FREE INSIDE · 2011-04-04 · Volume XXVI • Issue 4 • Winter 2010 $10.00* INSIDE THIS ISSUE. T....

Volume XXVI • Issue 4 • Winter 2010 $10.00*

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

The earTh ScienTiST

*ISSN 1045-4772

From the President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

From the Executive Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Editor’s Corner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Advertising in The Earth Scientist . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

2010 Index of TES Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

The Crater Beneath the Corn Fields: Iowa’s Manson Impact Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Galileoscopes Across the USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

ISTEP: An International High School Student and Teacher Research Collaboration . . . . . . . . . .18

Yes Sir, That’s My Baby…Glacier! Making Glaciers Real and Personal . . . . . . . . . . .23

Teaching with Screen-Capture Podcasts . . . . . . .26

An Overview of Pyro-Cumulonimbus Thunderstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Manuscript Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Membership Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Sunrise at Dead Horse Point State Park, Utah. Taken in November of 2009 by Jay Brooks, with a Canon 40D Exposure: 1/4 sec. at F22 Focal length: 17mm. ISO: 200.

FREE INSIDESurface of the EarthIcosahedron Globe

From NOAA

The Earth Scientist

© 2010 National Earth Science Teachers Association. All Rights Reserved.

From The PreSidenT

NESTA ContactsEXECUTIVE BOARD

PresidentArdis Herrold

[email protected]

President-ElectMissy Holzer

[email protected]

SecretaryJenelle Hopkins

[email protected]

TreasurerHoward Dimmick

[email protected]

Past-PresidentMichael J Passow

[email protected]

Board of Directors RepresentativeParker Pennington IV

[email protected]

Executive Director, Association ContactDr. Roberta Johnson

[email protected]

Thoughts On Limestone by Ardis HerroldNESTA President 2010 – 2012

Limestone has an image problem. I live in Michigan, where limestone is more than just common, this grey rock is prolific. It doesn’t get the respect it deserves. We kick it around on our gravel roads. We grind it for concrete. In kilns, we burn it into lime. Limestone is treated with no respect at all.

Yet, limestone makes up the Petoskey Stone, Michigan’s State Rock. It has carefully replaced the structure of this coral and other fossils, so that we get a glimpse of life forms of long ago. Oceanographic studies reveal that coral can only live in warm shallow ocean water, so in the past Michigan was submerged under a tropical ocean. Michigan must have at that time been closer to the Equator, which can be explained by plate tectonic theory.

Some of the coral formations of the Michigan Basin have proven to be excellent reservoirs of oil and natural gas. When the gas and oil are removed, these same rocks can be re-used for carbon dioxide sequestration.

Limestone has been good at this sequestration business for a very long time, but not via human intervention. The oceans’ limestone can be thought of as a type of “fossil atmosphere”, since carbon dioxide removed from the air by the oceans often ends up as limestone. Understanding this carbon cycle is key to tackling the complex issues of climate change.

Limestone quarries provide the large quantities of rock needed to make road gravel, fill, concrete and building stone. Limestone is also used to make glass, steel and paper products. It adjusts the pH of soil and water. It scrubs the sulfur, mercury and acid out of coal-burning smokestacks. It works alone in the dark of underground for thousands of years to build delicate and beautiful spele-othems. Limestone is one busy rock!

Most people just see limestone as a dull uninteresting rock, but when I look at limestone, I am filled with gratitude for all that it does for me. That’s because I am an Earth Scientist. I have been taught how to read the stories of rock and wind and water. It is my passion to pass these stories on to all who will listen. I am glad it is your passion, too. We need many storytellers to save and protect our planet. NESTA is a good place for kindred spirits to swap stories. What’s yours?

The Petoskey Stone, Michigan’s State Stone is a Devonian age coral replaced by limestone. Photo by Author.

NESTA’S MISSIONTo facilitate and advance

excellence in Earth and Space

Science education.

The NESTA office is located at:4041 Hanover St., Suite 100Boulder, CO 80305

PO Box 20854Boulder, CO 80308-3854

Phone: 720-328-5351Fax: 720-328-5356

Visit the NESTA website at http://www.nestanet.org

Volume XXVI, Issue 4


NESTA ContactsREGIONAL DIRECTORSCentral Region - IL, IA, MN, MO, WIYvette [email protected]

East Central Region - IN, KY, MI, OHJay [email protected]

Eastern Region - DE, NJ, PAMichael [email protected]

Far Western and Hawaii Region - CA, GU, HI, NV Wendy Van [email protected]

Mid-Atlantic Region - DC, MD, VA, WVMichelle [email protected]

New England Region - CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VTLisa Sarah [email protected]

New York Region - NYGilles [email protected]

North Central Region - MT, NE, ND, SD, WY Richard [email protected]

Northwest Region - AK, ID, OR, WA & British ColumbiaSteve [email protected]

South Central Region - AR, KS, LA, OK, TXKurtis [email protected]

Southeastern Region - AL, FL, GA, MS, NC, PR, SC, TNDave [email protected]

Southwest Region - AZ, CO, NM, UT Pamela [email protected]

Appointed DirectorsTom Ervin – [email protected]

Ron Fabich – [email protected]

Parker Pennington IV – [email protected]

Bruce Hall – [email protected]

Linda Knight – [email protected]

Joe Monaco – [email protected]

From The execuTive direcTorDear NESTA Members,

We have had a very busy fall so far, and our activities will become even more busy during the coming two months. At the time of writing this column, at the end of October, we have just finished our first set of fall workshops at the NSTA Area conference in Kansas City, Missouri. NESTA events included our signature Share-a-Thon (with ~80 attendees and 11 presenters) as well as our Rock and Mineral Raffle (with ~60 attendees). Thanks to all the generous people who provided speci-mens for the raffle, and to the presenters that shared their resources at the Share-a-Thon!

In addition to our regular NESTA events, this conference marked the first time that workshops formerly offered through Windows to the Universe were officially offered under the NESTA umbrella. This added another six workshops to the NESTA program at the Kansas City Area Conference, and we reached an additional 300 teachers, bringing the total number of educators we reached to ~440.

Immediately prior to the NSTA conference in Kansas City, NESTA participated in the first ever USA Science and Engineering Festival on October 23-24 in Washington DC. We had a booth in the Mellon Auditorium in the EPA building, and were assisted by 24 wonderful volunteers. We shared seven different activities on Earth and Space science with visitors to the booth – mainly excited parents and kids, but also including program managers from Federal agencies who stopped by on their day off. We lost count, but clearly had several thousand visitors to our booth. It was an EXHAUSTING experience, but well worth it – thanks again so much to our volunteers, without whom our participation would have been impossible!

Students and a proud dad visiting the NESTA booth at the USA Science and Engineering Festival on 22 October, 2010.

NESTA Executive Director, Dr. Roberta Johnson demonstrates the use of a simple magnetometer to explore the mystery planet, Terrabagga, with visitors to our booth.

NESTA Past President Dr. Michael Passow works with one of the 24 volunteers, who kindly gave of their time over the weekend to help NESTA put our best foot forward with the public. Thank you to all our volunteers!

The Earth Scientist


Our next event is the GSA in Denver, Colorado, where we have a booth as well as a poster on opportunities available through NESTA. We will then continue our fall program with Workshops, Share-a-Thons, and Rock and Mineral Raffles at the NSTA Area Conferences in Baltimore and Nashville.

Please check the NESTA website for information about our schedule at the NSTA National Confer-ence in San Francisco in March 2011. As of the date of writing this column, we have not yet heard from NSTA, but the information should be posted on our website by the time you receive this.

Another new activity that NESTA engaged in this year was working with the American Geophys-ical Union to organize and facilitate the AGU-NESTA Geophysical Information for Teachers (GIFT) workshop for teachers this Fall at the AGU meeting in San Francisco, California on December 16-17. The workshop focused on natural hazards, climate change, and natural resources, as well as hot topics in the geosciences. If you are interested in finding out more about the teacher workshop, please visit the AGU website at http://www.agu.org/meetings/fm10/outreach/communi-cations_workshops.php#gift to register for the meeting.

I’d like to take this opportunity to be sure you know about the classroom activities and resources available to teachers on the Windows to the Universe website (http://www.windows2universe.org). The website spans the Earth and Space sciences, with arts and humanities connections, including over 9000 interlinked webpages available at three levels of content (upper elementary, middle school, and high school) and in English and Spanish. Our teacher resources section includes over 100 classroom activities for teachers (see http://www.windows2universe.org/teacher_resources/main/teacher_resources.html), as well as supporting content on the website, based on ~8 years of effort in development and dozens of workshops with educators over this period.

Best Regards,Dr. Roberta JohnsonExecutive Director, NESTA

ediTor’S cornerI truly enjoyed working on this issue of The Earth Scientist (TES). I had the chance to collaborate with the authors of the fine articles being shared within these pages. We are fortunate to be able to share with you the wide spectrum of Earth Science ideas and topics that are contained in this issue of TES.

If you would like to submit an article for potential publication in TES, note that guidelines for submission may be found within this issue of TES as well as on line at www.nestanet.org

As this is the fourth and final issue of TES for year, the NESTA Constitution calls for the Editor to submit an Index of the Articles included in that calendar year. The 2010 TES Index is included in this issue, on pages 6 and 7.

Tom ErvinTES Editor

NESTA CoordinatorsAffiliates CoordinatorRon Fabich

Conference Logistics CoordinatorsKim Warschaw

Michelle Harris

Membership CoordinatorBruce Hall

Merchandise CoordinatorHoward Dimmick

Procedures Manual CoordinatorParker Pennington IV

Rock Raffle CoordinatorsParker Pennington

Kimberly Warschaw

Share-a-thon CoordinatorMichelle Harris

Volunteer CoordinatorJoe Manaco

E-News EditorsMissy Holzer

Richard Jones



Advertising in the nestA QuArterly JournAl, The earTh ScienTiST

NESTA will accept advertisements that are relevant to Earth and space science education. A limited number of spaces for advertisements are available in each issue.

ArtworkWe accept CD or electronic ad files in the following formats: high-res PDF, TIFF or high-res JPEG. Files must have a minimum resolution of 300 dpi. Ads can be in color.

Advertising RatesFull-page 7.5” w × 10” h $500 Quarter-page 3.625”w × 4.75”h $125Half-page 7.25” w × 4.75” h $250 Eighth-page 3.625”w × 2.375”h $75

Submission Deadlines for AdvertisementsSubmission dates given below are the latest possible dates by which ads can be accepted for a given issue. Advertisers are advised to submit their ads well in advance of these dates, to ensure any problems with the ads can be addressed prior to issue preparation. The TES Editor is responsible for decisions regarding the appropriateness of advertisements in TES.

Issue Submission Deadline Mailing Date

Spring January 15 March 1Summer April 15 June 1Fall July 15 September 1Winter October 31 January 1

Your one-stop shop for marinescience curriculum supplies .

www.LeaveOnlyBubbles.com 715-659-5427

[email protected]

Leave Only Bubbles is a subsidiary of “What If…?” Scientific, a teacher-owned and operated earth science supply company founded in 1997.

For further information contact Howard Dimmick, Treasurer, [email protected]

The Earth Scientist


2010 index oF TES arTicleSTITLE AUTHOR ISSUE PAGE

NOAA’s Adopt a Drifter Program: Track Your Drifting Buoy Along with Students Abroad

Stanitski, D. Spring 5-7

NOAA’s Teacher at Sea Program: Living and Learning at Sea

McMahon, E., Hammond, J.

Spring 8-13

Seeking Salt: NASA Aquarius to Fill Void in Ocean-Climate Understanding

deCharon, A. Spring 14-16

An Ocean of Free Education Resources Petrone, C. Spring 17-18

The Census of Marine Life: Bringing a Decade of Global Research into the Classroom

Cackowski, C. Spring 19-21

Coral Reefs: An Introduction and Educational Opportunities

Maurin, P. Spring 22-24

Using Ocean Observing Systems in Centers for Ocean Science Education Excellence (COSEE)

McDonnell, J., deCharon, A., Peach, C.

Spring 25-31

The MATE Center Prepares Students for Ocean-Related Technology Careers

Zande, J., Brown, C. Spring 32-34

Aboard the JOIDES Resolution with the School of Rock!

Monaco, J. Spring 35-38

Linking Introductory Chemistry and the Geosciences through Ocean Acidification

Cooley, S., Benway, H. Spring 39-42

Breaking Ice, Building Knowledge The Benefits of Ship-Based Teacher Research Experiences

Garay, D., Warburton, J., Timm, K.

Spring 43-48

A Fiber-Optic Telescope to the Deep Sea Penrose, N. Spring 49-51

River Enhanced Snow Bands on the Mississippi River

Ervin, A. Summer 5-6

Low Budget Planetarium: A Classroom Model of the Night Sky

Holzer, M. Summer 7-9

A Primer on satellite Oceanography Passow, M. Summer 9-13



TITLE AUTHOR ISSUE PAGE

Using the Sciences of Geology and Archaeology to Bring Inquiry into the Classroom

Witham, S. Summer 14-21

GEMS Space Science Sequence: Making the Intangible Aspects of Astronomy Hands-on Using an Inquiry Approach

McDonald, J. Summer 22-26

As Evidence Grows, Will the Climate Debate Slow?

Eastburn, T. Summer 27-32

Using the “Is It a Scientific Theory?” Activity to Accompany the Nature of Science Poster

Christensen, J. Fall 6-7

What Good Is a Rock? Oso, P. Fall 8-9

Four Classroom Activities from Mii Mii/SME Fall 10-13

Sometimes Even better Than It Was: Reclamation of Mined Land

Sicree, A. Fall 14-19

Teaching about the Importance of Minerals Christensen, J. Fall 20-24

The Not-So-Rare Earth Minerals Sicree, A. Fall 25-30

The Crater Beneath the Cornfields: Iowa’s Manson Impact Structure

Anderson R., Witzke B. Winter 8-12

Galileoscopes Across the USA Herrold, A. Winter 13-17

ISTEP: An International High School Student and Teacher Research Collaboration

Chan, S., Buckley, B. Kowach, G., Passow, M.

Winter 18-22

Yes Sir, That’s My Baby…Glacier! Making Glaciers Real and Personal

Roemmele, C. Winter 23-25

Teaching with Screen-Capture Podcasts Van Norden, W. Winter 26-27

An Overview of Pyro-Cumulonimbus Thunderstorms

Vavrek, J. Winter 28-33

The Earth Scientist


AbstractThe Manson Impact Structure (MIS) is located in north-central Iowa, about 80 miles northwest of Des Moines. At 24 miles in diameter, it is among the largest meteor impact structures on earth. Although there is no longer any surface expression of the structure, the area around the MIS has been known as an area of anomalous subsurface geology since the early 1900s. Shortly after it was confirmed as an impact structure, the MIS was investigated as a possible site of the impact that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs and other species 65 million years ago. That investigation provided the information needed to develop a detailed model of the crater’s formation and geologic history.

IntroductionLate in the Cretaceous Period, seventy-four million years ago, central Iowa lay near the shoreline of the inland seaway that crossed North America, connecting the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The mountain building event that created the costal ranges to the west had progressed eastward and was beginning the initial uplift of the Rocky Mountains. The eastern shore of the seaway was a flat, low-lying land-scape with a warm, moist climate much like today’s Gulf coast and hosted a rich population of plants and animals, including dinosaurs and small mammals, living in fern-rich mixed conifer and deciduous forests. The shoreline had been constantly in motion, slowly moving from west to east and back in response to the cyclic rising and falling of Cretaceous sea level over millions of years. This environment was drasti-cally altered when a stony meteorite over 1 mile in diameter burst through the atmosphere and crashed to earth in an area that is now north-central Iowa, exploding with almost unimaginable energy and devastating the region. The blast left a crater over 24 miles in diameter, centered in an area of

The Crater Beneath the Corn Fields: Iowa’s Manson Impact Structure

Raymond R. Anderson and Brian J. WitzkeIowa Department of Natural Resources

Figure 1 – Location of the Manson Impact Structure in Iowa, showing principal crater terranes.



massive death and destruction. But, ever-active earth processes subsequently eroded and leveled the area around the crater and later buried it in multiple layers of glacial materials. Today there is no surface expression of the crater (Figure 1), the 23rd largest known on earth (Figure 2), which lies

only 200 feet below Manson, the town near the center of the crater that bears its name.

History of Manson InvestigationsThe area of the Manson Impact Structure (Figure 1) had been known as a region of anomalous geology since the early 1900s, when a new water well drilled for the town of Manson, in Calhoun County, Iowa, encountered an unusual suite of rocks, unlike the layers of limestone, shale, and sandstone found everywhere else in the region. The Manson well penetrated over 1000 feet of “shale,” then passed into an anomalous “sandstone” that yielded huge quantities of water, the only naturally soft groundwater known in Iowa. The first dedicated investigation of the geology near Manson was in 1953 when two research cores were drilled, and rock chip samples collected during the drilling of private water wells in the area were studied. Since mete-orite impact craters were almost unknown at that time, the feature was initially interpreted as a crypovolcanic structure, a crater produced by a giant explosion of volcanic gasses. A meteorite impact origin for the Manson Structure was proven by University of Houston Professor Nick Short in 1966 when he published photographs of parallel deformation features (pdfs) in quartz crystals, including crystals from the Manson Structure. He concluded that the presence of these features constituted incontrovertible evidence of a meteorite impact origin. The pdfs (visible under a microscope as thin lines in the light brown quartz grains, (Figure 3) are produced when the high energy shock wave generated by a meteor impact passes through a quartz grain, sliding atoms along

Figure 2 – Geographic Distribution of the 160 impact structures on Earth known in 2000 (from Lunar and Planetary Institute, 2010)

Figure 3 – Pdfs in impact-shocked quartz grains, viewed in photo-micrograph of rocks from MIS central peak. Field of view is 3 mm wide.

The Earth Scientist


their crystallographic axis with such energy that the friction creates thin, regularly spaced zones of melting. The impacts of extraterrestrial bodies are the only naturally occurring events on earth with sufficient energy to create these pdfs.

The Iowa Geological Survey and U.S. Geological Survey joined forces in 1991 and 1992 to investi-gate the possibility that the Manson impact played a role in one of the great extinction events in earth history, the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction. The K-T extinction, which marked the end of the Cretaceous Period 65 million years ago, included most famously the end of the dinosaurs, but also marked the demise of 80-90% of marine species and about 85% of land species. Geologists (Alvarez and others, 1980; Bohor and others, 1983) had proposed that the extinction was initiated by the impact of a huge asteroid or several smaller bodies. During the course of this Manson inves-tigation 11 rock cores, totaling over 4000 feet, were drilled, sampling all terrains of the crater. Study of those cores and other data by scientists from throughout the United States and several other countries yielded numerous publications and produced an understanding of the processes involved in the formation of the Manson Structure.

Interpretation of Manson DataA model for the formation of MIS was created by applying information collected during the investigation of the structure to a series of mathematical equations from Melosh (1989) that describe various aspects of meteor impact crater process. Since all that was known about the impact was the size of the Manson crater, initial calculations began there. It was assumed that the impactor was an asteroid, a stony (chondrite) meteorite (since chondrite meteorites constitute 86% of meteorites found on earth), with a density of 3.4 g/cc (average chondrite density), and moving at 45,000 mph (the average speed for asteroids). With these assumptions, the Manson meteor would have had a diameter of about 1.5 miles and a mass of over 36 billion tons.

The Manson Structure was identified as a complex impact crater. Bowl shaped simple craters (like Meteor Crater in Arizona) are created by smaller impacts. Complex craters are formed (Figure 3) by larger impacting bodies, whose greater impact energies push up the crater rim above the pre-impact landscape. As the crater develops the initial impact pressure diminishes, the uplifted rim collapses creating the Terrace Terrane, and the Central Peak is driven upward (Figures 1, 4, 5). Most impact craters on earth that are

larger than about 3 miles in diameter are complex craters, and the Manson crater is 24 miles in diameter.

Model History of Manson Crater FormationThe Manson area at the time of impact may have been covered by a shallow sea, with water depths likely less than 100 feet. The meteor would have easily passed through the water and pene-trated into the seafloor where its kinetic energy (about 2 x 1021 Joules) was released in a gigantic explosion. The energy released in the blast would have been the equivalent of about 2 trillion tons of TNT, or about 40 times the explosive energy of all of the nuclear weapons on earth at the peak of the cold war! This sudden release of energy produced a pulse of electromagnetic

Figure 4 – Development of a complex impact structure, modified from French, 1998.

Figure 5 – Geologic cross-section across the Manson Impact Structure.



radiation (including x-rays, light, thermal energy, and radio waves) similar to the flash associated with a thermonuclear bomb but with thousands of times more energy. This pulse ignited every-thing that would burn within about 130 miles of the impact (most of today’s Iowa). The shock wave toppled trees up to 300 miles away (Chicago, Minneapolis, St. Louis), and probably killed most animals within about 650 miles (Detroit, Denver).

Initially the crater grew very rapidly. Just 0.15 seconds after impact the crater was already about 2 miles wide and a mile deep. All of the materials that once occupied this crater (about 1.7 cubic miles of rock weighing 75 trillion tons) and the meteorite itself were vaporized and blasted high into the stratosphere, where the material ultimately enveloped the Earth.

As the crater continued to grow, the initial impact energy was diminished until it was no longer sufficient to vaporize rocks, only melt them. By about 0.6 seconds after impact the crater had reached 3.4 miles in diameter and about 1.7 miles deep. Most of the crater material that was not previously vaporized (a total of about 8.5 cubic miles of rock weighing 375 trillion tons) was melted and ejected from the Manson crater, initially with sufficient velocity to propel them anywhere on Earth. The sea water in the area was vaporized and pushed away from the impact site. The blast of gases, water, and other debris blowing away from the crater ripped up rocks and other materials from the land surface and mixed them with debris thrown out of the crater, a process called ground surge. This ground surge material was deposited outside the limits of the developing crater.

After about 0.6 seconds the impact energy had further diminished and was no longer sufficient to melt rocks. Still the Manson crater continued to grow by ejecting solid material. Sand grain to building-sized pieces of rock were thrown from the crater with a velocity sufficient to propel the smaller grains to all regions of Earth. About 6 seconds after impact, the crater diameter had grown to about 6 miles, and it had reached its maximum depth of about 3 miles. From this point the crater continued to grow outward, but not deepen. Also especially evident at this time was the uplifting of the rim around the edge of the growing crater. Much of the pressure produced by the blast was directed against the inside of the crater, pushing up the rocks on the crater rim. The rim was ulti-mately lifted about 1.5 miles above the original land surface.

By 25 seconds after impact, the Manson crater had reached its maximum excavation size, 13 miles in diameter and 3 miles deep. In addition to the rock vapor and melt ejected earlier, about 150 cubic miles of solid rock (weighing over 6,000 trillion tons) was thrown from the crater. This stage of crater evolution is called the transient crater because it retains this shape for only an instant. Since the energy that pushed up the rim of the crater had been mostly dissipated, gravity began to pull the uplifted rim back down. The crater’s shape focused the downward pressure of the collapsing rim to the center of the crater, pushing it rapidly upward. The rapidly rising Central Peak was similar to the column of water that pops up after a raindrop falls into a puddle. Also associated with the dissipation of the impact energy, the displaced sea water began to rush back towards the crater, and ejected materials rained down from the sky.

By about one minute after impact, the rapidly rising Central Peak slowed, throwing impact mate-rials into the sky as its edges began to collapse back into the crater. Outside the crater, the surging seawater, which had entrained a large load of the ground surge material giving it the consistency of a viscous mud flow, began to spill back over the rim and into the crater, filling it and eventually completely burying it in remobilized ground surge materials (resurge deposit). By about 30 minutes after the impact all but the smallest-finest material had fallen from the clouds of debris blanketing the area and all was quiet.

Millions of years later the seaway had retreated from the MIS region, exposing the area to erosion. Over the next 65 million years, hundreds of feet of rock strata were eroded from the region.

The Earth Scientist


However, the resurge deposit protected most of the crater from the erosion. Beginning about 2.5 million years ago, continental glaciers advanced over the Manson area repeatedly, further eroding the MIS and blanketing it in the glacial sediments that protect it to this day.

DiscussionOne of the major goals of the 1991-1992 Manson core drilling project was to find minerals that could yield an accurate age for the formation of the crater. This goal was achieved with the iden-tification of sanadine which crystallized from impact melt. A series of analyses of these sanadine crystals using Ar40/Ar39 techniques yielded an age of 74.1 + .01 million years (Izett and others, 1998) for the Manson impact, nine million years before the great K-T extinction event (65 million years). So, although the Manson impact isn’t responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs, it did kill a lot of them.

Although the Manson Impact Structure is now one of the best-studied meteor craters on earth, many unanswered questions still remain. Research on the feature continues today, although at a

much-diminished pace.

ReferencesAlvarez, L.W., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., and Michel, H.V., 1980. Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary

extinction. Science, v. 208, p. 1095-1108.

Bohor, B.F., Foord, E.E., Modreski, P.J., and Triplehorn, D.M., 1984, Mineralogic Evidence for an Impact Event at the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary: Science, v. 224, p. 867-869.

French, B.M., 1998, Traces of Catastrophe; A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures. Lunar and Planetary Institute Contribution No. 954, 120 p.

Melosh, H.J., 1990, Impact Cratering; A Geologic Process. Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics No. 11, Oxford University Press, New York, 245 p.

Izett G.A., Cobban W.A., Dalrymple G.B., Obradovich J.D., 1998, 40Ar/39Ar age of the Manson impact structure, Iowa, and correlative impact ejecta in the Crow Creek Member of the Pierre Shale (Upper Cretaceous), South Dakota and Nebraska. Geological Society of America Bulletin 110, p. 361–376.

Lunar and Planetary Institute, 2010, Terrestrial Impact Craters Slide Set- October 2010 -.http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/craters/slide_2.html

About the AuthorsRay Anderson and Brian Witzke are Senior Research Geologists with the Geology and Groundwater Resources Section of the Iowa Geological & Water Survey, a Bureau of the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 109 Trowbridge Hall, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1319, [email protected], [email protected]

Twenty-five years ago, TES was in its second year of publication. The 1985, Winter issue of TES contained articles on a wide range of topics. There was an article on Some Climatological Aspects of Summer-time Tropical Air Invasions in the Central United States. Another article discussed Geology in the Solar System. One article informed us about Impact Cratering on our Moon and the moons of other planets. There were two pages devoted to reviews of new 16mm films, a page devoted to homemade Earth Science programs for your Apple Microcomputer, and a full page offering 35mm Slide Sets for use in your Earth Science Classroom.

Twenty-five years ago in TES



AbstractThe National Earth Science Teachers Association (NESTA) has distributed 3600 Galileoscopes over an eight month period through a partnership with the National Optical Astronomy Observatories. To date, at least 26 workshops have been held in New York, Michigan, Iowa, Nevada, Connecticut, Minnesota, Montana, Florida, California, and Massachusetts. This article summarizes the project and the responses from various workshop participants, students and leaders.

Project OverviewThe Galileoscope is a 25X to 50X refracting telescope kit that comes with 3 eyepiece configurations. Objects easily observable include the Moon, Saturn and its rings, Jupiter and its 4 largest moons, the Great Nebula of Orion, and some open star clusters like the Pleiades (the Seven Sisters). But it is also possible, with the aid of a sturdy tripod and some patience, to observe objects such as the Andromeda Galaxy and some bright double stars.

The Galileoscope was developed as a Cornerstone Project of the 2009 International Year of Astronomy. The goal was to get people in touch with the types of observations Galileo first made in 1609. To date, tens of thousands have been distributed all around the world. Additionally, thanks to a generous donation of $250,000 by Ric and Jean Edelman, the American Astronomical Society was able to distribute more than 15,000 Galileoscopes to teachers nationwide, working through the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO).

Last November, NESTA was contacted to see if we would be interested in distributing some of these donated Galileoscopes. The workshops NESTA sponsored accomplished this distribution and provided teacher training and ideas for classroom implementation projects as well.

NESTA is again working with NOAO to develop some Galileoscope observing contests, in order to continue to promote their use. NESTA will post the contests results on our webpage, while NOAO will provide prizes for contest winners. Both organizations are involved in the development of the contest rules and publicity. Look for more information on the NESTA webpage: http://www.nestanet.org/

Galileoscopes Across the

USABy Ardis Herrold

The Earth Scientist


The following vignettes are contributions by individuals from various workshops and classrooms around the country.

Telescopes 4 TeachersCris L. DeWolf, Chippewa Hills High School, Remus, MI

On April 23rd, 16 teachers from elementary, middle, and high schools – including Delta College – came to participate in the Telescopes 4 Teachers workshop.

The focus of the workshop, outside of construction of the Galileoscope, was the Moon. Teachers practiced an activity that will help their students learn the cycle of phases, which were then modeled using an activity from Windows to the Universe.

After the workshop we took the Galileoscopes outside to help the teachers find the Moon and Venus. By the end of the evening everyone was able to explore the craters and mountains of the Moon with their telescopes and left with new equipment and new enthusiasm to share with their students.

WOW!Barb Ehlers, Assistant Professor of Education, Upper Iowa University, Fayette, Iowa

Boarding the school bus to head to the Story County Conservation Center brought back memories of riding the school bus as a kid and on field trips with students. Both were not wonderful memories, but that all ended when we arrived. We were given a kit to build a Galileoscope--a telescope much like Galileo had used. The instructors were very helpful and soon we had our own telescope. The perfect weather that evening provided a perfect opportunity to view the stars.

We were able to view a variety of stars, planets and constellations. What a fabulous experience! After returning home, I set up my telescope to view the moon and stars right outside my bedroom window. WOW!

Figure 1 – Aurelian Balan assembles a Galileoscope during the Telescopes4Teachers workshop in Remus, Michigan. Photo by Lisa Dewolf.

Figure 2 – Kevin Dehne (MESTA President), Cris DeWolf (NESTA workshop leader) and Aurelian Balan try out their Galileoscopes after assembly at the workshop in Remus, MI.Photo by Lisa Dewolf.

Figure 3 – “Galileo” (Michael Francis, mfrancis@ Mike-Francis.com) makes a guest appearance at the Galileoscope workshop for teachers in Ames, Iowa. Photo by Tom Ervin



Hello Fellow Star GazersNicolle Reynolds

“Hello Fellow Star Gazers” (a quote from Jack Horkheimer). I’m a 3rd grade student at Howe Elementary, Ogden, Iowa. I was invited to attend a Galileoscope Workshop at the Story County Conservation Center, McFarland Park, Ames, Iowa on a warm, clear October 7, 2010, evening.

It took about 20 minutes for me to put the Galileoscope together with help from an adult as I was the only school-aged person there. It was a lot of fun and I thought it was kind of easy except for putting the lens in. The more you learn about the Galileoscope the better you get. When I got done I was able to use it to look at the many objects in the sky. Every week I watch Jack Horkheimer’s Star Gazer and then can’t wait to go outside and see those stars.

I’m going to take the Galileoscope to school for show and tell to share with my classmates what I have learned and discovered. I’m going to let them know that: a Galileoscope is more than a telescope, you can see better and easier with it, you can see the stars and the craters on the

moon, you do not look at the sun, and things are upside down.

I know that Galileo died about 400 years ago but I got my picture taken with him when he made a stop in Iowa to listen to what was being taught about his telescope.

I would like to thank my parents, Michael and MaLinda, and Yvette McCulley, NESTA Regional Director, for letting me attend this fun workshop with talented science teachers from across the state.

“Keep Looking Up!” (A quote from Jack Horkheimer.)

Northwestern NevadaLou Loftin, K-12 Science Trainer, Northwest Regional Professional Development Program, Reno, NV

Last April, I put on a two day workshop for forty-one teachers in Northwestern Nevada. There were fifteen elementary, twenty middle school, and six high school teachers that participated in the workshop. The first day of the workshop the teachers learned how to assemble the scopes and the science behind how they work. We took them out and looked at the moon and other objects in the sky that night. Teachers were given some ideas as to possible lessons to use with their students.

On the second day, teachers shared their activities. All stated that the students thoroughly enjoyed the hands-on experience of using the scopes. Many students were surprised at the reversal of the objects, when viewed through the scopes.

Throughout the rest of the Spring, and through the beginning of this school year, teachers have e-mailed me thanking me for putting on the workshop and arranging getting the Gali-leoscopes into their hands for their students. The scopes have provided a great avenue for hands-on inquiry-learning for many of our students here in Northwestern Nevada, who may never have looked at the sky in such a fascinating way.

The Earth Scientist


Michigan Musings I was a Spitzer Space Telescope teacher, so I was fortunate to receive 30 Galileoscopes plus 30 tripods in attractive little black shoulder bags. I had my Astronomy class (32 students in grades10-12) assemble them. All but one student completed the assembly in one class period. Only one was assembled incorrectly, and only one came back in pieces with an eyepiece lens missing. I was amazed at how easy it was for them to put the telescopes together. The students were very excited and equally amazed that I let them take home brand new equipment.

I first gave them this assignment: Observe an object in daylight on the ground with all 3 eyepieces, and report the differences they observed. Some students reported back that they thought their telescope or eyepieces were incorrectly assembled because 2 of the 3 views were upside down! Next, I had the students do an “oldie but goodie” classroom activity to improve their observing skills. For this activity, the class was broken into groups of 4 and each group was given 4 hard-boiled eggs. Every group member had to write a detailed description of one egg, including sketches. The groups then swapped eggs with a second group, who had to match the descriptions to the eggs.

The second observing project was to make a sketch (or photograph) and written observation of both the Moon and Jupiter. They were given two weeks to do this during the waxing phases of the Moon. Most were able to get the Moon, and fewer Jupiter- not because they had prob-lems with finding it in the sky, but because they struggled with wobbly tripods and focusing

issues. All in all, the students who completed this project were excited and surprised. Some sample student excerpts are below:

Feven Berhane, Grosse Pointe North High School

It was 10:30pm on Tuesday, October 19 when I looked at the moon. I saw the beautiful, and very bright, full moon. It had darker circles stretching from the left of the moon down to the bottom then up the right. Perhaps these are very large craters. There were silvery dots all

Figure 4 – A photograph of the Moon through the Galileoscope. Photo by Feven Berhane, Grosse Pointe North HS, Grosse Pointe MI. If you make this really small it may be acceptable, it will always be blurry because of the telescope lenses.

A-M-A-Z-I-N-GPenny Kelly, Lincoln High School, Yonkers, NY

My non-regents Earth Science class put them together this week and today we went out to observe the moon. It’s been one of the best experiences I ever had as a teacher. The level of discussion about how a telescope works, types of telescopes, Galileo and the impact he had, followed by constructing them and using them was absolutely awesome. Kids that don’t do any work were so into it. A-M-A-Z-I-N-G.

Thanks so much for the opportunity.



over the moon, and what seemed like very thin cracks that shined bright silver. Jupiter, was a small bright circle, although not as bright as the moon. It had three very faint and small circles around it. They were Jupiter’s moons.

I found the Galileoscope very irritating at first. It was hard for me to find the moon and focus on it. But that was nothing compared to finding Jupiter. For the first night I simply could not find Jupiter through the telescope. Then, when I was filled with joy at finding it, I couldn’t get the Galileoscope to stay still with an object in view. It would budge the tiniest bit and there would be no Jupiter or moon. But I finally got the hang of it and I simply thought I could stay outside all night, if it were not so cold. How the time would pass! I was especially happy when

I could find Jupiter with the high power configuration and keep the Galileosccope still!

Wil Rochte, Grosse Pointe North High School

At 11:00 P.M. on October 19th, the moon was super clear considering the telescope came out of a box. It was two days away from a full moon, so the left side of the actual moon (not upside-down from the lens) was still dark. The craters at the top on the waxing side of the moon were extremely clear and distinct. The grey sections of moon were interesting to look at as well.

My Galileoscope focusing tube has no friction and slides out when there is no pressure on it. So to focus the tube, you must first get the object lined up, then while looking through the eyepiece, push it in with your eye socket until it is focused. The images, though, were very clear. I’m impressed.

Andrew Poletis, Grosse Pointe North High School

I looked at the moon at 7:30 P.M. at my house on October 17th.

I was surprised that I was able to see the craters on the moon in detail, (instead of a blur which is what I expected). For Jupiter I was able to see the planet as well as the four moons. The moons were aligned, two on each side.

Personally the first time I tried the telescope I wanted to throw it away. On low power I would always move it in the wrong direction, which resulted in a lot of profanity. But eventually I

apologized and we became friends as I gazed at the moon.

About the AuthorArdis A. Herrold is the President of NESTA and is Science Department Co-Chair at Grosse Pointe North High School, Grosse Pointe Woods, MI. E-mail: [email protected]

References“Flickr: Galileoscope.” Welcome to Flickr - Photo Sharing. http://www.flickr.com/groups/galileoscope/.

“Ric and Jean Edelman Give 15,000 Galileoscopes to Classrooms in the US”. Beyond the International Year of Astronomy. http://www.astronomy2009.org/news/updates/715/.

“The Galileoscope: Millions Looking at the Sky.” Beyond the International Year of Astronomy. http://www.astronomy2009.org/globalprojects/cornerstones/galileoscope/.

“The Galileoscope: No Other Telescope Shows So Much for So Little!” Galileoscope.org.” https://www.galileoscope.org/gs/.

Teaching with Telescopes. http://teachingwithtelescopes.org/.

“UW: Galileo’s Classroom: Classroom Activities for Teaching Astronomy.” University of Wyoming. http://www.uwyo.edu/caper/info.asp?p=16091/.

The Earth Scientist


AbstractIn May 2010, approximately 50 students and their teachers—half from New York City and half from Singapore—joined three scientists for a weekend of field-based research, data analysis, and social experiences in the first “International Student and Teacher Exchange Program (ISTEP) for Science and Mathematics.” Participants from the Advanced Science Research (ASR) Program at Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics High School, Nanyang Girls High School and Temasek Junior College, both in Singapore, conducted tree-ring, soil chemistry, and water analysis studies with scientists from the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University and the City College of New York. Strong ties among the young scientists were further fostered during their overnight camping experience along the shore of the Hudson River. Data collected by students will be incorporated into ASR projects that may be entered into national and international science fairs, and scientific publications.

What happens when you combine student authentic science research with travel halfway across the globe? You get the “International Student and Teacher Exchange Program (ISTEP) for Science and Mathematics.” In May 2010, approximately 50 students and their teachers—half from New York City and half from Singapore—joined three scientists for a weekend of field-based research, data analysis, and social experiences that may significantly influence future academic achievement and career choices of the participants.

ISTEP was established in April 2009 as an extension of the Advanced Science Research (ASR) Program at Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics High School (MCSM), under the direc-torship of Sau Ling Chan. ASR participants spend three years learning about scientific research, identifying suitable experimental questions, connecting with a mentor, and developing formal presentations. ISTEP expanded research opportunities afforded to MCSM students, to students and teachers overseas. The goal is to submit findings from projects to major international science competitions across continents, such as the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair, the Singa-pore International Science Challenge , and China’s Adolescent Science & Technology Invention Contest.

ISTEP: An International High School Student and Teacher

Research Collaboration

By Sau Ling (Charlene) Chan, Brendan Buckley, Glen R. Kowach, and Michael J. Passow



External funding support from the Consolidated Edison Company of New York and administered through the Children’s Aid Society of New York enabled MCSM to create this student-centered program. MCSM invited students from the Nanyang Girls High School and Temasek Junior College, both in Singapore. Each school hosts its own ASR programs with differing designs, so ISTEP fostered the combination of resources and personnel from all schools, and added the expertise of research scientists to create a unique international research experience that would otherwise be difficult for any institution to achieve alone. ISTEP serves as a model to foster scientific collaboration across continents. Just as the National Academies and the National Science Foundation (NSF) encourage inter-national collaborative efforts at university and professional levels, so ISTEP extends such efforts to the high school level.

The high point of their visits to the New York City region centered around field experiences based at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observa-tory of Columbia University (LDEO) during the weekend of May 22 – 23. Ms. Chan built on previous collaborations with Brendan Buckley of the LDEO Tree Ring Laboratory, Glen R. Kowach of the Chemistry Department, City College of New York, and Michael J. Passow of the Earth2Class Workshops for Teachers at LDEO. Together, they designed an ambitious program that involved data collection in three different fieldwork envi-ronments, analysis of data to obtain preliminary results, plans for long-term follow-up, while also providing the young scientists with memorable opportunities to interact in unique settings.

The two-day, one-night expedition was conducted in three separate, but interre-lated phases. Phase 1 consisted of a series of short science lectures given by research scientists at LDEO and CCNY, which produced sets of research questions. Phase 2 took place in the field where students worked in teams to collect data based on the research ideas they developed. Phase 3 involved data analysis and group presentation.

ISTEP participants left the MCSM at 7 a.m. that Saturday for the hour-long ride to the central gathering place at Tallman Mountain State Park, just north of the Lamont campus. They divided into groups of 12 – 13 students and two teachers. During the day, they rotated among three sites, spending about 1-1/2 or 2 hours at each location.

Buckley led dendrochronology studies of trees in Tallman Park (Figure 1). This introduced students to quantitative techniques for measuring forest species diversity, with a goal of analyzing data in various ways. For example, they could analyze temporal characteristics of changing biomass by species through use of cross-

ISTEP ScienceExpedition in the

Hudson River Valley

Phase 1 (Construction of

Knowledge) Science Lectures on

Climate Change

(Prior to Expedition)

Phase 2 (Data Collection)

Field Work in the Lamont Forest and

Hudson River

(Field Expedition-Day 1)

Phase 3 (Data Analysis and

Group Presentations)Dissemination of

Results

(Field Expedition-Day 2)

Lecture 1 (Research Update)

Impact of climate change on trees the

Hudson River Valley

Group 1 (Lamont Forest)

Core trees to study the effects of temperature and rainfall on plants

Group 2 (Lamont Forest)

Identify and estimate population of invasive

species (e.g., poison ivy)

Group 3 (Hudson River)

Conduct water quality tests

Lecture 2 (Research Skills &

Tools) Identification of specifictrees; Proper use of tools

Activity 1 (Data Analysis)

Compile and analyze all data gathered in the field

Activity 2 (Construction of New

Knowledge) Draw conclusions and

consider real-life implications

Activity 3 (Sharing Knowledge)

Conduct PowerPoint presentations; Develop

environmental and stewardship strategies

Table 1 – Diagram illustrating three phases of the Hudson River Valley Project and the associated activities.

Figure 1 – Dr. Brendan Buckley prepares students for tree-ring sampling Photo by Michael J. Passow

The Earth Scientist


dated tree rings from individual species, especially as we know the forest history of the particular plot. The Tallman State Park forest encompasses poorly drained soils overlying basalt on a land-scape that has been heavily modified over the past 3 centuries. This was also where soil analyses were conducted. Evidence of the disturbance in this forest plot is clearly visible: we worked on an area

modified in the 1920s to hold storage tanks for heating oil. Although the tanks are long since removed, the open dug pools and berms remain visible today.

We utilized the north-south trending berm of one such system to guide the transect sampling strategy (Figure 2). This permitted a simple method for tree species iden-tification based on handout sheets provided. A second objective was to carry out a simple method for measuring forest composition and productivity. Due to time constraints we learned how to identify the native trees using a simplified “dichotomous key,” based on leaves, twigs, and stems unique to each species. There are only about 15 or 20 tree species in our study site, particularly several species of oak, hickory, sweetgum, maple, tulip poplar, and birch.

From a starting point on the berm, we selected sampling points every 20 meters. At each, we measured distance to the nearest tree in each of the four cardinal “quadrants” (i.e., NE, SE, SW, and NW). We only sampled trees that were equal to or exceeded 10 cm in diameter at breast height. We recorded the distance to each tree in meters from the center point, and also measured the diameter, and listed each species. We made these measurements for four trees in each quadrant nearest the sampling point, a total of 16 trees at each of the 11 sampling stations established that day.

Kowach led the soil chemistry analysis, guiding students in collecting samples in the same quad-rants as the dendrochronology studies. Samples were obtained with the goal of having students conduct analytical qualitative and quantitative tests. By having the group of 50 students collect

samples and perform similar tests, we are able to obtain statistically valid data to determine the range of values and averages, and identify random and systemic errors.

Tallman Park overlooks Sparkill Creek, a tributary of the Hudson River that forms the northern edge of Piermont Marsh, a natural wetland within the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve. For the third station, Passow led groups of three, in canoes, through Sparkill Creek and into the Hudson River. For almost all students, this was their first time in canoes, and certainly the first time for deploying sampling devices from a boat. (Figure 3).

Because groups paddled at different times over a six-hour period, they obtained data over the course of a tidal cycle from low water to high water. Despite their inexperience,

no scientific equipment was lost (although one student discovered her camera was not waterproof.) Water samples were obtained using a depth-selective water collection apparatus. Samples were placed in labeled containers.

Figure 2 – Students transporting tree-ring and soil chemistry equipment along berm to sampling point Photo by Glenn R. Kowach

Figure 3 – Water sampling in Sparkill Creek Photo by Michael J. Passow



As an additional community-building event, everyone gathered back at Tallman Park for lunch and a special chat about the region from local historian Alice Gerard.

Overnight Camping At the end of the day, all teams returned collecting equipment and samples to the staging area and boarded the bus for an evening experience that hardly forms anybody’s image of a visit to the New York City region: overnight camping. Special arrangements were made with the Palisades Interstate Park-New Jersey Section for this experience at the Alpine Boat Basin and Picnic Area, located along the shore of the Hudson River about seven miles north of the George Washington Bridge. Students and teachers from all three schools collaborated on setting up and breaking down their tents, cooking dinner and breakfast, and making new friends in the unusual setting. (Figures 4 and 5).

Lab-Based Data AnalysisOn Sunday, after cleaning up the camping area, participants returned to the LDEO campus for preliminary analysis of collected samples. Buckley provided each group with a tour of the Tree Ring Lab and described current research underway by TRL scientists. Student teams then used their field data to make a series of calculations that determined:

1. density (the number of trees per hectare [approximately 2.47 acres] for all species)

2. relative density (the percent trees per hectare for each species)

3. the number of tree species encountered on the transect (a measure of biodiversity)

4. basal area per species (cross sectional area in m2 per hectare)

5. basal area for all species combined

6. relative dominance (for each species encountered)

7. total basal area in m2 per hectare (an overall measure of productivity)

8. Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (a measure of species diversity).

In another lab, Passow and Kowach demonstrated how to conduct chemical analyses of the soil and water samples. Students were provided with laboratory notebooks and instructed in desired recording skills to provide observations of experimental details. Students from all three schools collaborated in teams to complete these (Figures 6 and 7). Qualitative tests were colorimetric, using the LaMotte Soil Analysis Kit. Teams tested for pH, nitrate-nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash-potassium. Quantitative tests were determined using LabQuest by Vernier with attachments to measure temperature, pH, chloride, and soil moisture levels.

(Left) Figure 4 – “Team Picture” of ISTEP Expedition students and teachers from New York and Singapore Photo by Glenn R. Kowach

(Right) Figure 5 – Setting up tents in Palisades Interstate Park on the Hudson River Photo by Michael J. Passow

The Earth Scientist


About the Authors Sau Ling (Charlene) Chan ([email protected]) is the Founder and Director of the International Student and Teacher Exchange Program (ISTEP). She is the Advanced Science Research (ASR) Program Director at the Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, 280 Pleasant Avenue, New York, NY.

Brendan M. Buckley ([email protected]) is Lamont Associate Research Professor in the Tree Ring Lab, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY 10964.

Glen Kowach ([email protected]) is an Associate Professor of Chemistry at The City College of New York, 160 Convent Ave., New York, NY 10031.

Michael J. Passow ([email protected]) is founder and director of the Earth2Class Workshops for Teachers at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. He also teaches science at Dwight Morrow High School, 274 Knickerbocker Rd., Englewood, NJ 07631. Dr. Passow is NESTA’s current Past-President.

(Top) Figure 6 – Analyzing water samples at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Photo by Michael J. Passow

(Bottom) Figure 7 – International cooperation to analyze soil samples Photo by Michael J. Passow

Water analysis tests were performed using LabQuest by Vernier with the following attachments: temperature probe, pH sensor, dissolved oxygen sensor, turbidity sensor, salinity sensor, nitrate ion-selective electrode, calcium ion-selective electrode, chloride ion-selective electrode, and ammonium ion-selective electrode. (Note: Kowach continues this work with selected students to conduct more rigorous analysis for publication as ASR results and in scientific journals.)

Significance of ISTEP and Future PlansThe ISTEP science expedition targeted essential skills not commonly addressed or emphasized in traditional class-room instructions, but critical to development of higher level thinking skills necessary to engage in scientific inquiry. During the expedition, students learned to apply their scientific research, statistics, and math skills in real scientific settings. They used advanced portable devices to capture real-time water condition data on the Hudson River, mechanical equip-ments for tree core sampling, and chemical indicators for soil chemistry analysis. Additionally, students learned to take into consideration variables such as weather, climate, and geog-raphy during interpretation of data. Most importantly, they developed skills for working with students from very different backgrounds.

Teachers from each country used this opportunity to engage in valuable collaborative discussions about teaching methodolo-gies, and analyzing similarities and differences in curricula. Sharing of best practices and effective pedagogy in relation to

scientific inquiry provided critical insights necessary to bridge differences in knowledge and skill sets amongst the participants. Such dialogues provide a solid foundation for further research collaborations. Future programs will utilize the research methodology and skills developed during the expedition to create new ASR projects that could be adapted locally, based on similar research questions and available resources.



The great majority of high schools and middle schools are nowhere near glacier fields; and certainly very few would have the ability to take a field trip to see the foot of a glacier and see

and hear the calving and melting of ice and the deposition of till. What an expensive field trip that would be! But how how we bring glaciers to the classroom so that students can personalize the experience and remember and describe how glaciers move, how they erode and deposit material and how they make the continents spring back after they have melted?

There are good glacier labs in geology and earth science texts. Many involve the use of pictures and topographic maps specific to a region that has active glaciers or where erosional features have been carved or depositional landforms have been left behind after glaciers have receded from a particular location. The activity in this article is more kinesthetic as it allows students to actually make their own glacier and and move it themselves to create characteristic glacial and glaciated terrain. It also simulates the rather esoteric process of isostatic rebound, something from which students disso-ciate because they cannot see or feel it.

The activity actually begins with the concept of melting glaciers and is spread over several days. Because the district in which I teach was actually covered by the Wisconsinan ice sheet, it sets up an ideal lead in to discuss how long it took for the ice sheet to recede from northern New Jersey back to the Arctic region. To begin, I have the students make a prediction as to the melting time of a typical ice cube found in their freezer. That evening they are to go home and record the melt time of an ice cube from the time it leaves the freezer until only a pool of water is left. They are to record the orig-inal dimensions (LxWxH) of their “embryo” glacier and monitor any changes along the way. Most students greatly underestimate their original predicted melt time for their ice cube.

The next day I gather a representative sampling of the classes ice cube melt times and dimen-sions. A typical class average ranges from 60-90 minutes for an ice cube 10-15 cubic centimeters. From this average, we extrapolate the melt time for a larger ice cube – one that is the size of a ½ gallon juice container. Prior to the ice cube melting, I ask students to bring in empty ½ gallon juice containers as these eventually become the mold for the baby glaciers. The juice containers are the long rectangular, paper kind with a spout cap. (See Figures 1 & 2 on next page.) We continue the melting extrapolation, for a classroom sized glacier and even a school sized glacier. For additional math work or enrichment, if you know the size of your town, county or state, it might be fun to see melting times when the size of the ice sheet starts to resemble a continental glacier.

Yes Sir, That’s My Baby…Glacier!Making Glaciers Real and Personal

By Christopher Roemmele

The Earth Scientist


Then comes the baby glacier preparation. Through the spout opening students pour in a home-made till mixture – a combination of pebbles, sand, silt, clay, soil and organic material. For fun, I usually throw in some mini-plastic animal “fossils” to see if students eventually find them when glaciers have melted in their entirety. The students fill the juice containers about 1/3 full of the till mixture. Then they are instructed to fill them up with water and set them in their freezer overnight. Lay the glaciers lengthwise down with the spout facing up.

The next morning, I let students drop off their now frozen baby glaciers and I store them in a freezer or an iced cooler until their particular class time. When their class period arrives, I distribute the baby glaciers to each lab group. The first activity is to determine the density (D = M/V) of the glacier using a balance. To calculate volume, students use the dimensions of the juice container. Due to the presence of all the sediment and organic matter, the density of the glacier exceeds 1.0 g/cm3 (the density of pure water).

With their baby glacier still in the juice container, the students determine an isostatic rebound rate by measuring the thickness of a typical, rectangular wash sponge that is dry but pliable, then measuring the decrease in thickness after the baby glacier is placed on it. Finally, they record the amount of time it takes for the sponge to return to its original thickness. A sponge is much more compressible than continental crust, and while this is not truly how isostasy works, it is visual and

measurable and gives students the idea that the crust is returning to its original position (isostacy) after the glacier is gone, and that there is a connection between their baby glacier, the size of an ice sheet and the rate at which North America is rebounding after the retreat of the Wisconsinan ice sheet.

I then use a boxcutter to open up the juice carton. I cut length wise to expose the bottom of the baby glacier. The remaining carton is left on top so that students can carry their baby glacier without actually touching it and getting their hands too cold or dirty. They sketch the detail of the bottom of their glacier and then we proceed outside where students can push their glacier along the sidewalk which surrounds the school property. Depending on the air temperature and amount of sunshine, as well as how

(Left) Figure 1 – Measuring the mass, volume and density of the baby glacier.

(Right) Figure 2 – Getting ready to determine the rebound rate of a sponge after the glacier is removed.

Figure 3 – Students make note of depositional “landforms” like moraines and erratics.



competent their baby glacier is, the amount of time before recognizing landforms – and until the baby glacier falls apart – varies. The baby glacier creates both depositional landforms (like erratics (the pebbles), drumlins and moraines (the “till”)) and meltwater, glacial lakes (as the glacier begins to melt or pieces of ice chunk off) and erosional features – most notably and favored by the students – striations. These grooves are created by the pebbles sticking out on the underneath side of their baby glacier and carving into the sidewalk. Students may even get a kick out of the fact that they are technically “defacing” school property, as the striations are clearly visible and do remain for a few days.

Students can get some good mileage out of these baby glaciers until eventually the glaciers fall apart completely, and of course there is the time consideration – I always do this part in one day during a double lab period (about 90 minutes). Students retain the information they saw and experienced in this activity far better than just watching a glacier-themed video. The students themselves create striations, erratics and moraines. They see the landform rebound. And they watch the glacier melt.

So you don’t have to go to Glacier National Park or to Kenai Fjords National Park to experience glaciers. Just have your students make their own glaciers and turn your classroom and school property into the national park.

About the AuthorChristopher Roemmele has been teaching 14 years, the last 11 years for the Parsippany-Troy Hills School District where he teaches Natural Science. He has served as President of the New Jersey Earth Science Teachers Association. He received his undergraduate degree in geology from Franklin and Marshall College and a master’s degree in Science Education from Kean University. He serves as adjunct faculty, teaching Earth Science, and Science Teaching at Fairleigh Dickinson University and the College of St. Elizabeth. He can be reached at [email protected]

Figure 4 and 5 – Students work hard to make the glacier create grooves into the school sidewalk, and they are clearly visible.

The Earth Scientist


AbstractScreen capture podcasts are a valuable addition to an Earth Science curriculum because they give students greater control over their ability to watch a lesson and they give the teacher more class time to conduct labs and interact with students.

What is a screen-capture podcast? It is not an audio podcast, a format which would be poorly suited to a visual course such as Earth Science. A screen-capture podcast or screencast , is a narrated Powerpoint lesson that students watch on a computer outside of class. It does not necessarily involve a video of the instructor.

Most of my high school students love watching lessons on podcasts, for it allows them to watch and take notes at their own pace. Many students report that they pause and rewind the video often in order to take notes. Most of them will watch the podcasts a second time when reviewing for tests. I assign a podcast as homework and I always follow up the next day with a related activity such as a lab, as well as a homework quiz. The quiz is necessary because some students will not do their homework without extra encouragement. I often include a set of questions to accompany the podcast to help them concentrate on the major points. Sometimes the podcast is the only lesson they receive on a topic, and sometimes it is simply a reinforcement of the lesson that they received in class. Assigning podcasts as homework gives me more time to do labs with my classes, and it gives them the opportunity to listen to the lesson as often as they need. Of course, it prevents the kind of interaction that happens only in a classroom. Most of us give lessons that are not a one-way process, but a two-way interaction of questions and discussion. This is obviously lost during a podcast, so it is doubly important to find ways to include such interactions during labs and other activities. We tend to interact more with our students as they work in a lab than as we are lecturing, so the overall level of student-teacher interaction is likely to increase as podcasts replace some lessons.

To create the podcasts, I use Camtasia Studio software, but there are many other programs available for use, such as Adobe Captivate, and Capture Fox which is a free Mozilla add-on. I start with a Power-

Teaching with Screen-Capture PodcastsBy Wendy Van Norden



About the AuthorWendy Van Norden, High School Geology and Honors Geology teacher , Harvard-Westlake School , 3700 Coldwater Canyon, No. Hollywood, CA, 91604. She is the Far West and Hawaii Regional Director for NESTA. [email protected]

Point lesson which I narrate, using Camtasia Studio as an add-on feature. The site for Camtasia Studio provides tutorials for its use, so this article will not go into great technical detail. In short, you record a series of video clips which get placed together in a file. You can then edit the file, removing your mistakes and excessive pauses. I find that when I make a mistake while narrating, it is easier to simply keep the software running, start the narration again, and edit out the mistakes later. When you get to the point of producing the video, it usually works best to create a .mov file, which is not the default choice of Camtasia Studio.

As you create your podcast, it becomes very obvious how important images are to the impact of the lesson. If you are not using your own images, how do you find good images that are not copyrighted? Government sites such as NOAA and USGS have images that are in the public domain. Just look for the .gov on the image URL. In the Unites States, the copyright on any image published before 1923 has expired. One excellent source is the Earth Science World Image Bank, http://www.earthscience-world.org/images/search/index.html, created by the American Geological Institute. Another source is the Wikipedia commons. You can also refer to Wikipedia public domain image resources.

If your school hosts a learning site platform, such as Moodle, you may place the videos there for students to view. I place my podcasts on YouTube.com, but they can also be placed on Teachertube.com. The video quality on Teachertube is not as good as YouTube, but school districts are more likely to allow the use of Teachertube. Youtube will limit the size of a video to ten minutes. It is a surprising fact that a lesson which would take thirty minutes in the classroom will take only ten minutes as a podcast. Of course, many students will take longer to view the podcast if they pause it, to take notes.

What if students do not have a computer at home or easy access to computers at school? A student who lacks a computer is still likely to own a DVD player. The podcasts can be burned into DVD-R disks that can be watched on their home television. If bought in bulk, the disks cost less than $0.25 each, which is unlikely to be a burden.

You may post your videos for the private use of your students only, or you can have them available to the public. I enjoy getting feedback from teachers and students around the world. My podcasts are neither high-tech nor are they professionally recorded, by my students are fine with that. If you would like to see my podcasts, you can go the Youtube.com and search for wvannorden, or you can find a list of the podcasts at my Honors Geology homepage. http://www.hwscience.com/Geology/Honors/index.html

The very process of creating a podcast will inspire you to improve your lessons, and that alone is an excellent reason to attempt podcasts. Teachers who work together can collaborate on their podcasts, for some teachers are more at ease with the technology and with the process of narrating a podcast, while the other teachers can take on the job of creating questions and quizzes.

Like any teaching technique, a podcast will work well for some students and less well for others, which is why we all try to have a wide repertoire of teaching tools available. I recommend that you try to make one podcast, and see how it goes. Chances are, students will ask for more.

The Earth Scientist


18 January 2003 - Canberra, AustraliaWildfires devastated areas of southeastern Australia, 500 buildings were destroyed killing four people. Suppressed precipitation, lightning, black hail, microbursts, severe shifting surface winds, and a “strong” EF2 tornado were reported. Large amounts of smoke were injected into the strato-sphere. Many spin-up fire tornadoes were sighted along the edges of the walls of flames. Debris increased the particulate matter into the Southern Hemisphere’s stratosphere by 25% for months, indicating this event had global impact. It was the second largest convective event recorded by satel-lites in 25 years, making it somewhat similar to conditions believed to exist in a nuclear winter.

19 January 2003 - Weston Creek, AustraliaThis fire convective thunderstorm produced a tornado with others suspected. Wildfires destroyed 89 rural residences, and heavily damaged 14 others. In addition, 414 urban homes were destroyed with 161 seriously damaged. These wildfires were responsible for the loss of grazing land, roads, bridges, electricity, communication, gasoline, and the water supply.

23 July 2003 – Atlanta, IdahoIn the photo to the left (Figure 1), a severe thunderstorm erupted over the Hot Creek Fire. Large amounts of burnt biomass material were injected into the stratosphere causing upper atmospheric cloudi-ness. It generated a smoke plume high into the stratosphere. [Photo taken 7/23/2003, by Larry Van Bussum. Photo courtesy of NWS.]

An Overview of Pyro-Cumulonimbus

ThunderstormsBy R. James Vavrek



17 August 2003 - Chisholm, Alberta, CanadaThe Conibear Lake Fire, burning in Wood Buffalo National Park, leveled the town of Chisholm. It produced a severe thunderstorm with overshooting tops up to 1½-2 miles (2.5-3 km) above the tropopause, and injected massive amounts of smoke into the stratosphere.

IntroductionIn 2003, after nearly a decade of research, meteorologists confirmed a pyro-convective event that established awareness of a meteorological phenomenon called: pyro-cumulonimbus (pyroCB). They are a rare and powerful thunderstorm that most meteorologists do not know to exist, because they are seldom mentioned in scientific literature. Wildfire firefighters (smoke jumpers) for decades recognized the existence of these thunderstorms. Some of the strongest thunderstorms top out higher than the tropopause, a boundary separating the troposphere from the stratosphere, located around 36,000 feet (11 km) above ground level. The first evidence of stratospheric impact from pyro-cumulonimbus came from visible and infrared satellite imagery, radar profiles of aerosols, and backscattered aerosol layers 2-4½ miles (3-7 km) above the tropopause. When back-tracking trajectories were analyzed and combined with visible and infrared satellite imagery, existence of the entity, pyro-cumulonimbus, was confirmed, and associated with high-intensity forest fires. Research indicates that smoke and burnt bio-mass material in pyro-cumulonimbus extends as high as 91⁄3 miles (15 km) into the stratosphere. Only volcanoes were believed to inject debris this high. Pyro-cumulonimbus are also the only thunderstorms associated with volcanic eruptions. While there are similarities between the two, the ash clouds and gases produced by volcanoes are generated by different sources than those of a wildfire. The purpose of this paper is to furnish earth science students, earth science educators, and other interested individuals the opportunity to learn about these rare thunderstorms.

Historical During the last decade, the pyro-cumulonimbus has gone from discovery to acceptance. Understanding the pyro-convective meteorological entity, the frequency and scale of pyro-cumulonimbus are far from complete. Because pyro-cumulonimbus are rare, scattered and isolated, data about them is insufficient to give detailed information about their existence, or life-cycle.

DefinitionThe prefix “pyro” means fire, and in this case is associated with fire-generated clouds. The distinction “between” pyro-cumulus (pyro-cu) and pyro-cumulonimbus (pyro-CB) is a pyro-cumulus is a cumulus cloud or enhanced buoyant plume emission from an industrial combustion process which lifts water vapor that condenses into clouds (Photo 2). The pyro-cumulonimbus (Photo 3) was named following the discovery that intense vertical convection from wildfire (bush, brush, or forest fire) heat causes injec-tion of large quantities of burnt bio-mass smoke into the stratosphere. According to the American Meteorological Society’s Glossary of Meteorology, a pyro-cumulonimbus

Figure 2 – The Ham Lake Fire, Northern Minnesota, produces a large plume of smoke as the fire makes a run into Canada.Taken by Morford Paulson. Photo courtesy of NWS.

The Earth Scientist


is a thunderstorm formed by pyro-convective ther-mals capable of producing lightning, thunder, hail, microbursts, severe winds, and tornadoes often with little or no precipitation. PyroCBs (Photo 4) attain altitudes “between” 25,000- 35,000 feet (7,600-10,700 m). PyroCBs that pollute the stratosphere have been documented but the frequency of these events is unclear. The majority occur in forested regions, including the western US, during the thunderstorm season.

FormationLarge, intense forest fires create their own atmo-spheric instability by super heating air near the earth’s surface. Hot air, rising above wildfires contains tons of smoke particles acting as conden-sation nuclei. As air rises and cools, water vapor condenses on condensation nuclei, producing a cumulus cloud. Hot air above wildfires produces powerful updrafts containing higher moisture levels compared to the surrounding air, usually from moisture left in the soil, trees, and ambient moisture in the air. These thermals are capable of initiating electrical charge separation, producing dry-thunder-storms. Dry-thunderstorms produce lightning with little or no precipitation. The result is that pyroCBs often spark new fires. Other threats from pyroCBs include: being struck by lightning, and the sudden shifting of wind patterns due to powerful downdrafts or microbursts. Both can place firefighters and others into dangerous life-threatening situations.

Thunderstorms have the potential to douse fires with their precipitation and cooling temperatures.

However, suppressed precipitation produced by small, smoke-induced droplet size is common with pyroCBs. Most precipitation created by wildfires evaporates in the dry warm air above fires. PyroCBs are feared because changes in their dynamics causes the rapid spread of wildfires. Inflow and outflow surface winds associated with pyroCBs add fresh oxygen to the mix, and then suddenly push flames in a different direction causing the fire to jump ahead as burning embers are carried into regions not currently burning. Burning embers can advance ¹⁄8 - ¼ mile (.2-.4 km). Because of the pyroCB, changing conditions may trap firefighters, and cause death and injury. It is not uncommon for dark grey to black hail to fall during a pyroCB. Updrafts containing tons of burnt biomass material easily attaches to condensation nuclei, precipitation particles, and hail.

Fire and water seem like opposites, but have connections that produce clouds.➤Wildfires evaporate water from the ground and burning vegetation.

➤Hot smoke and water vapor rise by convection into areas of lower pressure. In time, the smoke cools and gets pushed out of the way by more hot air rising from below.

Figure 3 – Developing pyro-cumulonimbus in Australia showing movement by upper-level winds from left to right. Photo Source: © Ben Quinn, by permission.

Figure 4 – The Schultz Fire, significant altitude is attained by the Pyrocumulonimbus cloud as it moves west off Highway 180 and Schultz Pass Road. Taken 6/20/2010 by Mark Stubblefield. Photo courtesy of NWS.



➤As water vapor cools in the lower pressure, it condenses, and smoke provides numerous particles acting as condensation nuclei, in a process similar to cloud seeding.

➤The result is, that wildfires can make their own rain clouds.

Fire TriangleA fire of any kind requires three ingredients, known to fire professionals as the fire triangle. The ingredients are fuel, heat, and oxygen. Removing one ingredient will collapse a fire like removing one leg on a three-legged stool. Fuel is the wood or other dry vegetation. Heat is supplied by the spark that ignites the fire, initially coming from lightning or human actions, intended or accidental. Oxygen is a component in the air, and is replenished by wind. Every material has a flash point, the temperature at which an object bursts into flame. The flash point for most types of wood is around 525ºF (274°C). When wood burns, it releases hydrogen gas that combines with oxygen and bursts into flames. Three factors determine a fire’s destructive power: type of fuel, topography, and weather. If there are no trees or dry vegetation, the fire will go nowhere. If it is a dry landscape, the fire will be devastating. If it is pouring rain, it may slow or stop a fire. Sometimes brush, bush, and forest wildfires are so intense they produce a fire storm. A fire storm creates extreme temperatures and flames. A fire storm produces so much heat, and rises so quickly, it can create what can be called a fire tornado, a whirling mass of air much like a dust-devil, with embedded flames and burning debris. These occur along the periphery of fires.

Fire WeatherWeather conditions are important factors in the initiation and continuation of wildfires. Fire experts use the term fire weather to describe the meteorological conditions that promote the starting and spread of wildfires. Prevailing weather combines with topographical and vegetative factors to determine the spread of fires. One example of topographical influences is hilly terrain. When all factors are equal, fire will spread faster uphill than downhill. The weather conditions most important to the spread of wildfires include: low humidity, high air temperatures (pre-heated fuels burn easily compared to cold fuels), moderate to strong surface winds, and the presence of thunder-storms, particularly dry ones.

As stated earlier, heat generated by wildfires combines with moisture from the forest, soil, and standing water initiating formation of pyro-cumulus clouds. With proper atmospheric condi-tions surrounding these clouds, some transition into pyroCBs. Thunderstorms form quickly, and drastically change the conditions firefighters have to face, including the ignition of additional fires from lightning. When thunderstorms rapidly tower, firefighters use the term blow up, which is an extremely dangerous situation. The fire storm is the worst fire weather condition that can develop. Fire storms combine elements of the hottest fires with the dangerous aspects of dry-thunderstorms to form incredible firefighting conditions. Some fire storms spawn fire tornadoes, whirlwinds blowing in excess of 150 mph (250 km/hr) that are capable of lifting large logs and causing gaseous explosions. Because of intense heat, some trees in fire storms appear to explode into flames as if torched by magic.

Fire Weather ForecastsThe Storm Prediction Center (SPC) issues National Fire Weather Outlooks for the lower 48 States. This enables people, potentially affected by wildfires, to predict where and when a fire could ignite, and where it might spread. The local NWS Forecast Office issues Fire Weather Watches, Warnings, and Red Flag Warnings for the critical patterns that contribute to extreme fire danger or behavior. Whenever fuel and moisture conditions could lead to rapid or dramatic increases in wildfire activity, the NWS issues fire weather forecasts, 24/7.

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Event ReviewOn 17 August 2003, a high-intensity forest fire close to the border of northern Alberta and the Northwest Territories in northwestern Canada exploded into a fire storm. It devastated the town of Chisholm; 93-miles (150 km) north of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. This blow up was spawned by the Conibear Lake Fire, burning in the Wood Buffalo National Park. The Chisholm pyroCB resulted in injection of substantial amounts of biomass smoke into the lower stratosphere that was initiated by deep pyro-convection created by a pyroCB, to an altitude of 9.3-miles (15 km), which is 2.5-miles (4 km) above the tropopause. The stratospheric smoke became a hemispheric phenomenon at Mid-latitudes, northern Tropics, and persisted for three months.

A wildfire’s release of heat plays a dominant role in the development of pyroCBs, and the height to which smoke is transported. Emission of water vapor plays a less significant role for injection height but enhances the amount of smoke. A cloud with small, short-lived, supercooled water droplets is incapable of producing precipitation, except for few large graupel or hail. Small water droplets freeze but there is no mechanism to aggregate them into precipitation particles, and they remain in the anvil. The lack of precipitation implies that a small fraction of smoke is scavenged; most is exhausted through the anvil into the lower stratosphere. PyroCBs do produce electrical charge sepa-ration within thunderstorms initiating mostly positive cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning. Positive CG lightning is hotter and continues longer than negative CG lightning.

ConclusionThe prefix “pyro” means fire. A pyro-cumulus is a cumulus cloud produced by fire or heat. A pyroCB is a rare thunderstorm, generated by fire or heat, with precipitation and lightning. The pyroCB is believed to be the only thunderstorm associated with volcanic eruptions. The reason they are associated with volcanic eruptions is because they are capable of injecting large amounts of burnt biomass material and smoke into the lower stratosphere. PyroCBs are a major threat to fire-fighters and others in wildfire prone regions. Smoke debris associated with pyroCBs has been found to exist for months in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, a condition somewhat similar to conditions thought to exist in a nuclear winter. Pryrocbs, though rare, when they do occur, they are a definite threat because they produce dry-lightning, dark grey to black hail, microbursts, severe shifting surface winds, fire whirls, tornadoes, and usually little or no precipitation. Fires beneath pyroCBs can destroy an entire region. Additional scientific research is needed concerning pyro-cumulus and pyro-cumulonimbus because many questions remain unanswered.

AcknowledgementsI greatly appreciate the following who gave their time improving this paper:

Jim Allsopp, Warning Coordination Meteorologist, NOAA, NWSFO, Romeoville, IL

Wendy L. Grebbien, Educator, Elementary Education, Carlsbad, CA

Jason L. Levit, Techniques Development/Research Meteorologist, DOC, NOAA, NWS, NCEP, and Storm Prediction Center, Norman, OK

Allen Pokracki, Educator, Special Education, Hammond, IN

Jason Rybinski, Science Education Educator, Hammond, IN

David M. Schultz, Professor of Experimental Meteorology, Division of Atmospheric Science and Geophysics, Department of Physics, University of Helsinki and Finish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland

Jennifer J. Vavrek, Educator, Gifted and Talented, District 194, Steger, IL



ReferencesAndreae, M. O., 1991: Biomass burning: Its history, use, distribution, its impact on

environmental quality, and global climate. In: Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Clim. Bios. Impl. Ed. by J.S. Levine, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., p. 3-21.

Fromm, M., A. Tupper, D. Rosenfeld, R. Servranckx, and R. McRae, 2006: Violent pyro-convective storm devastates Australia’s capital and pollutes the stratosphere. Geophys. Res. Lets., 33: L05815, pp. 1-5.

Fromm, M. and R. Servranckx, 2003: Transport of forest fire smoke above the tropopause by supercell convection. Geophysical Fromm, M., A. Tupper, D. Rosenfeld, R. Servranckx, and R. McRae, Violent pyro- Research Letters., 30(10): p. 1542.

Luderer, G., J. Trentmann, K. Hungershöfer, M. Herzog, M. Fromm, and M. O. Andreae, 2007: Small-scale mixing processes enhancing troposphere-to-stratosphere transport by pyro-cumulonimbus storms. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, p. 5945-5957.

Luderer, G., J. Trentmann, T. Winterrath, C. Textor, M. Herzog, H. F. Graf, and M. O. Andreae, 2006: Modeling of biomass smoke injection into the lower stratosphere by a large forest fire (Part II): sensitivity studies. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, p. 5261-5277.

Rosenfeld, D., M. Fromm, J. Trentmann, G. Luderer, M.O. Andreae, and R. Servranckx, 2007: The Chisholm firestorm: observed microstructure, precipitation and lightning activity of a pyro-Cb, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, p. 645-659.

Trentmann, J., G. Luderer, T. Winterrath, M. Fromm, R. Servranckx, C. Textor and M. O. Andreae, 2006: Modeling of biomass smoke injection into the lower stratosphere by a large forest fire (Part I): Reference study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, p. 5247-5260.

About the AuthorR. James Vavrek is a Science Educator at Henry W. Eggers School in Hammond, Indiana. His email address is: [email protected]

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