Organizational CommunicationFoundations, Challenges, and Misunderstandings

Fourth Edition

Daniel P. ModaffUniversity of Wisconsin—La Crosse

Jennifer A. ButlerUniversity of Wisconsin—La Crosse

Sue DeWineHanover College

330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNames: Modaff, Daniel P., author. | Butler, Jennifer A., author. | DeWine, Sue, author.Title: Organizational communication : foundations, challenges, and misunderstandings / Daniel P. Modaff, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, Jennifer A. Butler, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, Sue DeWine, Hanover College.Description: Fourth edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016010419| ISBN 9780205983704 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0205983707 (alk. paper)Subjects: LCSH: Communication in organizations.Classification: LCC HD30.3 .M62 2016 | DDC 658.4/5—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016010419

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ISBN-13: 978-0-205-98370-4ISBN-10: 0-205-98370-7

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Preface vi

Part 1 Foundations

1 Introduction 1

1.1: Defining the Study and Practice of Organizational Communication 2

1.2: Communicative Constitution of Organizations 3

1.3: The Changing Landscape of Organizations 51.3.1: Communication Technology and

the Organization 51.3.2: Diversification of the Workforce 7

1.4: Misunderstandings and Organizational Life 81.4.1: Misunderstandings and Conflict 121.4.2: Responding to Misunderstandings 13Summary: Introduction 15

2 Classical Theories of Organizations 16

2.1: The Metaphor of the Machine 16

2.2: Minimizing Misunderstandings 17

2.3: Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management 182.3.1: Elements of Scientific Management 182.3.2: Scientific Management in the Modern

Workplace 192.3.3: Taylorism and Technology 20

2.4: Fayol’s Administrative Theory 212.4.1: Principles of Management 212.4.2: Elements of Management 232.4.3: Administrative Theory in the Modern Workplace 24

2.5: Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy 242.5.1: Tenets of Bureaucracy 252.5.2: Bureaucracy in the Modern Workplace 26Summary: Classical Theories of Organizations 26

3 Humanistic Theories of Organizations 28

3.1: Human Relations Theory 283.1.1: Misunderstandings and the Emergence

of the Worker 293.1.2: The Beginning of the Human Relations

Movement: The Hawthorne Studies 303.1.3: The Emergence of Communication:

Chester Barnard 313.1.4: Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregor 33

3.2: Human Resources Theory 353.2.1: Four Systems of Management: Rensis Likert 373.2.2: Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid 39Summary: Humanistic Theories of Organizations 41

4 Systems Theory 42

4.1: Misunderstandings and the Organization as a System 42

4.2: Systems Framework 44

4.3: Principles of General Systems Theory 444.3.1: Open-Systems Theory Principles 44

4.4: Characteristics of Organizations as Systems 464.4.1: Input–Throughput–Output 474.4.2: Feedback and Dynamic Homeostasis 474.4.3: Equivocality and Requisite Variety 474.4.4: Role of Communication 484.4.5: Systems, Subsystems, and Supersystems 484.4.6: Boundaries 494.4.7: The “Closed” System 49

4.5: Systems Theory and Conflict 50

4.6: Contingency Theory 52

4.7: The Learning Organization 53Summary: Systems Theory 55

5 Organizational Culture 57

5.1: Roots of Organizational Culture 58

5.2: Misunderstandings and Organizational Culture 59

5.3: Definitions of Organizational Culture 60

5.4: Elements of Organizational Culture 625.4.1: Values 625.4.2: Symbolic Elements 635.4.3: Role Elements 645.4.4: Interactive Cultural Elements 655.4.5: Context Elements 66

5.5: Two Perspectives on Organizational Culture 675.5.1: Culture as Variable 675.5.2: Culture as Root Metaphor 68

5.6: Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture 705.6.1: Level 1: Artifacts and Creations 705.6.2: Level 2: Values 715.6.3: Level 3: Basic Assumptions 71Summary: Organizational Culture 72

6 Critical Theory 73

6.1: Organization as a Site of Domination 73

6.2: Concepts: Power, Ideology, Hegemony, and Concertive Control 74

6.2.1: Power 756.2.2: Ideology and Hegemony 756.2.3: Concertive Control 76

6.3: Communication and Critical Theory 776.3.1: A Critical Approach to Communication Technology 78

Contents

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6.3.2: The Case of Monitoring Employees’ Technology Use 79

6.4: Critical Theory: Issues and Challenges 796.4.1: Creating a More “Human(e)” Workplace 806.4.2: Feminist Organizational Communication

Theorizing 806.4.3: Feminist Ethical Framework 826.4.4: Organizational Spirituality: Individual Practice

and Organizational Commodification 826.4.5: Organizational Codes of Ethics: Responsibility

and Control 83Summary: Critical Theory 84

Part 2 Challenges and Misunderstandings

7 Realistic Recruitment 86

7.1: When Applicants and Organizations Misrepresent Themselves 87

7.1.1: Misrepresentation by the Applicant 877.1.2: Misrepresentation by the Organization 88

7.2: The Costs of Traditional Recruiting 897.2.1: The Human Factor 897.2.2: The Financial Factor 90

7.3: Addressing the Problem of Applicant Misrepresentation 90

7.4: Addressing the Problem of Traditional Recruitment: Realistic Recruitment 91

7.4.1: How RJPs Work 917.4.2: The Medium of the RJP 927.4.3: Video 927.4.4: Written 937.4.5: Verbal 937.4.6: Time of Administration of the RJP 94

7.5: Realistic Recruitment and Misunderstandings 94Summary: Realistic Recruitment 95

8 Socialization of New Members 96

8.1: Misunderstandings and the Need for Information 97

8.2: Organizational Assimilation 998.2.1: Anticipatory Socialization 998.2.2: Organizational Encounter 1008.2.3: Organizational Identification 1018.2.4: Metamorphosis 1028.2.5: Criticisms of the Assimilation Approach 103

8.3: Organizational Socialization 1038.3.1: Socialization Processes 1048.3.2: Collective versus Individual Socialization

Processes 1048.3.3: Formal versus Informal Socialization

Processes 1058.3.4: Sequential versus Random Socialization

Processes 105

8.3.5: Fixed versus Variable Socialization Processes 105

8.3.6: Serial versus Disjunctive Socialization Processes 105

8.3.7: Investiture versus Divestiture Socialization Processes 106

Summary: Socialization of New Members 107

9 The Individual in the Organization 108

9.1: Overview of Diversity in Organizations 108

9.2: Discrimination 110

9.3: Gender-Based Discrimination 1119.3.1: Pink-Collar Jobs 1129.3.2: Gender Identity 113

9.4: Work–Life Balancing 1149.4.1: Organizational Policies 115

9.5: Emotions in Organizational Settings 1189.5.1: Emotional Labor 119Summary: The Individual in the Organization 121

10 Superior–Subordinate Communication 122

10.1: Nature and Importance of the Superior–Subordinate Relationship 123

10.2: The Prevalence of Misunderstandings in the Superior–Subordinate Relationship 124

10.3: A Dyadic View of the Superior–Subordinate Relationship 126

10.4: Communication Activities: Superior to Subordinate 128

10.4.1: Trust 12810.4.2: Immediacy 12910.4.3: Feedback 12910.4.4: Providing Feedback 12910.4.5: Seeking Feedback 13010.4.6: Compliance-Gaining 13110.4.7: Humor 131

10.5: Communication Activities: Subordinate to Superior 132

10.5.1: Upward Influence 13210.5.2: Expression of Upward Dissent 133

10.6: Communication Technology and the Superior–Subordinate Relationship 134

10.7: Effects of Culture on the Superior–Subordinate Relationship 135

Summary: Superior–Subordinate Communication 136

11 Peer and Co-worker Communication 137

11.1: Organizational Peer Relationships 137

11.2: Benefits of Peer Relationships 14011.2.1: Benefits for Individuals 14011.2.2: Benefits for Organizations 141

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Contents v

11.3: Technology and Peer Relationships 141

11.4: Dark Side of Peer Relationships 14211.4.1: Misuse of Peer Support 14311.4.2: Workplace Bullying 143

11.5: Romantic Relationships in the Workplace 14411.5.1: The Organizational Perspective on Workplace

Romance 146

11.6: Relationship Deterioration 147Summary: Peer and Co-worker Communication 148

12 Organizational Teams 149

12.1: Characteristics of Teams 15012.1.1: Relational Communication 15012.1.2: Decision Making 15112.1.3: Norms 15112.1.4: Cohesiveness 15212.1.5: Diversity 15212.1.6: Satisfaction 15412.1.7: Stress 15412.1.8: Stuckness 154

12.2: Teams at Work 15412.2.1: Types of Organizational Teams 15512.2.2: Connecting Teams with the Environment 156

12.3: Self-Managed Work Teams 156

12.4: Virtual Teams 158

12.5: Effective Teams 159

12.6: Misunderstandings and Conflict in Organizational Teams 160

12.6.1: Negative Consequences of Team Conflict 161

12.6.2: Positive Consequences of Team Conflict 162Summary: Organizational Teams 162

13 Leaders and Leadership 164

13.1: Overview of Leadership 165

13.2: Development of Leadership Theories 16513.2.1: Trait Approach to Leadership 16513.2.2: Situational Approach to Leadership 16613.2.3: Charismatic Leadership 16713.2.4: Transactional and Transformational

Leadership 16813.2.5: Relational Leading 16913.2.6: Feminist Perspectives on Leadership 170

13.3: Responsibilities of Leadership 171

13.4: Leaders as Change Agents 17213.4.1: Corporate Social Responsibility 172Summary: Leaders and Leadership 174

References 175

Credits 190

Index 196

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Preface

As a result of all of these factors, we have written this fourth edition to integrate the following significant changes:

• New interview data throughout the book.

• A newly titled and re-envisioned chapter, The Individ-ual in the Organization, which provides much broader and inclusive coverage of diversity, including intersec-tionality and microaggressions.

• Discussions of emotions at work have been expanded be-yond emotional labor to include emotions and co-workers.

• Broadened coverage of work-life challenges to not just focus on gender but the challenges any organizational member can face.

• A review of the concept of workplace dissent has been integrated into the chapter on superior–subordinate communication.

• The chapter on peers and co-worker communication has been expanded to include workplace bullying, blended relationships, and technology as related to gender and age.

This book is written for an introductory course in organizational communication. In writing this book, we made several assumptions: (1) students will have had some previous course in communication; (2) the purpose of this course is to familiarize students with the basic elements of the field of organizational communication; and (3) students will cover methodological and philosoph-ical orientations of organizational communication more deeply in a subsequent advanced course.

Given these assumptions, we had to make choices regarding content. For example, we have not included chapters on external organizational communication (e.g., public relations) or macro-organizational communication (e.g., organizational memory, life span). Our intention is to focus on internal communication and organizing issues that are on the organizational behavior level.

The title of the book describes our twofold intentions—to introduce basic concepts and to deal with misun-derstandings. In Part One, we expose students to the foundations of organizational communication. Therefore, in early chapters we offer extensive discussions of the foundations of the discipline. Chapter 1 introduces students to the field of organizational communication and discusses the central organizing feature of the text— misunderstandings. Chapter 1 also includes introductory material on technology and diversity; issues in these ar-eas are woven throughout the rest of the book, particularly

In preparation for writing the first three editions of this book, we conducted more than 160 interviews with leaders and workers in a variety of organiza-

tions. For this fourth edition, our students have con-ducted an additional 100 interviews. We have woven some of the stories from the interviewees throughout the book to breathe life into and illustrate the concepts and theories discussed. These interviews revealed a common theme that organizational life tends to be characterized by what we (broadly) term misunderstandings. The con-cept of misunderstandings, as we use it here, involves more than ineffective communication between members of an organization; it is an umbrella term used to connote the problematic nature of interaction in organizational settings. Misunderstandings seem to characterize com-munication in organizations. As organizations develop, both productive and unproductive features emerge, such as layers of hierarchy, opposing goals, struggles for power, use of technology, gender and cultural differ-ences, reward systems, and control mechanisms. These features serve to complicate the communication process at almost every moment, such that misunderstanding is at least as prevalent as understanding.

New to This EditionThis edition of the book offers many changes that came about as a result of several different factors. First, the realities of modern organizational life, specifically the proliferation of communication technology, diversifica-tion of the workforce, and work–life balancing concerns, have led to new challenges for organizational mem-bers. We address these challenges throughout many of the chapters in this new edition and provide new stories from our interviewees to show how these challenges play out in day-to-day life. Second, recent research in the field of organizational communication has revealed new perspectives on organizational life. In particular, we provide a brief overview of the communicative con-stitution of organization approach to understanding how communication and organization are interrelated. Finally, we have refocused our central organizing feature of the textbook, misunderstandings, and have removed it from a broader context that we had proposed in the first three editions—the communication organization model. This significant change provides students and teachers with a more focused lens at the very beginning through which to view the material in the remainder of the text.

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in Part Two. Chapter 2 lays the foundation for the field by examining the classical management theories. Chapter 3 describes the progression from the classical theories to those based more on concern for individuals. We have chosen to treat the theories of human relations and human resources together in this chapter because they are so closely linked. Chapter 4 covers systems theory and the learning organi-zation, which represents a shift from material dedicated to prescriptive theories of organizational communication and management to theories that provide an analytical framework. Chapters 5 and 6 continue with additional analytical frameworks for understanding communication in organizations—organizational culture and critical theory.

In Part Two, we present challenges and misunderstand-ings, which underscore our particular approach to the field of organizational communication. Throughout Part Two, we have attempted to frame the topics traditionally covered in organizational communication textbooks in terms of mis-understandings and to illustrate the relevant issues with excerpts from the interviews we conducted or from cur-rent news stories. Chapter 7 explores the concept of realistic recruitment. We use it as the beginning of Part Two to show that organizational communication is a process that be-gins even before an individual becomes an official member of the organization. Chapter 8 continues with the next step of the process, detailing the socialization of organizational members. Chapter 9, a newly titled and reconceived chap-ter, explores the role of the individual in the organization, at-tending particularly to the issues of diversity, emotions, and work–family balancing. Chapter 10 explores the relationship and communication between supervisors and subordinates. Chapters 11 and 12 examine communication in other import-ant organizational relationships—among peers and within teams, respectively. Chapter 13, the final chapter, provides an overview of communication as it relates to leadership in organizational settings.

Available Instructor ResourcesThe following instructor resources can be accessed by visiting http://www.pearsonhighered.com/irc

Instructor ManualDetailed instructor ’s manual with chapter overview, learning objectives, discussion questions, activities and assignments.

Test BankExhaustive test banks with MCQs, truth and false, fill-in-the-blanks, and essay type questions.

AcknowledgmentsThis book would not have been possible without the help of many people. We would like to thank the staff at Pear-son for giving us the opportunity to pursue a fourth edi-tion of this textbook in the way we envisioned it.

Dozens of students from University of Wisconsin— La Crosse served as interviewers for this edition. The following students have their work represented as new interview data in this fourth edition: Amy Olson, Anne Tolmie, Beth Rayome, Casey Kulinski, Courtney Joslin, Jake Kozelek, Jessica Dierkop, Maggie Whitish, Samantha Finley, Sarah Klopp, Kirstie Warren, Anne Lefevre, Madison Norris, and Morgan Dirks. Thanks, too, to Mark Collins for his contributions to this and past editions.

We were honored to have had the research assistance of Bailey Benedict for this edition. Bailey’s contributions to the text are innumerable, and we cannot thank her enough for her hard work and dedication to the project. Bailey tirelessly reviewed the new interview data, scrutinized the third edition and made suggestions for revision, and conducted literature searches for many of the new topics covered in the new edition. She also served as an excellent sounding board as we were debating areas for change and reorganization.

We hope you enjoy reading this book as much as we enjoyed writing it.

Dan Modaff

Jennifer Butler

Sue DeWine

Preface vii

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