FREEDOM OF RELIGION · 2006. 11. 25. · 0521856493 - Freedom of Religion: UN and European Human...
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FRE EDOM OF REL IG ION
The scale and variety of acts of religious intolerance evident in so manycountries today are of enormous contemporary concern. This timelystudy attempts a thorough and systematic treatment of both Universaland European practice side by side. The standards applicable to freedomof religion are subjected to a detailed critique, and their developmentand implementation within the UN is distinguished from that withinStrasbourg, in order to discern trends and obstacles to their advance-ment and to highlight the rationale for any apparent departures betweenthe two systems. This dual focus also demonstrates the acute need for theEuropean Court to heed the warnings from various patterns of violationthroughout the world illustrated by the Human Rights Committee andthe Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief.
PAUL M . TAYLOR is a Barrister (Lincoln’s Inn).
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FREEDOM OF RELIGION
UN and European Human Rights Law and Practice
PAUL M . TAYLOR
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CAMBR IDG E UN I V ER S I T Y P R E S S
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Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
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# Paul M. Taylor 2005
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no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2005
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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CONTENTS
Foreword by David Harris page ix
Preface xi
Table of cases, applications, and communications xiii
Table of treaties, declarations, and other international
instruments xxiv
List of abbreviations xxvii
1 Introduction 1
Overview 1
Interrelation between the UN and European systems 7
The institutions and their contribution to standard-setting 9
The Human Rights Committee 10
The Role of the Special Rapporteur 15
The European Convention treaty organs 16
Chapter structure 19
2 Freedom of religious choice 24
Introduction 24
Freedom to change or maintain religion 27
Pressure to maintain a religion or belief 43
Origin of the freedom from coercion 43
Interpretation of the freedom from coercion 45
Apostasy 50
Summary 53
Pressure to change religion 54
Introduction 54
Missionary activity, imperialist ambitions, colonialism and war 55
v
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Social concern and inducements 57
Proselytism 64
Grounds of opposition to proselytism 64
Rights and freedoms of others 70
Coercion 73
Hate speech 77
Blasphemy, disparagement and gratuitous offence 84
Conclusion 111
3 The scope of the forum internum beyond religious
choice 115
Introduction 115
‘Direct’ protection for the forum internum 120
Decisions based on justified limitation on manifestation 121
Decisions based on available alternatives 136
Exemption ruling out coercion 136
Employment 138
Decisions based on provision for interference in the
relevant Convention 147
Military service 148
Taxation and social security 153
Recognition that coercion does not constitute
manifestation 156
Summary 159
‘Indirect’ protection for the forum internum 160
The rights and freedoms of others as a ground of limitation 161
Education 165
‘Respect’ for parental convictions based on indoctrination 166
Alternative approaches: manifestation and
coercion to act contrary to one’s beliefs 175
Summary 182
The use of anti-discrimination measures to protect
the forum internum 182
Differential treatment 187
‘Reasonable’ and ‘objective’ criteria 192
Summary 198
Conclusion 198
vi C O N T E N T S
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4 The right to manifest religious belief and applicable
limitations 203
Introduction 203
Beliefs and their manifestation 203
Protected beliefs 204
Nexus between religion or belief and its manifestation 210
Determination of whether there has been an interference 222
The scope of recognised manifestations of religion or belief 235
‘To worship or assemble in connection with a religion
or belief, and to establish and maintain places for
these purposes’ 237
Worship or assemble 237
Establish and maintain places of worship and assembly 242
‘To establish and maintain appropriate charitable
or humanitarian institutions’ 246
‘To make, acquire and use to an adequate extent the
necessary articles and materials related to the rites or customs
of a religion or belief ’ 250
‘To write, issue and disseminate relevant publications
in these areas’ 259
‘To teach a religion or belief in places suitable for these
purposes’ 263
‘To solicit and receive voluntary financial and other
contributions from individuals and institutions’ 271
‘To train, appoint, elect or designate by succession
appropriate leaders called for by the requirements and
standards of any religion or belief ’ 272
‘To observe days of rest and to celebrate holidays
and ceremonies in accordance with the precepts of one’s
religion or belief ’ 278
‘To establish and maintain communications with
individuals and communities in matters of religion or belief
at the national and international levels’ 287
Summary 290
Permissible limitations on the right to manifestation 292
Introduction 292
Prescribed by law 293
Legitimate aim 301
C O N T E N T S vii
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Necessary (in a democratic society) 305
Grounds of limitation 321
Public interest grounds of limitation 321
Public health and safety 321
Order 323
National security 325
Protection of morals 327
Fundamental rights and freedoms of others 328
Conclusion 333
5 Conclusion 339
The myth surrounding the nature of coercion to change
religion or belief 339
Developing recognition of issues of conscience 342
The widening of State discretion in European jurisprudence 343
The range of manifestations of religion or belief 347
Meeting future challenges 348
Overview 350
Annexes 352
Annex 1: Universal Declaration of Human Rights 352
Annex 2: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 358
Annex 3: Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms
of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief 368
Annex 4: Convention for the Protection of Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms 372
Annex 5: Text of General Comment No. 22 378
Bibliography 383
Index 398
viii C O N T E N T S
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FOREWORD
This study of the United Nations and European international humanrights law guaranteeing freedom of religion addresses issues of greatcontemporary concern. There are many places in the world where thefollowers of a particular religion may not lawfully worship or practisetheir religion in their daily lives. Apostacy and proselytism may becriminal acts, as may artistic speech that causes offence to religiousfeelings. Religious intolerance continues to fuel a high proportion ofthe situations of armed conflict around the world, thus being the see-mingly intractable cause of so much human suffering. Since 9/11,incitement to religious hatred has increased in significance, withMuslims being the targets of general blame. Religion is as the heart ofthe debate about multiculturalism, exemplified by the heated contro-versy in France about the wearing of headscarves by Muslim women.The relationship between Church and State remains a contentious issuein some other societies. In a watershed and contentious judgment inRefah Partisi v. Turkey, the European Court of Human Right has ruledthat a state legal order that is founded on Shariah Law is not consistentwith democracy in Europe, so that the banning of a political party thatseeks to introduce such an order is not in breach of the guarantee of theright to freedom of association in the European Convention on HumanRights. And the return to strict Christian religious values in the UnitedStates has raised moral questions and issues of separation of Church andState for the courts.
This book is likely to become the place of first recourse on theinternational human rights law on freedom of religion that governthese and other situations and issues. It offers a comprehensive analysisand evaluation of the relevant international law standards that haveevolved within the United Nations and the Council of Europe. Thebook is distinctive in its reliance upon both the – sometimes differing –jurisprudence and practice of the United Nations and European humanrights systems. At the United Nations level, what is of great value is the
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author’s use not only of the practice of the Human Rights Committee,but also of the reports of the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom ofReligion or Belief. These reports are a depressingly revealing mine ofinformation about the large extent and different forms of the ongoingviolations of freedom of religion perpetrated or tolerated by Statesaround the world.
DAVID HARRIS
Professor Emeritus and Co-Director of theHuman Rights Law Centre,
School of Law,University of Nottingham
April 2005
x F O R EW O R D
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PREFACE
The escalating religious intolerance of recent years, both through Stateviolation and by non-State entities, is most conspicuous in events followingthe collapse of the former Soviet Union, in religious conflict in many partsof the world and, of course, in the attacks of 11 September 2001. This hascaused speculation whether the international instruments which weredeveloped more than half a century ago, and those which followed butwere shaped by those instruments, are sufficient to meet present andforeseeable demands. The array of religious violations visible in so manycountries today could not have been anticipated by the drafters of the corefreedom of religion Articles in the foundational instruments, namely theUniversal Declaration on Human Rights and the European Convention.The development of comparable provisions in later instruments, such asthe International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the UnitedNations Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and ofDiscrimination based on Religion or Belief (‘the 1981 Declaration’), sug-gests that the issues which fashioned the text of those later provisions didnot depart significantly from those faced by the original drafters, exceptperhaps in the intensity with which they were debated.
Among recent patterns of violation, particularly in countries of the formerSoviet Union, are measures such as prohibitive registration formalities andbans on proselytism aimed at the protection of a traditional State religion orthe preservation of national identity in reaction to the influx of new religiousmovements. Many other countries have recently adopted preventive policiesagainst so-called ‘sects’ as a result of exaggerated fears of their activities. Thexenophobia and discrimination directed atMuslims following September 11has been far more widespread and anxieties about ‘extremism’ have, forexample, led various countries to react more unfavourably than ever towardsMuslim dress. Hostility towardsMuslims has added impetus tomoves whichhad already begun in certain countries for legislation designed to prohibitreligious vilification or religious hatred. It remains to be seen whether thiswill be at the expense of religious practice such as teaching and proselytism.
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One other development of recent years has been the emergence of politicalparties with an overtly religious agenda, the most radical advocating theintroduction of a system of government based on religious law.
It is therefore timely to reflect on whether existing instruments arecapable of meeting immediate expectations and, as we approach the25th anniversary of the 1981 Declaration, to consider in particular thecontribution to the development of current standards made by thatDeclaration and by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion orbelief appointed to examine incidents and governmental action incon-sistent with the Declaration. The 1981 Declaration is of unique signifi-cance in the development of the freedom of religion since it was the first,and remains the only, United Nations instrument dedicated solely tothat freedom. This work pays tribute to the specialist role of the SpecialRapporteur in providing a wealth of material on recurring patterns ofviolation worldwide and in serving to uncover contemporary sources ofintolerance and obstacles to the promotion of international obligations.
The purpose of this book is to provide a detailed survey of the elementsof the freedom of thought, conscience and religion as developed withinboth the United Nations and European systems and to offer an analysis oftrends at a time when the freedom faces a number of important challenges.It provides a critique of United Nations and European practice in order toidentify and explain apparent departures between the two systems, to helpto discern obstacles to the advancement of standards and to guage the levelof recognition given to different aspects of the freedom. The aim is toenable an immediate appreciation of the United Nations or Europeansystem for those familiar with only one, and to provide coverage of thelaw and practice of both United Nations and European institutions forthose familiar with neither system.
I would like to acknowledge and thank Professor David Harris, whohas been extremely generous in his support for this work and whoseassistance I value enormously. I would also like to thank, among manyothers who have helped in its preparation, the librarians at CambridgeUniversity’s Squire Law Library for their patient assistance with manyqueries and the kind provision of facilities beyond all expectation. I amalso greatly indebted to Wolfson College Cambridge for a VisitingFellowship that offered a stimulating environment for the completionof this work, to Finola O’Sullivan of Cambridge University Press whothroughout has never been anything but extremely helpful, and to theanonymous referees appointed by Cambridge University Press for theirvery useful recommendations for improvement of the text.
xii P R E F A C E
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TABLE OF CASES, APPLICATIONS, ANDCOMMUNICATIONS
The European Court of Human Rights
Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 94(1985) ECtHR 186
Agga v. Greece (App. Nos 50776/99 and 52912/99), Judgment of7 October 2002 276
Ahmet Sadik v. Greece (1997) 24 EHRR 323 270Barthold v. Germany (Ser. A) No. 90 (1985) ECtHR 270Baskaya and Okçuoglu v. Turkey (2001) 31 EHRR 292 207Beard v. United Kingdom (2001) 33 EHRR 442 243Buckley v. United Kingdom (1997) 23 EHRR 101 242Buscarini and others v. San Marino (2000) 30(2) EHRR 208 129, 130,
159, 199, 302, 345Case relating to certain aspects of the laws on the use of languages in
education in Belgium (the Belgian linguistics case) (Ser. A) No. 6(1968) ECtHR 167, 183, 185
Campbell and Cosans v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 48 (1982)ECtHR 128, 166, 173
Canea Catholic Church v. Greece (1999) 27 EHRR 521 226Casimiro Martins v. Luxembourg (App. No. 44888/98, unreported,
decision of 27 April 1999) 173Cha’are Shalom Ve Tsedek v. France (App. No. 27417/95), Judgment of
11 July 2000 218–19, 224, 226, 258, 322Chapman v. United Kingdom (2001) 33 EHRR 399 242Chassagnou and others v. France (2000) 29 EHRR 615 186Dahlab v. Switzerland (App. No. 42393/98), Judgment of 15 February
2001 172, 254, 304, 331, 334, 337Dudgeon v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 45 (1982) ECtHR 310Efstratiou v. Greece (1997) 24 EHRR 298 117, 173Engel v. The Netherlands (Ser. A) No. 22 (1976) ECtHR 142
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Eriksson v. Sweden (Ser. A) No. 156 (1989) ECtHR 167Freedom and Democracy Party (ÖZDEP) v. Turkey (2001)
31 EHRR 674 227Groppera Radio AG and others v. Switzerland (Ser. A) No. 173–A
(1990) ECtHR 162Handyside v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 24 (1976) ECtHR 94,
185, 308Hasan and Chaush v. Bulgaria (2002) 34(6) EHRR 1339 228,
273–5, 277, 294, 296, 299, 311, 335, 348, 350Hoffmann v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 255–C (1993) ECtHR 269HolyMonasteries v. Greece (Ser. A) No. 301 (1995) ECtHR 230, 252Incal v. Turkey (2000) 29 EHRR 449 207Informationsverein Lentia and others v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 276,
Judgment of 24 November 1993 92Inze v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 126 (1988) ECtHR 186Jersild v. Denmark (Ser. A) No. 289 (1995) ECtHR 80Johnston v. Ireland (Ser. A) No. 112 (1987) ECtHR 283Kalaç v. Turkey (1999) 27 EHRR 552 143–4, 217, 318, 345Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v. Denmark (the Danish sex
education case) (Ser. A) No. 23 (1976) ECtHR 116, 166, 167,168, 170, 171, 172, 201
Kokkinakis v. Greece (Ser. A) No. 260–A (1993) ECtHR 39, 50,67–70, 73, 86, 90, 96, 101, 112, 129, 163, 164, 168, 208, 217,225, 264, 267, 273, 294, 298, 302, 308, 330, 335, 340, 349
Larissis and others v. Greece (Ser. A) No. 65 (1998–V) ECtHR363 66, 70, 98, 112, 171, 294, 309, 334, 341
Lotter and Lotter v. Bulgaria (App. No. 39015/97), Judgment of19 May 2004 289
McGuinness v. United Kingdom (App. No. 39511/98 unreported,decision of 8 June, 1999) 130
Maestri v. Italy (App. No. 42393/98), Judgment of 17 February2004 296, 335
Malone v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 82 (1984) ECtHR 294Manoussakis and others v. Greece (1997) 23 EHRR 387 50, 50–3,
126, 233, 242, 299, 302, 303, 310, 324, 328, 335, 349Marckx v. Belgium (Ser. A) No. 31 (1979) ECtHR 186Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia and others v. Moldova (2002)
35 EHRR 306 222–4, 225, 230, 234, 240, 245, 246, 247, 271,272–7, 291, 299, 303, 308, 312, 313, 324, 335, 337, 338, 350
xiv T A B L E O F C A S E S
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Müller v. Switzerland (Ser. A) No. 133 (1988) ECtHR 97–8Murphy v. Ireland (App. No. 44179/98) (2004) 38 EHRR
212 89, 98, 113–14, 163, 304, 309, 325Olsson v. Sweden (Ser. A) No. 130 (1988) ECtHR 294Otto-Preminger-Institut v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 295–A (1994) ECtHR
85–7, 99, 113–14, 162, 164, 343Palau-Martinez v. France (App. No. 64927/01), Judgment of 16
December 2003 269Plattform ‘Ärzte für das Leben’ v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 139 (1988) ECtHRPretty v. United Kingdom (2002) 35 EHRR 1 207, 208, 216Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and others v. Turkey (2003) 37
EHRR 1 229, 314, 335Riera Blume and others v. Spain (2000) 30 EHRR 632 332Serif v. Greece (1999) 31 EHRR 561 164, 218, 275–6, 277, 312,
325, 335, 336, 349Sidiropoulos v. Greece (1999) 27 EHRR 633 229, 302, 304Socialist Party and others v. Turkey (1999) 27 EHRR 51 317Stankov and the United Macedonian Organisation Ilinden v. Bulgaria
(1998) 26 EHRR, CD 103 302The Sunday Times Case (Ser. A) No. 30 (1979) ECtHR 294The Sunday Times v. United Kingdom (No. 2) (1992)14 EHRR 229 308Supreme Holy Council of theMuslim Community v. Bulgaria (App. No.
39023/97), Judgment of 16 December 2004Thlimmenos v. Greece (2001) 31 EHRR 411 189–90, 201, 295,
336, 348Tsirlis and Kouloumpas v. Greece (1998) 25 EHRR 198 150, 193United Christian Broadcasters Ltd v. United Kingdom (App. No.
44802), Judgment of 7 November 2000 92United Communist Party of Turkey and others v. Turkey (1998) 26 EHRR
121 304, 313, 314Vatan v. Russia (App. No. 47978/99), Judgment of 7 October 2004 81VgT Verein Gegen Tierfabriken v. Switzerland (App. No. 24699/94),
Judgment of 28 June 2001 92, 92–3Valsamis v. Greece (1997) 24 EHRR 294 117, 172, 175–6, 282Vogt v. Germany (Ser. A) No. 323–A (1995) ECtHR 99Wingrove v. United Kingdom (1997) 24 EHRR 1 87–92, 96–7,
113, 328Young, James and Webster v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 44 (1981)
ECtHR 174
T A B L E O F C A S E S xv
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The European Commission of Human Rights
Angeleni v. Sweden, App. No. 10491/83 (1986) 51 D&R 41 128,166, 192, 208
Arrowsmith v. United Kingdom, App. No. 7050/75 (1980) 19D&R 5 123, 128, 129–30, 174, 207, 210
Autio v. Finland, App. No. 17086/90 (1991) 72 D&R 245 193B. and D. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 9303/81 (1986) 49 D&R
44 167
Bernard and others v. Luxembourg, App. No. 17187/90 (1993)75 D&R 57 174, 192
C. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 10358/83 (1983) 37D&R 142 124,126, 154, 157, 214, 215, 247, 252
Chappell, A.R.M. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 12587/86 (1987)53 D&R 241 240, 331, 337
Childs v. United Kingdom, App. No. 9813/82, decision of 1 March1983 unpublished, Council of Europe Digest of StrasbourgCase-Law relating to the European Convention on Human Rights,Section 9.2.1.1, p. 1 239, 324
Choudhury v. United Kingdom, App. No. 17439/90 (1991)12 HRLJ 172 85
Christians against Racism and Fascism v. United Kingdom, App. No.8440/78 (1980) 21 D&R 138 323, 336
Church of Scientology and 128 of its members v. Sweden, App. No.8282/78 (1980) 21 D&R 109 100
Church of X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 3798/68 (1968) 29CD 70 289
C. J., J. J. & E. J. v. Poland, App. No. 23380/94 84–A (1996) D&R 46176, 346
Conscientious objectors v. Denmark, App. No. 7565/76 (1978)9 D&R 117 148
D. v. France, App. No. 10180/82 (1983) 35 D&R 199 283Darby v. Sweden (Ser. A) No. 187 (1990) ECtHR, annex to the decision
of the Court 39, 41, 116, 127, 156, 160, 199, 342E. & G. R. v. Austria, App. No. 9781/82 (1984) 37 D&R 42 40, 137East African Asians cases, App. No. 4403/70 etc (1981) EHRR 76, 36
CD, 92 165, 186Gay News Ltd and Lemon v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8710/79
(1982) 5 EHRR 123 84, 96, 99
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Glimmerveen and Hagenbeek v. The Netherlands, App. No. 8348/78and 8406/78 (1979) 18 D&R 187 80
Gottesmann v. Switzerland, App. No. 101616/83 (1984) 40 D&R284 39–41, 341
Grandrath v. Germany, App. No. 2299/64, 10 YBECHR (1967)626 149, 193
Gudmundsson v. Iceland, App. No. 511/59, 3Yearbook (1960) 394 154Hazar and Açik v. Turkey, App. Nos. 16311/90, 16312/90 and 16313/
90 (1992) 73 D&R 111 (settlement); (1991) 72 D&R 200(admissibility) 128, 207, 208
Iglesia Bautista ‘El Salvador’ and Ortega Moratilla v. Spain, App. No.17522/90 (1992) 72 D&R 256
ISCON and others v. United Kingdom, App. No. 20490/92 (1994) 90D&R 90 242, 243
Johansen v. Norway, App. No. 10600/83 (1985) 44 D&R 155 148Karaduman v. Turkey, App. No. 16278/90 (1993) 74 D&R 93 144,
215, 253–4, 318, 337, 349Karlsson v. Sweden, App. No. 12356/86 (1988) 57 D&R 172 140–1Khan v. United Kingdom, App. No. 11579/85 (1986) 48 D&R
253 213, 283Knudsen v. Norway, App. No. 11045/84 (1985) 42 D&R 247 129,
139–41, 212, 220Kommunistische Partei Deutschland v. Germany, App. No. 250/57,
1 Yearbook (1955–7) 222 165Konttinen v. Finland, App. No. 24949/94 (1996) 87 D&R 68 158,
188–9Kühnen v. Germany, App. No. 12194/86 (1988) 56 D&R 205Kustannus Oy Vapaa Ajattelija AB and others v. Finland, App. No.
20471/92, 85–A (1996) D&R 29 226Logan v. United Kingdom, App. No. 24875/94 (1996) 22 EHRR, CD
178 241
Marais v. France, App. No. 31159/96 (1996) 86 D&R 184 81N. v. Sweden, App. No. 10410/83 (1985) 40 D&R 203 148, 193Omkarananda and the Divine Light Zentrum v. United Kingdom, App.
No. 8188/77 (1981) 25 D&R 105 58, 273OrtegaMoratilla v. Spain, App. No. 17522/90 (1992) 72D&R 256 157Plattform ‘Ärzte für das Leben’ v. Austria, App. No. 10126/82 (1985)
44 D&R 65 100–1, 128, 208Raninen v. Finland, App. No. 20972/92, 84–A (1996) D&R 17 193
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Reformed Church of X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 1497/62, 5Yearbook (1962) 286 136–7, 154–5
Scientology Kirche Deutschland v. Germany, App. No. 34614/96, 89–A(1997) D&R 163
Seven Individuals v. Sweden, App. No. 8811/79 (1982) 29 D&R104 167, 268
Stedman v. United Kingdom, App. No. 29107/95, 89–A (1997) D&R104 144, 158, 189, 241, 282
Suter v. Switzerland, App. No. 11595/85 (1986) 51 D&R 160 193T. v. Belgium, App. No. 9777/82 (1983) 34 D&R 158 81V. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 10678/83 (1984) 39 D&R
267 126, 215Van den Dungen v. The Netherlands, App. No. 22838/93 (1995) 80
D&R 147 99–100, 160, 188Van de Heijden v. The Netherlands, App. No. 11002/84 (1985) 41
D&R 264Verein Kontakt-Information-Therapie and Hagen v. Austria, App. No.
11921/86 (1988) 57 D&R 81W. & D.M. and M. and H.I. v. United Kingdom, App. Nos. 10228/82
and 10229/82 (joined) (1984) 37 D&R 96 171X. v. Austria, App. No. 1747/62 (1963) 13 CD 42 326X. v. Austria, App. No. 1753/63 8 Yearbook (1965) 174 256, 324X. v. Austria, App. No. 5591/72 (1973) CD 43 161X. v. Austria, App. No. 8652/79 (1981) 26 D&R 89 228X. v. Denmark, App. No. 7374/76 (1976) 5 D&R 157 48, 138–9, 145X. v. Denmark, App. No. 7465/76 (1977) 7 D&R 153 289X. v. Germany, App. No. 2413/65 (1966) 23 CD 1 224X. v. Germany, App. No. 7705/76 (1977) 9 D&R 196 148X. v. Germany, App. No. 8410/78 (1980) 18 D&R 216 184X. v. Germany, App. No. 8682/79 (1981) 26 D &R 97 239X. v. Germany, App. No. 8741/79 (1981) 24 D&R 137 208, 285X. v. Germany, App. No. 9235/817 (1982) 29 D&R 194 81X. and Y. v. Germany, App No. 7641/76 (1976) 10 D&R 224 142X. v. Iceland, App. No. 2525/65 (1967) 18 CD 33X. v. Italy, App. No. 6741/74 (1976) 5 D&R 83 79X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 1068/61, 5 Yearbook (1962)
278 122
X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 2065/63, 8 Yearbook (1965)266 137, 155
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X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 2988/66, 10 Yearbook (1967)472 332
X. v. Sweden, App. No. 9820/82 (1984) 5 EHRR 297 100, 270, 331X. and the Church of Scientology v. Sweden, App. No. 7805/77 (1979)
16 D&R 68 226, 252X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 5442/72 (1975) 1 D&R 41 260,
324, 334, 337X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 6084/73 (1975) 3 D&R 62X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 6886/75 (1976) 5 D&R 100 251X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 7291/75 (1977) 11 D&R 55X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 7992/77 (1978) 14 D&R 234 256X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8010/77 (1979) 16 D&R 101 267,
330
X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8160/78 (1981) 22D&R 27 144–5,147, 177, 188, 211, 225, 241, 247, 267, 337
X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8231/78 (1982) 28 D&R 5 256X., Y. and Z. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8566/79 (1982) 31
D&R 50 167Yanasik v. Turkey, App. No. 14524/89 (1993) 74 D&R 14 141, 217,
318, 345
Views and Decisions of the Human Rights Committee
A group of associations for the defence of the rights of disabled andhandicapped persons in Italy, and persons signing thecommunication, on 9th January 1984 v. Italy, CommunicationNo. 163/1984 (decision 10 April 1984), UN Doc. A/39/40(1984), p. 197 226
A. and S. N. v. Norway, Communication No. 224/1987 (decision of 11July 1988), UN Doc. A/43/40 (1988), p. 246 178–9
Ahani v. Canada, Communication No. 1051/2002 (views of 29 March2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 260 52
Arenz v. Germany, Communication No. 1138/2002 (decision of 24March 2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 548
B.d.B. et al. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 273/1988 (decisionof 30 March 1989), UN Doc. A/44/40 (1989), p. 286 191
Bhinder K. Singh v. Canada, Communication No. 208/1986 (views of9 November 1989), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990), p. 50132–3, 146, 191, 240, 257, 332
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Boodoo v. Trinidad and Tobago, Communication No. 721/1997 (viewsof 2 August 2002), UN Doc. A/57/40 vol. 2 (2002), p. 76 135,239, 257
Brinkhof v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 402/1990 (decisionof 27 July 1993), UN Doc. A/48/40 vol. 2 (1993), (1994) 14HRLJ 410 193, 345
Broeks, S.W.M. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 172/1984(views of 9 April 1987), UN Doc. A/42/40 (1987), p. 139 187
Buckle v. New Zealand, Communication No. 858/1999 (views of25 October 2000), A/56/40, p. 175 269
C. v. Australia, Communication No. 900/1999 (views of 28 October2002) UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 188 52
Coeriel, A. R. and M. A. R. Aurik v. The Netherlands, CommunicationNo. 453/1991 (views of 31 October 1994), UN Doc A/50/40 vol.2 (1999), p. 21 133–4, 279
Danning, L. G. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 180/1984(views of 9 April 1987), UN Doc. A/42/40 (1987), p. 151 183
De Groot, Leonardus J. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 578/1994 (decision of 14 July 1995), UN Doc. A/50/40 vol. 2 (1999),p. 179 131–2
E.P. et al. v. Colombia, Communication No. 318/1988 (decision of15 July 1990), UN Doc. A/45/40 (1990), p. 184 278
E.W. et al. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 429/1990(decision of 8 April 1993), UN Doc. A48/40 vol. 2 (1993),p. 198
Faurisson, Robert v. France, Communication No. 550/1993 (views of8 November 1996), UN Doc. A/52/40 vol. 2 (1999), p. 84 82,83, 108, 298, 300
Foin, Frederic v. France, Communication No. 666/1995 (views of3 November 1999), (2000) 7(2) IHRR 354 194, 346
G.T. v. Canada, Communication No. 420/1990 (decision of 22 March1990), (1994) 1(1) IHRR 46 146
H.A.E.d.J. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 297/1988(decision of 30 October 1989), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990),p. 176 191
Hartikainen v. Finland, Communication No. 40/1978 (views of 9 April1981), UN Doc. A/36/40 (1981), p. 147 178–81
Hertzberg and others v. Finland, Communication No. R.14/61 (views of2 April 1982), UN Doc. A/37/40 (1982), p. 161 186, 327
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Hopu, Francis and Tepoaitu Bessert v. France, Communication No.549/1993 (views of 29 July 1997), UN Doc. A/52/40 vol. 2(1999), p. 70 238, 240
J.v.K. andC.M.G.v.K.-S. v. TheNetherlands,CommunicationNo.483/1991(decision of 23 July 1992), UNDoc. A/47/40 (1994), p. 435 155
Jansen-Gielen v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 846/1999(views of 3 April 2001), UN Doc. A/56/40 vol. 2, p. 158 267
J.H.W. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 501/1992 (decision of16 July 1993) (1994) 1(2) IHRR 39 187
J.P. v. Canada, Communication No. 466/1991 (decision of 7 November1991), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1994), p. 426 155, 220
J.P.K. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 401/1990 (decision of7 November 1991), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1994), p. 405 151
J.R.T. and the W.G. Party v. Canada, Communication No. 104/1981(decision of 6 April 1983), UN Doc. A38/40 (1983), p. 231 79
Jarvinen, Aapo v. Finland, Communication No. 295/1988 (views of25 July 1990), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990), p. 101 194
Kang v. Korea, Communication No. 878/1999 (views of 15 July 2003),UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 152 32
Kitok v. Sweden, Communication No.197/1985 (views of 27 July 1988),UN Doc. A/43/40 (1988), p. 221 279
Kivenmaa, Auli v. Finland, Communication No. 412/1990 (views of31 March 1994) (1994) 1(3) IHRR 88 300
K.V. and C.V. v. Germany, Communication No. 568/1993 (decision of8 April 1994), UN Doc. A/49/40, vol. 2 (1994), p. 365 155
Länsman, Jouni E. et al. v. Finland, Communication No. 671/1995(views of 30 October 1996), UN Doc. A/52/40 vol. 2 (1999),p. 191 279
L.T.K. v. Finland, Communication No. 185/1984 (decision of 9 July1985), UN Doc. A/40/40 (1985), p. 240 148, 150, 151
M.A. v. Italy, Communication No. 117/81 (decision of 10 April 1984),UN Doc. A/39/40 (1984), p. 190 79–80
M.A.B., W.A.T. and J.-A.Y.T. v. Canada, Communication No. 570/1993 (decision of 8 April 1994), UN Doc. A/49/40, vol. 2 (1994),p. 368 128, 209, 238, 251
M.B.B. v. Sweden, Communication No. 104/1998, UN Doc. CAT/C/22/D/104/1998 (views of 5 May 1999) (2000) 7(2) IHRR 400
M.J.G. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 267/1987 (decision of24 March 1988), UN Doc. A/43/40 (1988), p. 271 190–1
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Maille, Richard v. France, Communication No. 689/1996 (views of 10July 2000) (2000) 7(4) IHRR 947 148
Mathews, Patterson v. Trinidad and Tobago, Communication No. 569/1993 (views of 31 March 1998), UN Doc. A/53/40 (1998),p. 30 134–5, 257
Nam v. Korea, Communication No. 693/1996 (decision of 28 July2003), UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 390 180
Páez, W. Delgado v. Colombia, Communication No. 195/1985 (viewsof 12 July 1990), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990), p. 43 145–6,267
Palandjian v. Hungary, Communication No. 1106/2002 (decision of30 March 2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 534
Park, Tae-Hoon v. Korea, Communication No. 628/1995 (views of20 October 1998) (1999) 6(3) IHRR 623 165, 210, 293, 325
P.S. v. Denmark, Communication No. 397/1990 (decision of 22 July1992), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1992), p. 395 268
Riley et al. v. Canada, Communication No. 1048/2002 (decision of21 March 2002), UN Doc. A/57/40 vol. 2 (2002), p. 356 257
Ross, Malcolm v. Canada, Communication No. 736/1997 (views of18 October, 2000), UN Doc. A/56/40 vol. 2 (2001), p. 69 82,207, 221, 222, 260, 263, 300–1, 304, 307, 329
Sanlés Sanlés v. Spain, Communication No. 1024/2001 (decision of 30March 2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 505
Somers, Ivan v. Hungary, Communication No. 566/1993, (views of23 July 1996), UN Doc. A/51/40 vol. 2, (1997), p. 144 183
T.W.M.B. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 403/1990(decision of 7 November 1991), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1994),p. 411 151
Vakoumé, Mathieu and others v. France, Communication No. 822/1998 (decision of 31 October 2000), UN Doc. A/56/40 vol. 2,p. 249 238
Van der Ent, Gerrit v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 657/1995(decision of 3 November 1995), UN Doc. A/51/40 vol. 2 (1997),p. 276 132
Waldman, Arieh Hollis v. Canada, Communication No. 694/1996(views of 3 November 1999) (2000) 7(2) IHRR 368 178, 179,181, 192, 266–7
Westerman, Paul v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 682/1996(views of 3 November 1999) (2000) 7(2) IHRR 363
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X. v. Australia, Communication No. 557/1993 (decision of 16 July 1996),UN Doc. A/51/40 vol. 2 (1997), p. 235
Zündel v. Canada, Communication No. 953/2000 (decision of 27 July2003), UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 483 82
Zwaan-de Vries, F.W. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 182/1984 (views of 9 April 1987), UN Doc. A/42/40 (1987),p. 160 183
The Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina v. The RepublikaSrpska, Case No. CH/96/29 (decision of 11 June 1999) (2000)7(3) IHRR 833 244, 246
Mahmutovic, Dzevad v. The Republika Srpska, Case No. CH/98/892(decision of 8 October 1999) (2000) 7(3) IHRR 869 284
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TABLE OF TREATIES, DECLARATIONS, AND OTHERINTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948), GA Res. 217A(III),UN Doc. A/3/810 (1949) 203, 352–8
Article 18 1, 4, 7, 235, 355drafting history 24
Article 29 206, 293, 357European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms (1950), 213 UNTS 221 372Article 1 317Article 2 165, 166–9Article 4 149Article 6 227Article 8 176–7Article 9 2, 4, 7, 17, 22, 26, 72, 75–7, 100, 116, 201, 204, 244, 284,
306, 313, 317, 330, 343–4, 347, 349, 350–1gratuitously profane expressions 95–6legal obligation 121proselytism 112
Article 10 80, 106, 108, 113, 170, 204–5, 328, 330, 343–4Article 11 100–1, 227, 311, 314Article 12 283Article 14 183, 189–90Article 17 80, 101, 165, 313Article 25 17Article 26 17Article 27 17Article 52 18discretion to states under 185limitation 161Protocol 11 16, 384publications 263
Convention on Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers forWork of Equal Value (1951), 165 UNTS 257 183
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Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (1958),362 UNTS 31 183
UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960),429 UNTS 93 183
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of RacialDiscrimination (1965), 660 UNTS 195 9, 80
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), 999UNTS171 10–15, 36, 156, 203, 358–68
Article 2 12, 18, 47, 183, 359Article 5 46, 79, 101, 360Article 6 51, 361Article 17 165, 365Article 18 1, 4, 8, 9, 11–13, 14, 15, 19, 22, 28, 43–5, 51,
63, 78, 151, 165, 177, 194, 206, 220, 269, 306, 323,325, 365
Article 19 221, 305, 366Article 20 77, 101, 305, 366Article 25 46, 368Article 26 183, 190, 368Article 31 11Article 40 10, 11, 13Articles 1–10 12limitation 161Optional Protocol 79, 82
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights(1966), 993 UNTS 3 36
International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of theCrime of Apartheid (1973), 1015 UNTS 243 184
Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights (1976), 999 UNTS 171 10, 14, 15, 79, 131–2
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination againstWomen (1979), 1249 UNTS 13 184
Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and ofDiscrimination based on Religion or Belief (1981), GA Res. 36/55,UN Doc. A/36/51 (1982) 2, 4, 8, 15, 26, 35, 56, 368–72
Article 1 4, 5, 369Article 6 22, 66, 204, 221, 226, 235, 236, 262, 329, 334, 336,
347, 371Article 8 28, 372
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Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or DegradingTreatment or Punishment (1984), 1465 UNTS 3
article 3 51Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), 1577 UNTS 3 34Protocol 11 to the European Convention on Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms (1994), 155 ETSEuropean Framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities (1995), 157 ETS 5, 18, 250, 259, 276, 279
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ABBREVIATIONS
AC Appeal CasesAIR All India ReporterAm J Int’l L American Journal of International LawBrigham Young UL Rev Brigham Young University Law ReviewBYBIL British Yearbook of International LawCambridge LJ Cambridge Law JournalCase W Res J Int’l L Case Western Reserve Journal of
International LawCD Collected Decisions of the European
Commission of Human RightsCHR Commission on Human RightsCIL Contemporary Issues in LawCon & Lib Conscience & LibertyCornell Int’l LJ Cornell International Law JournalEcc LJ Ecclesiastical Law JournalEc Rev Ecumenical ReviewECtHR European Court of Human Rights
Judgments and DecisionsEd & Law Education and the LawEHRLR European Human Rights Law ReviewEHRR European Human Rights ReportsEmory Int’l L Rev Emory International Law ReviewEmp Lawyer Employment LawyerESCOR United Nations Economic and Social
Council Official RecordsETS European Treaty SeriesEur L Rev European Law ReviewGA Res. General Assembly ResolutionGAOR General Assembly Official RecordsHarv Int’l LJ Harvard International Law JournalHarv L Rev Harvard Law Review
xxvii
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Harv WLJ Harvard Women’s Law JournalHR & UKP Human Rights and UK PracticeHRLJ Human Rights Law JournalHRQ Human Rights QuarterlyHRJ Human Rights JournalICCPR International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (1966)IHRR International Human Rights ReportsILM International Legal MaterialsInt JLP & F International Journal of Law, Policy and
the FamilyInt’l & Comp Law Q International and Comparative Law
QuarterlyInt’l Bull Miss Res International Bulletin of Missionary
ResearchInt’l Comm’n Jurists Rev Review, International Commission of
JuristsIsr YB Hum Rts Israel Yearbook on Human RightsJ Church & St Journal of Church and StateJ Civ Lib Journal of Civil LibertiesJ Soc Wel Law Journal of Social Welfare LawKCLJ King’s College Law JournalMed Sc & L Medicine, Science and the LawNeth Int’l L Rev Netherlands International Law ReviewNLJ New Law JournalNorthern Ireland LQ Northern Ireland Legal QuarterlyNorthw UL Rev Northwestern University Law ReviewNYUJ Int’l L & Pol New York University Journal of
International Law and PoliticsODIHR Office for Democratic Institutions and
Human RightsOSCE Organization for Security andCo-operation
in Europe, formerly the Conference forSecurity and Co-operation in Europe
Oxford J Leg Stud Oxford Journal of Legal StudiesPac Rim L & Pol’y J Pacific Rim Law and Policy JournalPat of Prej Patterns of PrejudicePL Public LawPlen. Mtg Plenary Meeting
xxviii L I S T O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S
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Pol Quart Political QuarterlyRADIC African Journal of International and
Comparative LawRat Jur Ratio JurisRCADI Receuil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit
International de la HayeSanta Clara L Rev Santa Clara Law ReviewSCR Supreme Court ReportsU Chicago L Rev University of Chicago Law ReviewUN United NationsUNTS UN Treaty SeriesVand J Transnat’l L Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational LawVirginia J Int’l L Virginia Journal of International LawWCRP World Conference on Religion and PeaceWilliam Mary L Rev William and Mary Law ReviewWLR Weekly Law ReportsYBECHR Yearbook of the European Commission
of Human RightsYearbook Yearbook of the European Convention
on Human Rights
L I S T O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S xxix
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