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IntelligenceIntelligenceDefinitions Of IntelligenceDefinitions Of Intelligence

As a result of the evolution of ideas, intelligence, or goal-directed adaptive behavior, has not been always conceived in the same way. The work of Francis Galton and Alfred Binet

h l l f h serves as a historical example of this process. Their approaches to understanding intelligence differed. Galton used the psychophysical approach while the Binet focused on judgments. However, both agreed that intelligence could be measured.

Francis Galton: Measuring Francis Galton: Measuring Psychophysical PerformancePsychophysical Performance

Galton was one of the first to explore the implications of his cousin Darwin's theory as it related to intelligence. Galton proposed two qualities to identify the intellectually gifted: identify the intellectually gifted: energy and sensitivity to physical stimuli. Galton also believed in the notion of eugenics, or the idea that intelligence and other abilities could be increased in humans through careful breeding.

James James McKeenMcKeen CattellCattellMany of Galton's ideas were brought to the United States by James McKeen Cattell, who continued to develop a series of psychophysical tests. The assumption made by both The assumption made by both Cattell and Galton was that those tests would measure mental ability.

However, Wissler, one of Cattell's own students, correlated the results of these tests with student grades and found no relationship. Because of this result, many believe Cattell was measuring something other than intelligence.

Alfred Alfred BinetBinet: Measuring Judgment: Measuring JudgmentIn 1904, Binet was asked to develop a method of identifying children with lower than normal intelligence who would be unlikely to benefit from school instruction. He and Theodore Simon, his collaborator,

developed a test that emphasized judgment as the basis of intelligence.

They criticized Galton's methods as emphasizing sensory acuity, while claiming that mental judgment, (good, practical sense) was the key to intelligence. For them, intelligent thought involved the ability to reason well and adapt to one’s circumstances.

Mental Age In The Intelligence QuotientMental Age In The Intelligence Quotient

Instead of classifying schoolchildren in terms of their physical or chronological age, they believed that children should be classified by their mental age, or their relative intelligence

" " compared to a hypothetically "average" child of the same chronological age. For example, a six-year-old child who performs at a level similar to the average 10-year-old child would have a mental age of 10 years.

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Mental Age In The Intelligence QuotientMental Age In The Intelligence Quotient

Similarly, a six-year-old child who performs at the level similar to an average four-year-old child would have a mental age of four years. So, a child could be g y"ahead" of or "behind" his or her age mates in this scheme. Children, therefore, could be placed in school according to their mental ages rather than their chronological ages.

William Stern, however suggested that a ratio, the intelligence quotient (IQ), would be more useful in classification of children of different ages. gThe intelligence quotient was defined as the mental age (MA) divided by the chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100, or:

IQ equals MA/CA x 100

Hence, average intelligence was considered a score, or IQ, of 100. Scores below 100 indicated lower intellectual ability, and scores above 100 te ectua ab ty, a sco es above 00 indicated higher intellectual ability. Stern's formula for IQ is known today as ratio of IQ.

However, the utility of mental age and measurement has been problematic because it does not successfully gauge intelligence across the lifespan. g pChildren make large gains in intelligence early in life, but as they age, mental age changes less and less. Mental age is not well-suited to lifespan intellectual comparisons.

The StanfordThe Stanford--BinetBinet Intelligence Intelligence ScalesScales

Lewis Terman, a psychologist from Stanford University, translated Binet and Simon's test into English and changed the scoring to a ratio of IQ system scoring to a ratio of IQ system. Since that time the test that Binet and Simon created has been known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales.

While the Stanford-Binet is still widely used, the Wechsler series of tests has become even more popular.

The Wechsler scalesThe Wechsler scales

David Wechsler created a series of similar age-based intelligence tests. The current versions are:◦ The third edition of the Wechsler

Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)◦ The third edition of the Wechsler

Intelligence Scale For Children (WISC-III)◦ The Wechsler Preschool And Primary

Scale Of Intelligence (WPPSI).

All these tests are deviation IQs.

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Deviation IQDeviation IQ

Deviation IQ: Scores based on a person’s relative standing in his or her age group; how far above or below average a person’s score is, relative to other scoresp

The Wechsler scalesThe Wechsler scales

They each yield three scores: a verbal score, a performance score, and an overall score. Based on separate batteries of tests, the verbal score is generated from tests that rely more heavily on verbal abilities.

•The performance score is generated from tests that rely more heavily on nonverbal abilities and speed of performance.•The overall score is derived from a combination of these two scores.

IQ scores are not very dependable until a child reaches age 6Terminal Decline: Abrupt decline in measured IQ about 5 years before death easu e Q about 5 yea s be o e eat Men and women do not appear to differ in overall intelligenceA strong correlation (about .50) exists between IQ and school grades

Aptitude In Achievement TestsAptitude In Achievement TestsGalton and Binet unwittingly started a tradition of testing intellectual and cognitive abilities that continues today. Many kinds of tests are currently available. However not all measures of cognitive ability However, not all measures of cognitive ability measure intelligence. Some measure aptitudes, defined as an obtained level of expertise, such as in music, athletics, or computers. These tests are designed to measure an individual's potential to perform in a given area.

Other tests measure achievements, or accomplishments, either separately, or in conjunction with aptitude. The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) is e Sc o ast c ssess e t est (S ) s an example of this type of test. Achievement tests generally are designed to measure mastery of the content area rather than potential.

Score DistributionsScore Distributions

Because ratio IQs (based on mental age) were not useful descriptors of intelligence, measurements today are expressed in relation to the normal pdistribution, percentiles, and deviation IQs.

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Normal DistributionsNormal Distributions

For many psychological measures, including intelligence, it is theorized that these characteristics are normally distributed in the human population. I h d if i ll ibl In other words, if it were at all possible to measure the intelligence of every single person in the world, we would expect to find that the majority of individuals would perform similarly (or what we would refer to as average).

Normal DistributionsNormal Distributions

We would expect lower numbers of individuals performing either very well or very poorly in relation to all the others, creating what is referred to as the bell gcurve. So one way of understanding intelligence is to express where a person falls within this bell curve or normal distribution of intelligence.

Measures of Central TendencyMeasures of Central TendencyOne way to think of the middle of the IQ distribution is in terms of the median, or the middle score within the distribution. Another, is the mean, or the average

i hi h di ib i score within the distribution. The third way, is in terms of the mode, which is the most frequently obtained score. In a normal distribution, these three measures are the same score or measure.

Deviation IQsDeviation IQs

Another means of comparing individuals on tests of intelligence is through deviation IQs. Deviation IQs generate a score that is ev at o Qs ge e ate a sco e t at s based on characteristics of the normal distribution.

Recall than average IQ is 100. One standard deviation from this average is

C considered 15 points. Consequently the majority of individuals would be expected to score between 85 and 115 on an IQ test since this represents one standard deviation from the mean in either direction.

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Two standard deviations from the main would include scores between 70 and 130 and is believed to encompass 96% of the and is believed to encompass 96% of the population. Scores outside these ranges (below 70 or above 130) are believed to represent extremes of intelligence because they fall outside two standard deviations from the mean and would only occur in 4% of the population (2% below a score of 70 and 2% above a score of 130).

Today, raw scores on an IQ test are converted into deviation IQs. Thus, today's IQ score reflects not only where in the normal distribution the w e e t e o a st but o t e person performed, but what percentiles his or her score corresponds to and how far the score deviates from the average ability in the population.

GiftednessGiftedness

Having a high IQ (usually above 130) or special talents or abilities (playing Mozart at age 5)

Marilyn Mach Marilyn Mach vosvos SavantSavant

With a score of 230, she has the highest IQ ever officially recorded.At age 7 years 9 months old, she could answer questions that the average 13 year old could answer.

Marilyn Mach Marilyn Mach vosvos SavantSavant

At ages 8, 9, & 10 she got a perfect score on the Stanford-Binet scale.

Mental Retardation (or Developmental Mental Retardation (or Developmental Disabilities): Some DefinitionsDisabilities): Some Definitions

Presence of a developmental disability and an IQ score below 70; a significant impairment of adaptive behavior also figures into the definition◦ Adaptive Behavior: Basic skills such as dressing, p g,

eating, working, hygiene; necessary for self-careFamilial Retardation: Mild mental retardation that occurs in homes that have inadequate nutrition, intellectual stimulation, medical care, and emotional support

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Organic Causes of Mental Organic Causes of Mental RetardationRetardationRelated to physical disordersBirth Injuries: Lack of oxygen during deliveryFetal Damage: Congenital problem; prenatal damage from disease, infection, or drug use by the motherby the motherMetabolic Disorders: Disorder in metabolism; affects energy use and production in the bodyGenetic Abnormalities: Abnormality in the genes, such as missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes

Types of Organic CausesTypes of Organic CausesPhenylketonuria (PKU): Genetic disease in which the child lacks an important enzyme. Allows phenylpyruvic acid to accumulate in the body◦ If untreated severe retardation may occur by If untreated, severe retardation may occur by

age 3◦ Routine medical tests at birth can detect PKU◦ Treat with phenylalanine-free diet (found, for

example, in Aspartame, known as Nutrasweet)

More Organic Causes of Mental More Organic Causes of Mental RetardationRetardationMicrocephaly: Head and brain are abnormally small; brain is forced to develop in a limited spaceHydrocephaly: Buildup of cerebrospinal fluid within the ventricles (brain cavities); u w t t e ve t c es (b a cav t es); pressure can enlarge the head and damage the brainCretinism: Stunted growth and retardation caused by insufficient supply of thyroid hormone◦ May also be caused by lack of iodine◦ Easily detected in infancy

Down SyndromeDown SyndromeDown Syndrome: Genetic disorder caused by presence of extra chromosome (usually on the 21st pair; trisomy 21); results in mental retardation and shorter life spanp◦ Does not run in the family◦ Older a woman is, greater the risk to produce

a Down’s child◦ Older fathers also contribute (about 25% of

the time)◦ No cure, but is detectable before birth

Fragile X SyndromeFragile X Syndrome

Fragile X Syndrome: Genetic form of retardation caused by defect in X chromosome◦ Runs in families◦ Sex-linked; mainly affects boys◦ Most suffer from hyperactivity and attention

disorders◦ Become more severely retarded as adults

Assessment IssuesAssessment IssuesBefore a test can be constructed, the creator must decide what will be measured and how. We have seen that Galton and Binet had different conceptualizations of the notion of intelligence and consequently generated different ways to measure it. measure it. Galton based his tests on psychophysical processes whereas Binet based his tests on decision-making in judgment. Each chose different types of items that they thought would measure their definition of intelligence. The question then became how well did those items measure mental ability?

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Assessment IssuesAssessment Issues

This has to do with evaluating the quality of the test. As we saw, Wissler (Cattell'sstudent) debunked Galton's notion of intelligence when he evaluated it. gSeveral factors are considered when designing tests. These include validity, reliability, and standardization.

ValidityValidityValidity concerns whether a test measures what it says it is measuring. For example, a test that has been designed to measure depression, if valid, should discriminate between people who are discriminate between people who are depressed and those who are not. Similarly, tests of intelligence, if valid, should distinguish between individuals who are intelligent and those who are not. Validity can be broken down into several categories.

ConstructConstruct--related Validityrelated ValidityConstruct-related validity relates to the degree of fit between a test and a theoretical construct it supposedly measures. So, if we have designed a test that measures personality, the test should fit with our theoretical notion of personality. Tests of intelligence, therefore, should measure our conceptualization of intelligence. Today it is easy to see how Galton's psychophysical tests lacked construct validity, as our understanding of intelligence is much different than it was in his time.

Predictive ValidityPredictive ValidityPredictive validity predicts later performance on a task related to the test measuring it. That is, what would we expect one's performance on an IQ test to predict? Occupational success? to predict? Occupational success? Academic performance? Future socioeconomic level? If these predictors in the person's test performance are highly correlated, then the test is said to have predictive validity.

Predictive ValidityPredictive ValidityThe problem, however is that we often then use these predictors as selection criteria, choosing children with high IQs for academic enrichment; choosing high IQ or high SAT scores for admission to Ivy League schools schools. Unfortunately, this only strengthens the correlation because other individuals who may have succeeded in other ways are less likely to be selected in the first place. Notice how Binet’s test was specifically designed to predict who would do well in school.

Do high IQs predict later ability?Do high IQs predict later ability?

Lewis Terman selected 1500 children with IQs of 140 or above. He followed this group (he called “Termites”) into adulthood.By doing this he countered a number of misconceptions about high intelligence.

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The “Termites”The “Termites”

Misconception: The gifted tend to be peculiar, socially backward people.Fact: On the contrary, Termin’s gifted subjects were socially well-adjusted and subjects we e soc a y we a juste a showed above average leadership.

The “Termites”The “Termites”

Misconception: Early ripe means later rot: the gifted tend to fizzle out as adults.Fact: When they were retested as adults, Terman’s subjects again scored in the e a s subjects aga sco e t e upper IQ range.

The “Termites”The “Termites”

Misconception: The very bright are usually physically inferior “eggheads” or weaklings.Fact: As a group, the gifted were above act: s a g oup, t e g te we e above average in height, weight, and physical appearance.

The “Termites”The “Termites”

Misconception: The highly intelligent person is more susceptible to mental illness (“Genius is next to insanity.”)Fact: Terman demonstrated conclusively act: e a e o st ate co c us ve y that the gifted have better than average mental health records and a greater resistance to mental illness. In general, the highly gifted tend to be well adjusted physiologically and socially.

The “Termites”The “Termites”Misconception: Intelligence has nothing to do with success, especially in practical matters.Fact: The later success of Terman’s subjects was the most striking finding of the study. Far more of them on average had completed college, earned advanced degrees, and held professional positions. As a group they had produced dozens of books, thousands of scientific articles and hundreds of other publications.

ContentContent--related Validityrelated ValidityContent-related validity measures the closeness of fit between a test in the subject area it is designed to test. If the content (the items on the test) is valid, we would expect that all items on intelligence tests measure intelligence Did all of Galton's measure intelligence. Did all of Galton s psychophysical items measure intelligence? Some items are still used today suggesting that they were content valid, whereas others are no longer included as they have been shown to have less content validity in measuring intelligence.

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Face ValidityFace ValidityFace validity measures test takers’ beliefs about whether or not the test adequately reflects the knowledge and skills of the area being tested. G l b li d hi i d Galton believed his items measured intelligence, but did his test takers? The fact that many came back over and over again to be retested may suggest some skepticism on the part of some individuals who took his tests.

ReliabilityReliabilityReliability, another factor considered when constructing the test, is a measure of consistency. Reliability and validity together determined in large part the usefulness of a test. test. Reliability also comes in several forms. Test-retest reliability is measured by having the same test takers repeat an identical test within a short period. If the test is reliable, we would expect similar performance scores from one time to the next.

ReliabilityReliability

Alternate-forms reliability is measured by creating two similar forms of the same test and giving them to the same test takers at closely spaced times. Again, if y p gthe test is reliable, we would expect similar scores on the two versions. Internal-consistency reliability is a measure whether test items measure the same thing.

ReliabilityReliabilityLastly, Inter-rater reliability measures whether two or more judges rate the same response in the same way. You may notice this type of reliability in the sports of figure skating and gymnastics. Often the judges, one rating a gymnastics. Often the judges, one rating a skater or gymnast, independently rate the performance similarly. Of course, you also may have witnessed when one or more judges are way off base (less reliable) from the other judges, as was the case with the judge for figure skating during the 2002 Winter Olympics.

Standardization and NormsStandardization and NormsMost tests are standardized. Standardization ensures that the conditions surrounding the administration of a test are similar for all test takers. Group paper and pencil tests are easily standardized, but individually administered oral tests require a level of training for test givers before they can be said to b d d d be standardized. Standardization allows tests to be used to compare large numbers of test takers over the many years in the lifetime of the test through the calculation of normative scores or norms. Norms scale the raw scores into equivalent scores which reflect the relative levels of performance of the various test takers.

Theories Of The Nature Of IntelligenceTheories Of The Nature Of Intelligence

Galton and Binet did not agree on how to understand intelligence and that tradition of different conceptualizations of intelligence continues today and again g y ghighlights the evolution of ideas

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Psychometric Models: Intelligence As A Psychometric Models: Intelligence As A MeasureMeasure--based Map Of The Mindbased Map Of The Mind

Factor analysis is a statistical tool that helped create a variety of math-like views of intelligence and the mind, and emphasis since the 1800s. Simplified, factor analysis would be similar to putting a large number of people's performances on different paths believed to be related to intelligence into a computer database. The computer is then asked to generate what is most similar about all these people's performances, and it "spits out" factors or elements that can account for the highest amount of variants on the test scores of that population.

Psychometric Models: Intelligence As A Psychometric Models: Intelligence As A MeasureMeasure--based Map Of The Mindbased Map Of The Mind

Unfortunately, this technique is affected by what tasks are evaluated (what's put into the database), and results where factors can be interpreted in numerous pways. Consequently, the use of factor analysis has led not just to one, but several models of intelligence that are contrasting.

Charles Spearman: The g FactorCharles Spearman: The g Factor

Charles Spearman's interpretation of his factor analytic studies led him to believe that a single general factor, g, could account for most of the variance in people's performances on tests of performances on tests of intelligence.

Other sets of specific factors, s, each relating to a single type item (e.g., arithmetic), also influenced one's mental ability, but g was far more important than s because of g's wide-ranging applicability.

Louis Louis ThurstoneThurstone: Primary Mental Abilities: Primary Mental Abilities

Louis Thurstone expanded the number of factors responsible for intelligence to seven equally important primary mental abilities: (1) verbal comprehension (2) verbal (1) verbal comprehension, (2) verbal fluency, (3) inductive reasoning, (4) spatial visualization, (5) number, (6) memory, and (7) perceptual speed.

Raymond Raymond CattellCattell Hierarchical ModelHierarchical Model

Raymond Cattell proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence. His model divides general intelligence into two sub factors: fl id i t lli d t lli d fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.

Raymond Raymond CattellCattell Hierarchical ModelHierarchical Model

Fluid intelligence involves one's ability to reason abstractly and inductively. Crystallized intelligence involves one's

l ti f k l d d accumulation of knowledge and general information. Within these two sub factors are more specific factors or abilities.

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Electrophysiological EvidenceElectrophysiological Evidence

A number of recent studies have suggested that the speed of neural transmission is positively correlated with intelligence. gThe idea here is that neural efficiency and intelligence are related; however, these ideas still require further experimental replication.

Metabolic evidenceMetabolic evidenceAnother area of investigation related to physiological processes is the amount of glucose the brain metabolizes (as measured by a PET scan) when engaged in a mental task. Overall glucose consumption in the brain appears to be lower in more intelligent subjects, but more intelligent subjects also show higher consumption of glucose in some areas of the brain that may relate to the particular task under investigation. This suggests again a relationship between brain efficiency and intelligence. However, further study is needed to replicate these findings.

Brain sizeBrain sizeNot only have the workings and metabolism of individual brain cells been examined in relation to intelligence, but another line of research is looking at the relationship between the overall size of the brain and the amount of intelligence.There is evidence that there is, in humans, a modest, but significant statistical relationship between larger brains and increased intelligence. However, these results are subject to the "chicken and egg problem", meaning which one came first--larger brains equal increased intelligence, or increased intelligence equals larger brains?

Cultural And Contextual Models: Cultural And Contextual Models: Intelligence as a Cultural ConstructIntelligence as a Cultural Construct

The main critique of the biological models stems from studying biological processes in an isolated context. Those critiques suggest that the relationship between brain environment, or an anthropological view, needs to be investigated needs to be investigated. Contextual models of intelligence view intelligence as tightly linked to culture or the external world, rather than to internal processes as previous models emphasized. They hold that considering intelligence only as an internal process is a mistake.

Cultural Influences on Perceived Cultural Influences on Perceived IntelligenceIntelligence

Many studies have discovered the Western conceptions of intelligence are not necessarily found in other cultures. Take, for example, tasks involving categorization. In Western cultures, higher

ll d h h h l intelligence is associated with a hierarchical sorting of items, such as sofa, chair, and desk all been related to the hierarchical concept of furniture. But, in the Kpella tribe in Africa, higher intelligence is associated with functional sorting, such as sitting on a sofa or at a desk.

Cultural Influences on Perceived Cultural Influences on Perceived IntelligenceIntelligence

Moreover definitions of intelligence itself may be more or less inclusive from one culture to the next. For example, in Zambia, a broader range of behaviors is considered when defining intelligence than in our Western culture. Cultural differences also can be highlighted by Cultural differences also can be highlighted by analyzing IQ scores of United States immigrant populations. Studies have shown enormous gains in IQ scores (from low average to above average) from first-generation immigrant populations the later ones. Heredity would have difficulty explaining these gains, whereas cultural assimilation would not.

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CultureCulture--Fair TestingFair TestingAll of this research suggests that developing a culture-fair test, a test that is equally appropriate for members of all cultures, would be impossible because various cultures have different notions about cultures have different notions about intelligence. Even the most seemingly prized basic cognitive skills (e.g., mental quickness) may be viewed in an opposite manner by other cultures. So, a search for culture fairness is doomed from the start.

CultureCulture--Fair TestingFair TestingHowever, cultural-relevant tests may be possible to create. Culture-relevant tests would measure intelligence within particular cultural or situational contexts. Existing data have shown that intelligent performance does vary widely as a result of context across and even within many cultures. Social factors such as gender, race, or income level may influence one's expression of intelligence from one context to the next.

CultureCulture--Fair TestingFair TestingMental context such as planning an investment portfolio versus planning a bank robbery also may influence one's performance. Similarly, physical context such as whether the task is presented within the context of the beach setting, a mountain setting, a desert setting, or a setting, a mountain setting, a desert setting, or a forest setting may influence one's performance because we all vary in our exposure to these different contexts. These influences of culture on intelligence stressed the importance of cautiously interpreting any IQ differences between races, cultures, or other groups of individuals, and emphasize the complexity of the of psychological construct of intelligence.

Fig.11.10Fig.11.10 No intelligence test can No intelligence test can be entirely free of cultural bias. be entirely free of cultural bias. However, cultureHowever, culture--fair fair intelligences test try to minimize intelligences test try to minimize the effects of growing up in the effects of growing up in various cultures. The following various cultures. The following sample items are from a culturesample items are from a culture--fair test. 1. Which pattern is fair test. 1. Which pattern is different from the remaining different from the remaining four? (Number 3.) 2. Which of four? (Number 3.) 2. Which of the five figures on the rightthe five figures on the rightthe five figures on the right the five figures on the right would properly continue the would properly continue the three on the three on the left_thatleft_that is, fill in the is, fill in the blank? (Number 5.) 3. Which of blank? (Number 5.) 3. Which of the figures on the right should go the figures on the right should go in the square on the left to make in the square on the left to make it look right? (Number 2.) 4. At it look right? (Number 2.) 4. At left, the dot is outside the square left, the dot is outside the square and inside the circle. In which of and inside the circle. In which of the figures on the right could you the figures on the right could you put a dot outside the square and put a dot outside the square and inside the circle? (Number 3) inside the circle? (Number 3) (Courtesy of R.B. (Courtesy of R.B. CattellCattell).).

Systems Models of IntelligenceSystems Models of Intelligence

Gardner and Sternberg have created models of intelligence that view intelligence as the product of complex interacting systems involving both internal g y gand external processes.

Howard Gardner: Multiple Howard Gardner: Multiple IntelligencesIntelligences

Garner has proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in which eight separate intelligences: linguistic, l i l h i l logicalmathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist, interact to produce intelligent behavior.

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Howard Gardner: Multiple IntelligencesHoward Gardner: Multiple Intelligences

Gardner's evidence for the various intelligences was derived from a variety of sources, including the effects of brain damage, research on typical developmental processes, studies using individuals considered exceptional intelligence, and factor

l i analysis. For example, the feature movie Rainman had Dustin Hoffman play an autistic savant, one of the exceptional sources of Gardner’s theorizing. The savant can be thought of as a person with highly developed intelligence, numerical in the case of the character played by Hoffman.

Howard Gardner: Multiple IntelligencesHoward Gardner: Multiple IntelligencesTheories such as Gardner’s are sometimes called modular because each intelligence can be thought of as stemming from a distinct brain area. As intriguing as Gardner’s theory is, hard

d f ll l k M evidence for it is still lacking. Moreover, additional types of separate intelligences such as emotional intelligence or social intelligence also have been proposed, suggesting the Gardner’s theory may not encompass the entire range of behaviors that are involved in intelligence.

Robert J. Sternberg: The Robert J. Sternberg: The TriarchicTriarchic TheoryTheory

Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence breaks intelligence down into three interrelated aspects dealing with the internal world, experience, and the external world. He proposes that intelligence is derived from three highly interdependent information-processing components: metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components.

Robert J. Sternberg: The Robert J. Sternberg: The TriarchicTriarchic TheoryTheory

Metacomponents processes are related to planning, evaluating, and monitoring problem-solving. Performance components are i k d t t th invoked to carry out the metacomponents processes, and knowledge-acquisition processes are used to solve the problem when strategizing.

Robert J. Sternberg: The Robert J. Sternberg: The TriarchicTriarchicTheoryTheory

These three components contribute to the expression of three distinct types of intelligence – analytic, practical, and creative. Analytical abilities are used when one evaluates, critiques, or judges a concept. Creative intelligence involves inventing, discovering, and imagining.

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Robert J. Sternberg: The Robert J. Sternberg: The TriarchicTriarchicTheoryTheory

Practical abilities are used when one applies information to the real world, which allows individuals to adapt to, shape, and create their environments. Intelligence from this view is not seen as h h f d ll d b high confidence in all areas and settings but as a relatively unique match between an individual and the external world, where individuals are aware of what their strengths and weaknesses are in an attempt to maximize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses.

Sex DifferencesSex DifferencesChanges in group differences on intelligence tests can be easily illustrated by looking at gender. Sex differences on cognitive-ability tests have been steadily shrinking over the years. However, some differences do remain. On ,average, males tend to score higher on tests that require visual and spatial memory, aiming of motor skills, and certain mathematical tasks. Females tend to score higher on average on tasks that require rapid access to and use of verbal information from long-term memory, fine motor skills, and perceptual speed.