to soka edu-cation: “(Toda) consistently urged people to realize a fundamental, positivetransformation in the depths of our own and others’ lives. The focus ofSoka, or value-creating, education must always be the achievement of thiskind of human revolution” (Ikeda [2005] 2006, 176).

Moreover, just as Ikeda considers human education couched in Maki-guchi and Toda’s vision of fostering value-creative and contributive lives,human revolution in the realm of education is, for Ikeda, likewise couchedin one’s capacity to create value: “As you meet various trials and difficulties,thus polishing all the many facets of the jewel which is life, you will learnto walk that supreme pathway of humanity. Of this, I am confident, andI am confident too that those who embrace life’s native creativity nowstand and will continue to stand in the vanguard of history. Bringing thecreativity of life to its fullest flowering is the work of human revolution.Carrying out this kind of human revolution is your mission now as it willbe throughout your lives” (Ikeda [1974] 2006, 49). In the following section,I consider Ikeda’s concept of creative coexistence.

Ikeda’s Concept of Creative Coexistence

Although this article focuses on Ikeda, it can be read as a continuation ofa piece I published in the previous issue of Schools: Studies in Education(Goulah 2010b), in which I examined Francis Parker’s and Makiguchi’sviews of harmonious community life as the goal of education through abilingual analysis of Parker’s My Pedagogic Creed (1896) and Makiguchi’sOn the Significance of Social Aspects That Mr. Parker Says Should Be Incor-

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porated into the School Experience ([1897] in Makiguchi 1981–88), Researchon Instruction in the Multiple Grade Classroom ([1897] in Makiguchi 1981–88), The Practical Application of Social Pedagogy ([1901] in Makiguchi1981–88), and Reforms in Geography Instruction from the Perspective of theEconomy of Learning ([1919] in Makiguchi 1981–88) in relation to theirmajor works. That article marked the first time that Makiguchi’s early, so-called minor essays had been introduced and excerpted in English andrevealed that, although Makiguchi appropriated the phrase “harmoniouscommunity life” from Parker’s My Pedagogic Creed, repeated it in Signifi-cance of Social Aspects and Social Pedagogy, and reiterated it 33 years laterin his most characteristic work, The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy([1930–34] in Makiguchi 1981–88), he subscribed to its ideology beforereading Parker. My examination also illustrated that both Makiguchiand Parker viewed harmonious community life as the means to absolutehappiness.

I believe that article anticipates this one because I contend that the threadfrom Parker and Makiguchi’s shared commitment to harmonious com-munity life as the goal of education is evident in Ikeda’s vision of kyosei,which has been differently translated into English as “symbiosis,” “coex-istence,” “harmonious coexistence,” and “creative coexistence” (e.g., Ikeda1996, 2003, 2005b, 2006, 2010). Like many keywords in the Ikeda corpus,kyosei has also been in the air for some time. Fujita (e.g., Fujita 2010) haswritten extensively on kyosei, defining it as “peaceful symbiosis/co-existence/co-living . . . [it] is a basic value for social and human security, peacefulsocial order and daily life activities, and social solidarity, as well as forsustainable economy and society. It is the value that tends to be considereda natural given and not necessarily recognized as important when and whereit is maintained and enjoyed by most of the people” (42–43).

Fujita continues: “[Kyosei] is not limited only to the relationships amonghuman beings but refers to the relationships between human beings andvarious nonhuman species, materials, industrial products, and environ-ments, as well as relationships between various species. It is not limitedonly to war-related situations but is used to refer to forms, conditions, andsituations of our daily life—interpersonal and social interaction, social pro-jects, and activities, including business” (Fujita 2010, 44).

Kyosei has also appeared in Japanese educational policy initiatives inthe phrase tabunka kyosei, a key concept to foster multicultural coliving—literally “coexistence of multicultures” (Kubota and McKay 2009; Tai2007)—a growing issue given the increased population of non-Japanese


moving into Japan concomitant with globalization. Kubota and McKayargue that “the word kyosei (coliving) represents a political shift in theview of migrant workers—the previous focus on labor and law enforce-ment shifted to the need to integrate these workers as residents in thelocal community” (599).

Ikeda (2003, 9) defines kyosei this way: “[Kyosei] is an ethos that seeksto bring harmony from conflict, unity from rupture, that is based moreon ‘us’ than ‘me.’ It signals a spirit that seeks to encourage flourishing andmutually supportive relationships among humans and between humans andnature. It is my belief that by making this ethic of coexistence the sharedspirit of our age, we can find the certain means to close the gap betweenpower and ethical standards of behavior.”

Elsewhere, Ikeda (1996) envisions kyosei as a “greater self ” fused withthe life of the universe through which cause and effect intertwine over theinfinite reaches of space and time. He states: “Each individual being func-tions to create the environment that sustains all other existences. All thingsare mutually supporting and interrelated, forming a living cosmos, whatmodern philosophy might term a semantic whole” (160). He concludes,“I am firmly convinced that a large-scale awakening to the greater self willlead to a world of creative coexistence in the coming century” (161). Morerecently he has applied this concept of kyosei to education for disarmament(Ikeda 2006).

Ikeda’s understanding and application of kyosei as an aim and goal ofeducation and social self-actualization contains the same elements Fujita(2010) and Kubota and McKay (2009) discuss above, but it is different inan important way that, I believe, makes “creative coexistence” the mostcomprehensive translation and makes the concept especially appropriate forthe twenty-first century. Ikeda’s application of kyosei is couched in Maki-guchi’s theory of value creation and, thereby, takes on the essence of con-scious and volitional creativity or creation. The Japanese root for “creative”(sozo), such as that used in value-creation, does not appear in Ikeda’s usage;however, just as “harmonious” was added to the Japanese translation ofParker’s My Pedagogic Creed (1896; also see the Kyoikudan 1897 translation)to fully convey the social self-actualization Parker envisioned (see Goulah2010b), the English word creative has been added—something “gained intranslation”—to convey Ikeda’s full intention beyond a simple coexistenceor “passive” symbiosis. That is, Ikeda’s use of kyosei, as I read it, is couchedin the theory of value-creation (both in and outside education) and conveysthe sense that human beings must actively work at peaceful and harmonious

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coexistence by creating values of beauty, individual gain, and social goodin each moment and in every interaction with all human beings, species,and nature. This is captured, I believe in Ikeda’s 2010 peace proposal,Toward a New Era of Value Creation (Ikeda 2010), commemorating theeightieth anniversaries of Makiguchi and Toda’s founding of the SokaKyoiku Gakkai and their publication of Makiguchi’s System of Value-Cre-ating Pedagogy (Makiguchi 1981–88): “In his 1930 book, The Pedagogy ofValue-Creating Education, Tsunesaburo Makiguchi called for a fundamentaltransformation in the way people live their lives. He decried a passive,dependent way of life and declared that even an active, independent wayof life is insufficient. Instead he called for a consciously interactive, inter-dependent mode of existence, a life of committed contribution” (6).

In an educational context, Ikeda argues that students must be educatedto lead such a contributive and value-creative coexistence, which therebyleads to their developing fundamentally happy lives. For example, in hisproposal for the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development,which was submitted to and approved by the General Assembly in Johan-nesburg in 2002 and is currently in effect, Ikeda argues that a major goalof education is to adopt a plan that will serve as a basis for making thetwenty-first century “an era of creative coexistence between humans andnature” (Ikeda 2002a, 2). He adds: “Nothing is more crucially importanttoday than the kind of humanistic education [read: ningen kyoiku] thatenables people to sense the reality of interconnectedness, to appreciate theinfinite potential in each person’s life, and to cultivate that dormant humanpotential to the fullest [read: human revolution]” (7).

Here, I think it is necessary to revisit Garrison’s aforementioned equationof Ikeda’s view of the cosmic life with Dewey’s view of students’ experienceof “nature,” which Garrison assuredly took, in part, from Dewey’s Experienceand Nature ([1929] 1958). This work, Dewey argues, considers “‘experi-ence’ in its usual signification, naturalistic humanism” (1a), and it is linked,I believe, with his and Francis Parker’s earlier work, based on that ofHerbart, Froebel, and, thereby, Pestalozzi, in locating children’s moral andacademic development in their direct observation of and experiences in thenatural environment of their local community, a philosophy of educationto which both Makiguchi and Ikeda also subscribe. Like Dewey (and Parkerand Makiguchi), Ikeda similarly advocates for children’s dialogic experiencewith and in nature as a means to developing their full humanity towardvalue-creative coexistence. For example, he states: “In establishing the uni-versity and our other educational institutions, I have attached great im-


portance to environment. After all, in my opinion one vital considerationin education is the need to provide for the harmony of man and nature”(Ikeda 1978, 159–60; cf. Ikeda 1980, 103). Elsewhere Ikeda (2002b) states:“When human beings are separated from one another or separated fromtheir place of activity, they cannot live as true human beings. Therefore. . . [Makiguchi’s The Geography of Human Life ([1903] in Makiguchi1981–88, vols. 1 and 2)] is a study devoted to discovering how, whilestrengthening relationships between people and their environment, the cul-ture of their society and their international situation, one can build finerhuman character, create new values, and enrich society and the naturalenvironment” (xxxiv).

On the following pages, Ikeda then captures, I believe, Garrison’s in-tention: “It is my hope that this English translation of A Geography ofHuman Life will serve in similar fashion, or to an even greater degree, toprovide a basis for dialogue between people and people, people and thecommunity, people and the world, and people and nature. If it can act asa source of energy to awaken the citizens of the world to the ways in whichthey as individuals are related to the life force and thus usher in a centurydedicated to the dignity of life, I will be most gratified” (xxxv–xxxvi; em-phasis added). It is noteworthy in this sense that the Japanese online newsmagazine Sankei News (2010) recently reported that children with moreexperiences in nature enjoy more academic achievement and higher earningpotential.

Finally, returning more specifically to the concept of creative coexistenceand Ikeda’s proposal for the UN Decade of Education for SustainableDevelopment, it is important to note that in this document Ikeda explicitlyties the concepts of human revolution and creative coexistence to the value-creating and contributive education Makiguchi envisioned, which is rem-iniscent of language used in his aforementioned foreword:

Through dialogue and engagement, we draw forth and inspire inourselves and in the lives of others a profound sense of purpose andjoy. We begin a process of fundamental change that awakens a vastlyexpanded sense of identity—our “greater self.” The ultimate objectiveof SGI’s activities is to bring about—starting with a reformation or“human revolution” in our individual lives—a universal flowering ofthe philosophy of reverence for life. . . .

. . . A passive and dependent way of life lacks a clearly definedsense of self; we live at the mercy of changing circumstance. An

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independent mode of living may manifest a clear sense of individualself but lack awareness of the realities and needs of others. In contrast,a contributive way of life is based on an awareness of the interde-pendent nature of our lives—of the relationships that link us to othersand our environment. It is a way of life in which we actively striveto realize happiness both for ourselves and for others. (Ikeda 2002a,6–7)

The flow from “harmonious community life” to “creative coexistence”from Makiguchi to Ikeda exists, perhaps most significantly, in the ideal ofhuman education envisioned by Pestalozzi and expressed by Ikeda in thefourth guideline of Soka University of America (SUA): “Foster leaders forthe creative coexistence of nature and humanity.” Specifically, in his messagefor the SUA dedication ceremony, Ikeda writes:

The great Swiss educator, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827)left us these words: “Lack of knowledge of your own nature, o man,curbs your wisdom still more than all the external restrictions forcedon you.”

It is my hope and desire that an unbroken succession of outstandingleaders will depart from these gates to serve humanity in the 21stcentury. It is my hope and desire that the waves of world citizens,united and awakened to a genuine global ethic, will spread withoutcease into an ever more brilliant future.

Thus, I have asked that the following principles will serve to guideSUA in its endeavors.

1. Foster leaders of culture in the community2. Foster leaders of humanism in society3. Foster leaders of pacifism in the world4. Foster leaders for the creative coexistence of nature and humanity.

([2001] 2005, 14–15)

Conclusion: Ikeda in Dewey’s Need for a Philosophy of Education

As mentioned at the outset, Dewey’s rationale for a social aim of education,published in 1934, could just have convincingly been written yesterday.The forces of globalization have had an impact on and dislocated races,languages, cultures, and communities; destabilized ecosystems; and ad-vanced calls to arms and terrorism. The need for a philosophy—and prac-tice—of education that elevates students’ beliefs and participation beyond


the lesser self to what Ikeda calls the “greater self ” through social self-actualization is necessary more now than when Dewey wrote the Need fora Philosophy of Education. Ikeda (2005) powerfully captures this sentimentin his foreword to Educating Citizens for Global Awareness (Noddings 2005):

The great wave of globalization sweeping contemporary society, inareas such as information and communications, science and tech-nology, and the market economy, is a contrast of light and dark. Thepositive potentials are democratization and the spread of awarenessof human rights; the negative aspects are war and conflict, risingeconomic disparities, the obliteration of distinctive cultures, the spreadof weapons of mass destruction, and the destruction of the globalecology.

These dark shadows entailed in the current process of globalizationstir a vortex of malice and mistrust and provoke an identity crisis inthe very depths of the human spirit. Only as a growing movementof people work to transform this bleak spiritual landscape will specific,concrete measures produce meaningful results at international levels.(Ikeda 2005a, ix)

Like Dewey before him, Ikeda, surveying the light and dark in the globallandscape, turns to education and the need for a philosophy of educationto amplify the light:

Education, in the genuine sense of the word, holds the key toresolving these problems. Education has the power to enrich the innerlandscape of the human spirit, to build within people’s hearts whatthe Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO) refers to as “the defenses of peace.”True education summons forth the innate goodness of humanity—our capacity for nonviolence, trust, and benevolence. It enables in-dividuals to reveal their unique qualities and, by encouraging empathywith others, opens the door to peaceful coexistence of humanity. Thiskind of humanistic education is crucial if we are to foster globalcitizens. (Ikeda 2005a, ix)

In the arc of history and the East-West ecology of ideas interconnectingParker, Dewey, Makiguchi, and Ikeda across language and culture, then,Ikeda’s contribution is, I believe, the shared commitment of and lessonsin mentor and disciple toward the greater self and the creation of value

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through human revolution and creative coexistence by way of humanisticeducation. As Dewey implores the need for a philosophy of education,Ikeda (2010) can be seen responding, most recently and clearly, in his 2010peace proposal, Toward a New Era of Value Creation (Ikeda 2010). Ref-erencing the French philosopher Simone Weil (1909–43), Ikeda states:“The essential characteristic of the first half of the twentieth century is thegrowing weakness, and almost the disappearance, of the idea of value,”which Weil referred to as “the enfeeblement of the sense of value” (3). Asif addressing Dewey directly, he continues:

Weil’s insights, like those of her contemporary philosopher GabrielMarcel (1889–1973), embody enduring truths. We can easily andappropriately apply her description to our present situation. In fact,the ailment she describes has, if anything, grown more severe. Waralready represents the human pathology in its most concentrated form,and in the present period the use of weapons of mass destructionand the techniques of terrorism have made its violence almost entirelyindiscriminate. Such indiscriminate violence represents a refusal tofeel the moral sense of value that compels us to engage with peopleas unique and irreplaceable individuals.

“Soka” literally means “value creation,” and the members of theSoka Gakkai International are determined to respond on the deepestlevel to the challenge of nihilism—the interregnum of values thatpresently prevails—and to restore those functions that would guideand restrain a runaway civilization. We consider this undertaking tobe one of significance even within the greater context of humanhistory.

Ours is a movement that seeks to dispel the clouds of nihilism inorder to reveal the language and values of good that languish on theverge of extinction. It is a movement that works quietly to revive thehuman spirit and reawaken ordinary citizens, exhorting people tochoose the good that is the fruit of self-mastery and resist the de-structive pitfalls of evil. It is an attempt to realize a fundamentaltransformation in human priorities based on the idea that a changein the destiny of a single individual can change the destiny of allhumankind, the key theme of my novel The Human Revolution. (Ikeda2010, 3)

Finally, although this commitment is the hallmark of the Soka GakkaiInternational’s Buddhist humanism, Ikeda simultaneously sees it, in the fullest


spirit of the oneness of mentor and disciple, acutely in the realm of education.Ikeda (in Chandra and Ikeda 2009) states: “I believe that the more all ofthese values are created and manifested in a person’s behaviour, the morethis is evidence of the extent of that person’s humanity. The driving forceand engine for this value creation is wisdom and philosophy. In other words,it is critical to answer the question ‘Why?’” (103). Observing that both thecurrent moment and contemporary civilization suffer from an acute impassecharacterized by the ills Dewey articulates as well as environmental deg-radation, terrorism, fundamentalism and self-destructive apathy, Ikeda(2008) argues that “in order to lift the curtain on a new age . . . a newkind of university and a new philosophy [are] required” (194). Alas, it isfor these reasons that Ikeda founded the Soka schools and entrusts the livedrealization of Dewey’s needed philosophy of education—the philosophy ofvalue-creation—to the pioneering founders of Soka: “If Soka Universitycan play a role in the great challenge facing the world, if it can make somesignificant contribution, I believe it will have fulfilled its purpose. . . . Mygreatest personal task from now on will be education. This is because mysole concern is how to lead humanity in the twenty-first century towardhappiness and peace. In that spirit, I am entrusting the world’s future toyou, the students of this university. And I ask the faculty to foster thesestudents into fine human beings” (Ikeda 2008, 190).

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From Harmonious Community Life to Creative Coexistence

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