Foundation University Journal of Psychologyfujp.fui.edu.pk/revolume2/FUI Journal of...

Volume 1 No. 2 August, 2017 ISSN: 2519-710X

Foundation University

Journal of Psychology

Foundation University Journal of Psychology http://fujp.fui.edu.pk [email protected]

Online No. : 2520-4343

FUJP Foundation University Journal of Psychology

Vol. 1, No. 2. August, 2017

ISSN: 2519 - 710X

Online No. : 2520-4343

PATRON IN CHIEF CONSULTING EDITORS

Lieutenant General Khalid Nawaz Khan, HI(M), Sitara-e-

Esaar (Retd)

President, Foundation University Islamabad

PATRON

Major General Khadim Hussain, HI(M) (Retd)

Rector, Foundation University Islamabad

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Professor Dr. Brig Akhtar Nawaz Malik, (Retd)

Director, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus

Professor Dr. Raja Nasim Akhtar

Dean, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences,

Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus

Dr. Shagufta Akhtar

Director ORIC, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus

EDITORIAL COMITTEE

Chief Editor

Dr. Brig Tanvir Akhtar, SI(M) (Retd)

HOD, Department of Psychology,

Foundation University Rawalpindi

Campus

Editors

Dr. Iffat Rohail

Assistant Professor, Foundation

University Rawalpindi Campus

Dr. Sadaf Ahsan

Assistant Professor, Foundation

University Rawalpindi Campus

Associate Editors

Mr. Muhammad Aqeel Lecturer, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus

Ms. Soulat Khan

Lecturer, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus

Ms. Sadaf Zaheer

Lecturer, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus

Dr. Anila Kamal Professor, National Institute of

Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University,

Islamabad , Pakistan

Dr. Asir Ajmal Professor & Director at Lahore School of

Management, University of Lahore,

Pakistan

Dr. Jahanzeb Khan Professor, Department of Psychology,

University of Peshawar,

Pakistan

Dr. M. Anis-ul-Haq

Professor, National Institute of


Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Rubina Hanif Associate Professor, National Institute of

Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam

University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Muhammad Tahir Khalily

Professor, Department of Psychology,

International Islamic University,

Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Jamil A. Malik

Assistant Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Sahra Shahid Professor, Head of Department of Gender

and development studies, Lahore women

University, Lahore, Pakistan

Dr. Asghar Ali Shah Assistant Professor, Department of

Psychology, International Islamic

University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Aneela Maqsood Assistant Professor, Department of

Behavioral Sciences, Fatima Jinnah

Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Dr. Humaira Jami Assistant Professor, National Institute of


Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Irum Naqvi Assistant Professor, National Institute of


Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Sobia Masood

Assistant Professor, National Institute of


Islamabad, Pakistan

Dr. Diane Bray Head of Department of Psychology,

University of Roehampton,

London, UK

Dr.Thomas Holtgraves Professor of Psychological Science,

Ball State University,

USA

Dr.Theodore. A, Hoch

Associate Professor, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, USA

Barbara Kaminski

The Chicago School of Professional

Psychology

West Virginia University, USA

Dr. Syed Ashiq Ali Shah

Professor, Department of Psychology

Kwantlen Polytechnic University,

Canada

Dr. Inge Seiffge -Krenke

Professor,

University of Mainz Staudinger,

Germany

Dr. Ghazala Rehman Professor

Head of Psychology WPHCG,

Redhill, Surrey, UK

Dr. Gita Maharaja Professor, Duquesne University,

Point Park University,

Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Dr. Archish Maharaja

Professor, Director Management

Program & School of Business, Point

Park University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Prof. Dr. Vildan Professor, Department of Family

Medicine, Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty

of Medicine, Turkey

Dr. Panch Ramalingam Pondicherry University,

Puducherry, India

Ushri Banerjee (Chatterjee)

Assistant Professor, Department of

Applied Psychology, University of

Calcutta, Kolkata, India

Tatiana Quarti Irigaray Professor, Pontifical Catholic University of

Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Dr. Kamile Bahar Aydin Assistant Professor, Facuty of Human and

Society Sciences Yıldırım Beyazıt, University,

Ankara, Turkey

Online issue available at: http://fujp.fui.edu.pk, Email (for electronic submission of articles): [email protected]

01

19

Table of Contents

Mediating Role of Career Thoughts for the Effect of Career Exploration on Career Decision MakingSyeda Rubab Aftab & Jamil A. Malik

Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary School ChildrenTasnim Rehna & Rubina Hanif

35 Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties amongPakistani AdolescentsKhadija Hussain, Iffat Rohail & Sara Ghazal

52 Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustmentof Pakistani AdultsSonia Bibi, Dr. Sobia Masood, Mustanir Ahmad & Sana Bukhari

II

67 The Moderating Role of Pregnancy Status among CopingStrategies, Depression, Anxiety and Stress acrossPakistani Married WomenSunita Peter, Jaffar Abbas, Muhammad Aqeel, Tanvir Akhtar & Khowla Farooq

Editor’s Note/From Editorial Desk

Foundation University’s mission is to nurture creativity and promote

research to foster personal and professional development of its students.

Issuance of the Foundation University Journal of Psychology (FUJP) is a

step forward towards this direction. The journal accepts and publishes

articles, papers and reviews of high quality.

Due to its interdisciplinary nature, Psychology is related to various other

fields of study including Sociology, Anthropology, Education, Gender

Issues, Organizational Behaviour, Life Sciences and Psychiatry etc.

Therefore, all contributions related to these fields of study are considered.

As an effective mean of knowledge sharing, FUJP encourages articles in

theoretical perspectives, grounded theories, innovative measurement tools

and procedures.

We are looking forward to an enthusiastic response and active participation

of not only students and teachers of Foundation University, but also of all

the sister institutions to make this initiative a success.

III

FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2017, VOL. 1, NO. 2, 1-18

Mediating Role of Career Thoughts for the Effect of

Career Exploration on Career Decision Making

Syeda Rubab Aftab & Jamil A. Malik

Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad –

Pakistan

The study examined mediating role of career thoughts for the effect

of career exploration on career decision making in adolescents.

Furthermore the mediation was also assessed in reverse direction to

cross verify. Sample comprised of 392 adolescents (53.3% male) age

ranged 18-25 year mean+ SD (21.15 + 1.62). Two assumptions were

made; first, career thought mediates between career exploration and

decision making and second career exploration mediates between

career thought and decision making. Multiple linear regression

analysis presented mediating effect of decision making confusion

between reaction exploration and career uncertainty (β=-0.34,

p<.001, ΔR2=.07) as well between reaction exploration and career

decision making (β= -.40, p<.001, ΔR2=.06). On the other hand,

exploration belief (β=-0.24, p<.001, ΔR2=.12) mediated the effect of

decision making confusion on career certainty. Further, reaction

exploration mediated the effect of decision making confusion on

career certainty and decision making (β=-0.21, p<.001; β=-0.28,

p<.001, ΔR2=.07). Exploration appears to have a major role in career

decision making process in adolescence. Career thoughts though

effect the relation between career exploration and career decision

making in some aspects.

Keyword. Career thoughts, exploration, and career decision making.

1. National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan

2. Assistant Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University

Islamabad – Pakistan

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jamil A. Malik,National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan.

Email: [email protected].

1

mailto:[email protected]

Understanding Career Decision Making

2

Introduction

Adolescents are critical in the career decision-making process,

as this is when they usually begin to plan, explore and make decisions

about further education or employment (Rogers, Mary, Creed, Peter,

Glendon, & Ian, 2008; Vondracek & Kawasaki, 1995; Savickas, 1997).

Career certainty is defined as an individual’s decidedness about their

career choice, and perceived comfort with their choice (Hartung, 1995).

Cooper, Argyris, and Channon (1998), define career decision-making as

a decision or choice about which line of work has to pursue. Choosing a

career line or making a career to the changing work environment

requires capability to make a rational decision about one’s own career. It

is clearly stated that in this era, to make a career decision at one point in

time is not possible, rather it’s a process that involves various decisions,

small or large, that comes together to define one of a personalized

direction of career development (Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003).

A key feature of the process of decision making is exploring

various career options and professional fields. Adolescence is a phase of

career exploration where people begin to assemble work-related

information in order to consider what career can be possible for them

(Bullock-Yowell, Katz, Reardon, & Peterson, 2012). Process of career

exploration can be a stressful as it can provoke challenging situations

and concerns about oneself and future. Young adults keenly discover

their interests and skills for testing their abilities against available

opportunities (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012; Hartung, 1995). As an

increase in career exploration behaviors predicted a decrease in career

indecision ( Park, Woo, Park, Kyea, &Yang, 2016).

Career Exploration refers to “the collection and analysis of

information regarding career related issues, making individuals become

more aware of themselves and the world of work, formulate career goals

and decisions, and develop strategies necessary to accomplish significant

goals” (Griffin & Hesketh, 2006). Exploration process involves diverse

activities used to promote career development in which an individual

involve to collect and increase knowledge about self and environment,


3

and in the end achieve career related outcomes (Atkinson & Murrell,

1988; Blustein, 1992; Taveira & Moreno, 2003; Jami, & Kamal, 2017;

Kalsoom, Masood & Jami, 2017; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel, Akhtar, &

Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah , Ahmed, & Gul, 2017;

Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, & Amin, 2017).

Stumpf et al. (1983) proposed an interactive model of vocational

exploration, emphasizing three distinct aspects of exploration:

exploration beliefs (e.g., instrumentality and preference); exploration

process (e.g., where and how); and reactions to exploration (e.g., affect

and stress). Stumpf et al. (1983) stated that there are number of

behaviors that can be classified as exploratory, but it is essential to

classified provisionally career related behaviors. This model proposed

that the process of exploration includes four ways: (a) “where one

explores” (b) “how one explores” (c) “how much one explores” and (d)

“what one explores”. Barak, Camey, and Archibald (1975) stated that

getting into process of exploration requires one to analyze the obtained

information whether it’s sufficient or not. Exploration process is likely

to change subsequently with the level of satisfaction one might feel

about the information that has been acquired. Where one can explore,

can be alter, how one explores may not become systematically

organized, the degree of exploration can reduce, and the focus can

(Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996). According to

Wanous (1977) exploration is a conscious process which means that, at

any given time, individuals are acting on the basis of set of beliefs and

perceptions, apart from whether they are realistic or sounds rationally.

So it is fundamental to think about the individual's expectations

regarding career opportunities (Stumpf et al., 1983).

Cognitive factors influencing career choice has gain interest of

researchers since past couple of decades. It is speculated that negative

thoughts have an effect on career certainty. Any deficit in the process of

career development adversely affects one's experience about making a

career. Knowledge and beliefs about selves, and career options all

influence one’s ability to make rational decisions about career. If

individual think negatively on the decision about their career, then they

might not be sure for career planning (Sampson, Reardon, Peterson, &


4

Lenz, 2004). Thoughts regarding career can have larger impact on the

career related behavior while engaging in career development (Sampson

et al., 1996). Kleiman et al. (2004) hypothesized that rationale decisions

during the process of career decision making adversely affects by

dysfunctional thoughts. The construct of negative thoughts are

associated with lower sense of rationality (Lustig & Strauser, 2002).

Career indecision has also established a significant relationship to poor

career beliefs (Enright, 1996), and negative career thoughts (Saunders,

Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 2000).

Career thoughts play an important role in career reconnoiter and

commitment, decision making thoughts about career are person's

thinking about assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, feelings, plans

and/or strategies related to career problem solving and decision making

(Sampson et al., 1996). Due to dysfunctional thoughts one is unable to

engage in exploratory behavior associated with career problem solving

and decision making. Sometimes these thoughts becomes obstacle for a

person by effecting the ability to solve career related problems, using

inadequately obtained information while in a process of career decision

making, and remain unsuccessful in deciding a career. Such difficulties

can have an effect on the abilities to go further, thereby increasing the

career uncertainty (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012).

Empirical literature is scarce particularly on influence of career

exploration process behaviors on level of career certainty (Esrer, 2008).

Literature suggested that career thoughts and career exploration has a

major function in career process of career decision making.

Additionally, to extent of our knowledge no published research have

paid attention on the relationship between career thoughts and career

exploration. Many career theorists recommended that processing of

information influenced by attitudes, values and cognitions (Kinnier &

Krumboltz, 1986; Sampson et al., 2004), and therefore it is assumed that

career thoughts may have a mediating role between career exploration

and career certainty (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012). Therefore, the present

study has made two assumptions to examine the relationship of career

thoughts and career exploration with career decision making.


5

The first assumption was career thought mediating between

career explorations and career decision making and the second

assumption was career exploration mediating between career thought

and career decision making. In order to see either career thought or

career explorations are the factors that cause the gap between their

existing state of indecision and a desired state of decidedness.

Method

Sample and Procedure

The sample of the study comprised of 392 students from

different public (n = 210) and private (n = 183) sector universities. The

sample included both male (n= 209) and female (n = 183) who fall in

age range of 17 years to 25 years (M = 21.15, SD = +1.62). Participants

were briefed about the nature of the study and they were also assured

that the information provided by them would be kept confidential and

will be used only for the research purpose. The informed consent of

participants was taken before administration of instruments. The

questionnaire booklets were administered in the classroom setting.

Instruction were written on questionnaire booklets as well as participants

were given verbal instructions. Though there was no time restriction, on

average it took 50 minutes for participants to respond on all instruments.

Along with demographic sheet, the questionnaire booklet comprised of

following instruments.

Career Decision Making Scale (CDS). The Career

Decision Scale developed by Osipow et al. (1976) is used to measure

career certainty and career indecision. The scale consist a total of 19

items measuring two dimensions of career decision making i.e., career

certainty and career uncertainty. For 18 items of the scale, responses of

participants are collected on a 4 point likert-scale i.e., (1) “least like me”

to (4) “most like me”. Two items measuring career certainty component

(score ranges 2 to 8) and for 16 items measuring career uncertainty

component (score ranges 16 to 64), high score suggesting higher level of

the respective component. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained for the


6

present sample were .71 for career certainty and .78 for career

uncertainty.

Career Exploration Survey (CES). Career exploration

survey (Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman, 1983) measures career

exploratory behavior on 3 dimensions. First dimension “exploration

process” consists of seven types of indicators (i.e., environment

exploration, self exploration, number of occupations considered,

intended-systematic exploration, frequency, and amount of information)

measured by 21 items on a 5 point Likert scale. The second dimension

“exploration belief” is measured with six types of indicators (i.e.,

employment outlook, certainty of career explorational outcome, external

search instrumentality, internal search instrumentality, method

instrumentality, and importance of obtaining preferred position)

measured by 24 items on a 5 point Likert scale. Finally, the third

dimension “reaction exploration” consists of three types of indicator

(i.e., satisfaction with information, explorational stress, and decisional

stress) measured by 13 items on a 5-7 point Likert scale. Cronbach alpha

computed for present study sample were .76, .64 and .81 for Exploration

Process, Reaction Exploration, and Exploration Belief respectively.

Career Thought Inventory (CTI). The inventory

developed by Sampson et al.(1998) includes 48 self-report statements.

The CTI measures negative thoughts that impede career decision-making

using a four-point Likert scale ranging from (0) “Strongly Disagree” to

(3) “Strongly Agree”. The CTI has four components: Decision-Making

Confusion (14 statements; score ranges 0 to 42), Commitment Anxiety

(10 statements; score ranges 0 to 30), External Conflict (5 statements;

score ranges 0 to 15) and Nature of Dysfunctional Thoughts (19

statements; score ranges 0 to 57). Higher scores indicate negative career

thinking. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained for the present sample

was .90 for Decision Making Confusion, .82 for Commitment Anxiety,

.72 for External Conflicts, and .88 for Nature of Dysfunctional

Thoughts.


7

Results The study examined the relationship between career exploration

and career decision making and the mediating role of career thoughts. To

measure these constructs Career Decision Scale (CDS), Career

Exploration Scale (CES), and Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) were

used. Cronbach Alpha was computed in order to estimate the reliability

of these measures for the present sample. Table 1 shows that the alpha

coefficient all scales and subscales are within recommended range

suggesting that measures are reliable for the present sample.

Furthermore, descriptive analysis (Table 1) showed that data was

normally distributed.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics & Alpha reliability of the study variables (N=392)

Scales Variables

No

of

Items

Alpha M SD Skew

Career Thought Inventory

Decision Making Confusion 14 .90 19.26 8.97 0.39

Commitment Anxiety 10 .82 16.06 5.93 0.44

External Conflicts 5 .72 8.24 3.27 0.13

Dysfunctional Thoughts 19 .88 30.98 10.57 0.57

Career Exploration Survey

Exploration Process 21 .76 66.12 14.61 0.04

Reaction Exploration 13 .64 43.32 8.86 -0.25

Exploration Belief 24 .81 73.49 14.91 -0.32

Career Decision Scale

Career Certainty 2 .71 4.46 1.27 0.63

Career Uncertainty 16 .78 38.76 9.37 0.09


8

Bivariate correlation was computed to explore the relationship

between the variables of the study. Table 2 revealed that the components

of CES and CTI significantly and positively correlated with each other

(r-range= .60 to .64 & .70 to .90; p<.05) respectively. However the

components of CDM show a different pattern. Career certainty (CC) has

significant positive correlation with Decision Making (DM) and negative

correlation with Career Uncertainty (CU) whereas career uncertainty has

negative correlation with Decision Making (DM). Table 4 also shows

that the component reaction exploration of CES is positively correlated

with all components of CTI. External conflict is positively correlated

with exploration process and decision making confusion is negatively

correlated with exploration belief. The results also revealed that all

components of CES are positively correlated with career certainty except

reaction exploration; however all components are positively correlated

with career uncertainty. Moreover, only reaction exploration is

positively correlated with over all decision making (DM).

Figure 1: Career Thoughts mediating between Career Exploration and Career

Decision Making


9

Multiple regression analysis revealed the mediating effect of

career thoughts for the relationship between career exploration and

career decision making. Table 3 showed that the effect of reaction

exploration on career certainty is not mediated by decision making

confusion. Table 3 also showed that the effect of Reaction Exploration

on career uncertainty is partially mediated by decision making confusion

(β=0.34, p<.001) explaining 7% of variance in career uncertainty. The

significant value of Sobel test (3.35, p<.001) provided further evidence.

Futhermore, the Table 3 revealed that the effect of reaction exploration

on decision making is partially mediated by decision making confusion

(β= -.40, p<0.001) explaining 6% of variance in decision making. The

Sobel test (3.66; p<0.001) provides evidence that decision making

confusion is partially mediating the relationship.

Contrary to that, Table 4 also revealed that the effect of

Reaction Exploration on Decision Making is partially mediated by

Decision Making Confusion (β= -.40, p<0.001) explaining 6% of

variance in Decision Making. Furthermore, the Sobel test (3.66;

p<0.001) provides evidence that Decision Making Confusion is partially

mediating the relationship.

Figure 2: Career Exploration mediating between Career Decision

Making Self-efficacy and Career Decision

Tabel 2

Correlation Coefficient of Career Decision Making Self-efficacy, Career Thoughts, Career Exploration

and Career Decision making and their Subscales (N=392)

S.no Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Decision making confusion - .89** .83** .91** .07 .60** -.20 -.16 .70** -.63**

2 Commitment anxiety - .84** .93** .20 .60** -.11 -.07 .58** -.50**

3 External Conflicts - .90** .26* .60** -.01 .02 .61** -.45**

4 Dysfunctional thoughts - .13 .60** -.11 -.14 .60** -.55**

5 Exploration Process - .18 .60** .50** .20 .21

6 Reaction Exploration - .06 .02 .52** -.40**

7 Exploration Belief - .44**

.09 .24

8 Career Certainty - .03 .66**

9 Career Uncertainty - -.73**

10 Decision Making -

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 3

Components of Career Thoughts Mediating the relationship between components of Career Exploration and

Career Decision Making (N=392)

Predictors Mediators

Dependent Variables

Career Certainty Career Uncertainty Decision Making

Model 1 B Model 2 B Model 1 B Model 2 B Model 1 B Model 2 B

(Constant) 4.11 4.16 20.1 18.94 2.81 2.73

Reaction Exploration -0.03** -0.03** 0.43** 0.34** -0.06** -0.05**

Exploration Belief 0.02** 0.02** NS - NS -

Decision Making Confusion -0.01 0.35** -0.07**

Commitment Anxiety -0.11 0.03

Dysfunctional Thoughts 0.01 0.02

R2 0.1 0.1 0.17 0.24 0.12 0.17

F 21.69** 14.56** 77.42** 30.35** 52.63** 20.46**

ΔR2 0 0.07 0.06

ΔF 0.38 12.4 8.7

** p<.01; NS (Non Significant Predictor, Violation of Mediation Rules 1 (Barron & Kenny, 1986), No mediation

was performed)

Table 4

Components of Career Exploration mediating the relationship between Career Thoughts and Career

Decision Making (N=392)

Predictors Mediators

Dependent Variables

Career Certainty Decision Making

Model 1 B Model 2 B Model 1 B Model 2 B

(Constant) 4.34 3.96 0.72 2.66

Decision making confusion -0.05** -0.04* -0.09** -0.08**

Commitment anxiety 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03

External Conflicts 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.04

Dysfunctional thoughts 0 0 0 0.01

Reaction Exploration -0.03** -0.05**

Exploration Belief 0.02**

0.05 0.12 0.11 0.18

F 5.41** 8.98** 11.43** 16.65**

0.07 0.07

ΔF 15.32** 33.67**

** p<.01; NS (Non Significant Predictor, Violation of Mediation Rules 1 (Barron & Kenny, 1986), No mediation

was performed)

R2

ΔR2


13

The second assumption was career exploration is mediating

between career thought and career decision making (figure 2). Table 3

showed that, the effect of Decision Making Confusion on Career

Certainty is partially mediated by Reaction Exploration (β= -0.21,

p<.001) and Exploration Belief (β= 0.24, p<.001) explaining 12%

variance in Career Certainty. The Sobel Test also revealed the

significant mediation by Decision Making Confusion (Reaction

Exploration: 3.39; p<.001, & Exploration Belief: 2.04; p< .01).

Further Table 4 showed that the effect of Decision Making

Confusion on Decision Making partially mediated by Reaction

Exploration (β= -0.28, p<.001) explaining 18% variance in Decision

Making. The significant value of Sobel test (4.32; p<.001) further

provides evidence that Reaction exploration is mediating the

relationship. Figure below explaining the significant mediation by

components of Career Exploration between Career Thoughts and Career

Decision Making.

Discussion

The first assumption was CT mediating between CE and CDM.

Since recent research have been well documented that the relationship

between exploratory behavior and career decision making may be

mediated by career thoughts (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012). Sampson et

al. (1998) demonstrated that individuals having inability to sustain

career making process are unable to explore their skills and strengths as

well as the information about different occupations. As a result deficit

occurs in the process of decision making. In the first assumption, the

results revealed that the effect of reaction exploration on career

uncertainty and decision making is mediated by decision making

confusion. This indicates that while having a greater degree of inability

to sustain career process for making a career choice, students find that

available information is not sufficient or particular information is still

needed for making a potential career. Hence increase in uncertainty level

decreases decision making process. Further results showed career


14

thoughts do not mediate between career exploration and career certainty.

The study of Blustien (1988) documented that exploration predicts

career certainty. Hence it is very much according to the findings of

Blustien’s (1988) study suggesting the direct relation between career

exploration and career certainty.

The second assumption was career exploration mediating

between CT and CDM. Results showed that exploration belief partially

mediated between DMC and CC, which means that decision making

confusion decreases if students have high expectation of attaining their

career, as a result career certainty level increases. Reaction exploration

partially mediated between the DMC and CC, this indicates that if

students are not satisfied with the available information then the students

are unable to initiate a process of deciding a career as a result level of

career certainty decreases. In addition, reaction exploration partially

mediated between decision making confusion and decision making. This

relationship indicates, a greater degree of confusion affects the decision

making among students, especially when students feel stress regarding

the information that has been acquired was either not sufficient or

worthless for making a career choice.

or the first assumption, reaction exploration was predicting only

two components of CDM (career uncertainty, CUC; and decision

making, DM). In second assumption, DMC is also predicting two

components of career decision making (career certainty, CC; and

decision making, DM). The first assumption has been explaining 24%

variance in career uncertainty and 10% in decision making. However, in

second asumption 12% variance has been explained in career certainty,

and only 18 % in decision making respectively. First assumption is

comparatively predicting better results in the first assumption. Further,

the results revealed that in both assumptions, exploration process and all

components of career thoughts (except decision making confusion) have

non-significant role in outcomes of career decision making.


15

Although the results revealed important findings but conclusions

drained from the present study are tentative because of some limitations

of current study that needs to be recognized. First, the sample was

homogeneous in age, educational background, and socioeconomic status.

Most participants were belonging to middle class, and between the ages

of 20 years to 22 years. Second, the association establishes among the

variables in this study do not account for all of the variance in career

decision making. Future researches may explore other antecedents and

mediators of career decision making across variant populations.

However the results of present study leading to understand that

why many students do not make their career choices even after selecting

their major. It might be the reason that they are unable to engage in

exploratory behavior associated with career problem-solving and

decision-making, specifically identifying an appropriate major with

respect to their self-interest. Overall, the study provided considerable

empirical support for the contribution of both factors to the career

decision making process for students. Further studies must see other

factors such as emotional distress, a lack of confidence in ability to

perform certain tasks, lack of experience in varied life roles, lack of self-

insight, negative expectations associated with a particular pursuit, fear of

failure and conflicts with important people that adds complexity to the

career decision-making process.

The present results have an important practical implication in

vocational psychology. The findings of the present study may be of

interest to counselors, teachers, or researchers for planning interventions

that promote exploratory behavior for attaining positive career

outcomes.


16

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319903257


19

Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral

Problems of Secondary School Children Tasnim Rehna & Rubina Hanif

Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad – Pakistan

The present study was aimed at examining the role of verbal cognitive

abilities in predicting emotional and behavioral problems among

secondary school children. Sajjad Urdu Verbal Intelligence Test

(Hussain, 2001) and School Children Problems Scale (Saleem &

Mehmood, 2011) were administered on a sample of 300 (151 girls &

149 boys) secondary school children; aged 11-16 years (M =14.83, SD

= 1.16) taken from model schools of Islamabad. Finding revealed that

low level of verbal cognitive abilities showed greater levels of

emotional and behavioral problems; particularly anxiousness,

academic problems, and aggression were significantly higher among

the students. All four types of verbal abilities (i.e., Word-Meaning,

Verbal-Reasoning, Numerical-Abilities, and General-Knowledge)

jointly accounted for up to 59% of variance in predicting emotional

and behavioral problems. Gender differences were also significant

indicating that girls demonstrated significantly greater degree of

emotional problems (p<.001) than those of boys whereas boys elicited

higher level of aggressive tendencies (p<.001) and all four types of

verbal cognitive abilities (p<.001, .01) as compared to girls. No

significant gender differences emerged on academic problems. Results

have been discussed in the light of literature and cultural contexts.

Keywords. Verbal Cognitive Ability, Emotional and behavioral Problems, School Children

_______________________________________________________________

1.National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan

2. Associate Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Rubina Hanif, Department of

Psychology, Rawalpindi Campus. Pakistan. Email: [email protected].

http://www.nip.edu.pk/Facultyrpofiles/DrRubinaHanif.html

http://www.nip.edu.pk/Facultyrpofiles/DrRubinaHanif.html

Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary

School Children

20

Cognitive or intellectual skills have been theorized and explicated under

various perspectives; however little attention has been paid to

understand their function in adolescent psychopathology. At the same

time, literature of developmental psychopathology has always put a

question mark on the variability of reactions to life events that why some

children are more resilient, better withstand to life adversities, and turn

into more healthy and adjusted people than those who become

emotionally disturbed (Luthar & Zigler 1991; Masten, 2001).Explaining

such queries, studies have documented a link between intelligence and

emotional and behavioral problems (Corapci, Smith, & Lozoff, 2006;

Flouri, Mavroveli, & Tzavidis, 2012; Koenen, Nugent, & Amstadter,

2008) among school children. These problems include school truancy,

academic failure, aggressive behaviors, and drug abuse affecting the

individual as well as lasting detrimental impacts on the society as a

whole (Lane, Carter, Pierson, & Glaeser, 2006; Trout, Nordness, Pierce,

& Epstein, 2003). Such researches manifest that children with lower

intellectual abilities tend to have greater number of behavioral

difficulties including both internalizing and externalizing problems as

compared to those with higher intelligence scores (Rutter, 1971;

Halonen, Aunola, Ahonen, & Nurmi, 2006; Lynam, Moffitt, &

Stouthamer-Loeber, 1993; Miles & Stipek, 2006; Jami & Kamal, 2017;

Kalsoom, Masood, & Jami, 2017)

With regard to particular domains of intellectual abilities,

students having emotional and behavioral problems have consistently

shown poor performance in numerical ability, vocabulary, verbal

reasoning, reading comprehension and written expression (Anderson &

Sommerfelt, 2001; Lane, et al., 2006; Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith,

2004). Similar findings were reported by Mattison, Hooper and

Glassberg (2002) who studied a sample of secondary school children.

Their findings revealed that about 60% of the students with emotional

and behavioral problems showed verbal deficits particularly in reading,

writing, and mathematical abilities.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3769988/#R16



School Children

21

Earlier studies (i.e., Farrington & Hawkins, 1991; Moffitt, 1990;

Schonfeld, Shaffer, O'Connor, & Portnoy, 1988; Warr-Leeper, Wright,

& Mack, 1994; White, Moffitt, & Silva, 1989) have also established a

linear relationship between cognitive deficits and problem behaviors.

These studies found that poor reasoning skills in early adolescence may

lead to conduct behaviors in later years. Stipek and Mac Iver (1989)

further explained this cognitive mechanism by concluding that the

inability of a child to perform well on an intelligence test develops the

feelings of inefficiency and lower self-efficacy which resultantly may

lead to feelings of rejection, withdrawn and depression. Evans, Rubin,

and Asendorpf (1993) also found a negative association between shyness

and verbal intelligence particularly vocabulary and verbal fluency in

language assessment test.

Congruent with these findings, some studies have been

conducted in a vice versa directions such as some researchers have

identified the factors that may serve a positive function in the face of life

pressure as well as emotional and behavioral problems. These factors

may include intrapersonal qualities (higher level of cognitive

functioning), family characteristics, as well as ecological factors

(Greenberg, 2006; Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Maddi, 2005;

Masten, 2001; Werner, 2000). At the intrapersonal level, intellectual

competence (i.e., verbal and nonverbal cognitive skills) serves a key role

in cushioning the negative impact of life adversities and subsequent

problem behaviors among children and adolescents (Pine & Freedman,

2009).

Cognitive abilities, either verbal or nonverbal, may play a crucial

role in buffering the effect of life pressures as these are the skills to

process information and solving problem. These abilities are directly

linked to how a threat is assessed and processed, resources are accessed

or healthier environments or relationships are sought (Masten et al.,

1999) to cope with stress and better adjustment in life. Despite being that

important, cognitive abilities have continuously been ignored in the


School Children

22

research of adolescent psychopathology particularly in the context of

Pakistan. Owing to the lack of research, the education system has been

outdated and inconsistent with the societal needs. Moreover, learning

and teaching methods are not synchronized with developmental demands

and psychosocial needs of the children. No or little attention is paid on

emotional or behavioral problems of the students or to train them solve

their problems using their intrapersonal as well as interpersonal

resources. The present study is therefore an effort to explore the role of

cognitive resources (verbal cognitive abilities) in explaining emotional

and behavioral problems of secondary school children.

Method

Sample

A sample of 300 secondary school children (of whom 151 were girls

and 149 were boys), with age ranged from 12 to 16 years (M =14.83, SD =

1.16), was collected from the model schools of Islamabad. Data was obtained

from 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th grades students of the secondary schools of Islamabad

through a convenient sampling technique. Of the total sample, 67% belonged

to joint family system.

Instruments

Following instruments were used for the following study:

Sajjad Verbal Intelligence Test Urdu (SVITU). Sajjad Verbal

Intelligence Test Urdu (SVITU) was used to measure the verbal cognitive

ability of adolescents. The test was developed, validated, and standardized by

Hussain (2001). The test comprises 128 multiple choice items with four

subscales (vocabulary = 42 items, numerical ability = 36 items, verbal

reasoning = 20 items, and general knowledge = 30 items). All the items are

designed on the basis on general recommended textbooks of school children.

True answer is given a score on ‘1’and false answer is given a score of ‘0.’

Total scores range between 0-128. The original study (Hussain, 2001) has

reported good concurrent and construct validity and highly acceptable

reliabilities i. e., KR-20 = .92, test-retest = .86 and split-half = .86 for SVITU.

School Children’s Problems Scale (SCPS). SCPS, developed by

Saleem and Mehmood (2011) was used in the present study to measure

emotional and behavioral problems of secondary school children. SCPS is a


School Children

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self-rating measure comprisingof 44 items on a four-point rating scale ranging

from 1= not at all to 4 = extremely common. SCPS was found to be a reliable

(test-retest reliability = 0.79 and split half reliability = 0.89) and a valid scale

with acceptable psychometric properties (Saleem & Mehmood, 2011).

Procedure

Students were approached after seeking a formal approval of data

collection from Federal Directorate of Education and concerned authorities of

school. Informed consent was also obtained from the subjects and they were

assured of their ethical research rights. They were given the full right to quit

their participation at any stage and withdraw from research. Participants were

also assured of their right of privacy and confidentiality and were assured that

their information will be kept quite confidential and will be used for

particularly this research only. After taking the data necessary statistical

analyses were computed for the results.

Results Table 1 shows inter-scale correlations, alpha coefficients, and

descriptive statistics for the study variables. As illustrated by the values of the

table, significant negative relationship (p < .001) was observed between

different types of verbal cognitive abilities and school children’s emotional and

behavioral problems. Furthermore, the table depicts good alpha coefficients for

all the study scales indicating that the scales were internally consistent and

reliable to use in the study. Values of skewness and kurtosis in Table 1

demonstrate a normal distribution of the data as the values lie in acceptable

range (George & Mallery, 2010).

Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary School Children

24

Table 1

Reliability estimates and descriptive statistics of Sajjad Verbal Intelligence Test Urdu and its subscales and School

Children Problem Scale (N=300)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. WM - .89** .82** .72** .94** -.61** -.45** -.60** -.56** -.53** -.66** -.71**

2. VR - - .86** .80** .94** -.65** -.58** -.68** -.58** -.57** -.69** -.75**

3. NA - - - .81** .94** -.73** -.46** -.72** -.65** -.65** -.69** -.77**

4. GK - - - - .88** -.68** -.56** -.73** -.63** -.70** -.74** -.79**

5. VA - - - - - -.71** -.59** -.73** -.65** -.65** -.74** -.81**

6. ANX - - - - - - -.89** .81** .67** .58** .34** .61**

7. AGG - - - - - - - -.76** -.60** -.47** .22** -.49**

8. SW - - - - - - - - .65** .52** .27** .58**

9. SC - - - - - - - - - .62** .53** .81**

10. REJ - - - - - - - - - - .63** .85**


25

11. AP - - - - - - - - - - - .75**

12. SCPS - - - - - - - - - - - -

α .89 .74 .85 .76 .95 .92 .92 .88 .85 .74 .78 .80

M(SD) 22.52

(9.03)

10.29

(4.11)

21.58

(7.01)

17.56

(5.17)

71.95

(23.5)

30.41

(10.1)

114.46

(25.8)

44.95

(12.3)

34.42

(10.5)

33.69

(8.53)

37.08

(8.68)

37.28

(8.96)

Skewness .04 -.06 .13 .05 .15 -.024 -.34 -.58 -.003 .08 -.30 -.05

Kurtosis -1.4 -.89 -1.4 -1.05 -1.49 -1.26 -.87 -.79 -1.12 -.82 -.63 -.86

Note: WM=Word Meanings, VR=Verbal Reasoning, NA=Numerical Ability, GK=General Knowledge, VA=Verbal Ability Total,

ANX=Anxiety, AGG=Aggression, SW=Social Withdrawal, SC=Somatic Complaints, FR=Feelings of Rejection, AP=Academic

Problems.


26

Table 2

Multiple Regression Analysis on Emotional and Behavioral Problems by Verbal Cognitive Abilities (N=300)

**p<.01, *p<.05

Note: V-A= Verbal Ability Scale, WM= Word Meanings, VR=Verbal Reasoning, NA=Numerical Ability, GK=General Knowledge,

ANX=Anxiety, AGG=Aggression, SW=Social Withdrawal, SC=Somatic Complaints, FR=Feelings of Rejection, AP=Academic Problems

Anxiousness Aggression Social Withdrawal

95% CI 95% CI 95% CI

V-A B SE B β LL UL B SE B β LL UL B SE B β LL UL

WM -.04 .18 -.037 -.32 .41 -.33 .17 -.42* .67 .004 -.10 .09 -.16 -.08 .28

VR -.03 .47 -.01 -.95 .90 -.49 .43 -.28 -1.34 .37 -.26 .23 -.20 -.72 .19

NA -.86 .23 -.56** -1.32 -.40 -.80 .21 -.78** .37 1.22 -.29 .11 -.37* -.51 -.06

GK -.52 .26 -.25* -1.04 -.002 -.03 .24 -.02 -.51 .44 -.42 .13 -.39** -.67 -.16

R = .75, R²= .56, ΔR²= .54 (F = 30.40**) R = .39, R²= 16, ΔR²=.12 (F=4.36**) R = .77, R²= 59, ΔR²=.58 (F=34.76**)

Somatic Complaints Rejection Academic Problems

WM -.03 .06 -.07 -.15 .10 -.02 .09 -.03 -.16 .19 -.15 .11 -.20* -.38 .08

VR -.05 .16 -.06 -.26 .37 -.13 .22 -.11 -.30 .57 -.11 .29 -.07 -.69 .46

NA -.18 .08 -.39* -.34 -.03 -.22 .11 -.31* -.43 .000 -.07 .14 -.07 -.36 .22

GK -.20 .09 -.32* -.38 -.03 -.52 .12 -.56** -.77 -.28 -.67 .16 -.49** -.99 -.35

R = .68, R²= .46, ΔR²= .44 (F = 20.06**) R=.72, R²= 52, ΔR²=.49 (F=25.18**) R = .77, R²=.59, ΔR²=.58 (F=34.43**)


School Children

27

Multiple regression analysis was computed (Table 2) to study

the impacts of verbal cognitive abilities on each of the emotional and

behavioral problems of school children. Findings indicate that verbal

cognitive abilities jointly accounted for 54% of variance in the

anxiousness 12 % in aggression, 59% in social withdrawal, 44% in

somatic complaints, 49% in feelings of rejection and 58 % of variance

in academic problems among secondary school children. Findings

further showed numerical ability and general knowledge were the

stronger negative predictors of problem behaviors among school

children. Results also show that the ability of verbal reasoning did not

account for significant variance (p > .05) in any of the adolescents’

problems. Overall findings indicate that all the verbal abilities showed

negative associations with each of the emotional and behavioral

problems of adolescents suggesting that poor verbal cognitive skills

may lead to the development of emotional or behavioral problems

among secondary school children.


School Children

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Table 3

Gender Differences on Emotional and Behavioral Problems and Verbal

Cognitive Abilities (N=300)

Boys

(n = 149)

Girls

(n = 151)

95%CI

LL UL

Variables M SD M SD t df p Cohen’s

d

ANX 23.21 6.35 43.05 7.59 -24.42 301 .000 -21.45 -18.25 2.83

AGG 30.27 3.16 17.66 5.36 24.37 301 .000 11.59 13.63 2.86

SW 15.04 3.78 25.14 3.62 -23.71 301 .000 -10.94 -9.26 2.73

SC 11.41 2.04 14.05 2.21 -10.74 301 .000 -3.12 -2.16 1.24

FR 14.71 3.45 17.74 3.43 -7.74 301 .000 -3.79 -2.26 .88

AP 28.73 2.98 28.98 4.48 -.57 301 .57 -1.13 .62 .06

WM 25.45 8.06 19.71 9.03 3.34 301 .001 2.34 9.14 .67

VR 12.16 3.82 8.49 3.54 4.98 301 .000 .73 2.21 .99

NA 25.84 6.35 17.49 4.88 7.38 301 .000 1.13 6.10 1.47

GK 20.06 4.50 15.16 4.63 5.36 301 .000 .91 3.09 1.07

Note: ANX=Anxiety, AGG=Aggression, SW=Social Withdrawal, SC=Somatic

Complaints, FR=Feelings of Rejection, AP=Academic Problems, WM=Word

Meanings, VR=Verbal Reasoning, NA=Numerical Ability, GK=General Knowledge

t-test analysis was computed to examine gender differences (Table 3)

on verbal abilities and emotional and behavioral problems. Results in

the table reveal that girls scored significantly higher (p<.001) on

anxiousness, social withdrawal, somatic complaints and feelings of

rejection while boys demonstrated significantly greater level of

aggressive behaviors (p<.001) and verbal cognitive abilities (p<.001;

p<.01). However no significant differences emerged on academic

problems.


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Discussion

The present study examined the association between verbal

cognitive abilities and emotional and behavioral problems among

secondary school children. Results showed a strong negative

correlation between verbal competence and problem behaviors

indicating that verbal abilities negatively predicted emotional and

behavioral problems among school children. Particularly lower level of

numerical ability and general knowledge were the stronger predictor of

problem behaviors. These findings are congruent with the previous

researches (i.e., Corapci et al., 2006; Halonenet al., 2006; Miles &

Stipek, 2006; Morgan, Farkas, Tufis, & Sperling, 2008; Trzesniewski,

Moffitt, Caspi, Taylor & Maughan, 2006) reported a negative

association between verbal intelligence and emotional and behavioral

difficulties documenting that lower level of verbal cognitive ability put

children at greater risk for developing problems behaviors particularly

internalizing behavioral problems. Similar findings were reported by

(Hodges & Plow, 1990; Sato et al., 2016; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel,

Akhtar, & Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah , Ahmed,

&

Gul, 2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, & Amin,

2017) who reported more verbal deficits in children with anxiety than

non-anxious children. The present study also found that boys scored

significantly higher in all types of verbal abilities as compared to girls.

These findings get support from Colom, Contreras, Arend, García-Leal

and Santacreu (2004) who studied gender differences on verbal and

spatial ability tests. Their findings revealed that male students

performed significantly better than female students on both spatial

ability and verbal intelligence including mathematical ability,

vocabulary and general knowledge. Regarding emotional problem

behaviors, the present study found that female subjects with verbal

deficits showed higher level of anxiety, social withdrawal, feelings of

rejection and somatic complaints than boys whereas boys scored

significantly higher on aggression. Previous researches have also

supported this notion revealing that girls are prone to develop more

emotional problems i.e., anxiety, depression and withdrawn while boys










School Children

30

tend to have greater number of behavioral problems e.g., aggression,

conduct and antisocial behavior (Bongers, Koot, & Verhulst, 2003;

Mesman, Bongers, &Koot, 2001; Singh & Sharma, 2012; Suresh,

Ayyappan, Nandini, & Ismail, 2015). Culture also provides

justification for such differences as in cultures like Pakistan girls are

trained and expected to show more patience, controlled behaviors and

are desired to be less expressive whereas boys having greater exposure

of the external environment tend to be more expressive and show

outward behaviors.

Overall study concluded a negative pattern of association

between verbal cognitive abilities and school children’s emotional and

behavioral problem. The study found that lower level of verbal

intellectual skills may result in problem behaviors.

Limitations, Suggestions, and Implications

No research is without limitations so as is the current study.

First of all the present research followed a cross-sectional design. In

future, longitudinal design would help understand the trajectories of

psychopathology such as identifying the true nature of cognitive skills

as risk or protective factors in the path of psychopathology. Secondly,

present study rested upon self-report measure/ single informant

approach whereas a multi-informant approach would give an in-depth

exploration of the problems and would also help minimizing

respondent biases which may hamper the generalize ability of the study

findings. Another limitation is that current study focused on a

unidirectional relationship between cognitive verbal skills and

problems whereas a reciprocal relationship will be more informative to

identify and gain a detailed insight of the causal relationship between

the two constructs.

Despite carrying aforementioned limitations, the study

significantly contributed in the indigenous literature of educational

psychology. Moreover, the study holds implications for teachers,

school psychologists and related policy maker to pay special attention

to the intellectual abilities and growth of school children in order to

provide proper counseling to intellectually deficits children so that


School Children

31

their emotional and behavioral problems can be addressed and

managed at the appropriate stage.

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35

Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among

Pakistani Adolescents

Khadija Hussain, Iffat Rohail & Sara Ghazal

Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus

This study was conducted to identify the patterns of emotional and

social difficulties among Pakistani adolescents. The Anxiety,

Depression, Anger, Disruptive Behavior, and Self-Concept Inventories

of the Beck Youth Inventories were administered to 300 adolescents

(150 females and 150 males). The age range was between 14–19 years.

Each inventory represented distinct symptom dimensions and the overall

pattern of results indicated that anxiety level in males was higher than

females but females’ disruptive behavior was significantly high. Hence,

there was no significant gender difference in the levels of anger, self

concept and depression. Age had strong impact on all types of

psychological distress. Late adolescents showed more anger, anxiety,

depression and disruptive behavior. Early adolescents had high self

concept as compared to late adolescents. Anxiety was significantly

positively related with depression, anger and disruptive behavior.

Keyword. Emotional, social difficulties, adolescence, anxiety, depression,

anger, disruptive behavior, self concept.

1.Student of MS Clinical Psychology Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus.

2.Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus.

3.Teaching and Research Assistant, Department of Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi

Campus.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr.Iffat Rohail, Department of

Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus. Email: [email protected].


Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents

36

World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) has defined that

adolescence is the period in human growth that occurs after

childhood and before adulthood. It ranges from 10 to 19 years.

After infancy this period is occurred with tremendous growth and

change with respect to mental and physical (WHO, 2014).

Public health surveys and psychological assessments have

considered the psychological distress as a vital indicator for mental

health. Literature has depicted that this concept has been mixed

with depression, anxiety, functional disabilities and behavioral

problems (Drapeau, Marchand, & Beaulieu-Prévost, 2011; Jami &

Kamal, 2017; Kalsoom, Masood & Jami, 2017).

There are many reasons and causes for psychological stress

identified among youth by researchers, (Cluver, Gardner, &

Operario, 2007; Pawlikowska et al., 1994) like moving towards

new place, graduating from college and shifted to university, peer

group changes etc. which cannot be faced and coped by youngsters

or have difficulty adjusting to these situations (Ahmed, Ahmed,

Aqeel, Akhtar, & Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah ,

Ahmed, & Gul,

2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat,

Sana, & Amin, 2017).

Emotional and social problems impact strongly on the lives

of young people as they have not reached yet to the maturity level

needed to cope with adversities and also they are so vulnerable to

be distracted hence when the adolescents are victimized then its

effects may be stronger than any other age group because in this

age they lack functional coping strategies to overcome the

distressful situation (Strine et al., 2005). Adolescents usually

commit suicide in case of severe attacks of anxiety and depression

and other psychological disorders (Petersen et al., 1993). This

shows these ailments like anxiety and depression also have deadly

effects on one’s life. Anxiety is linked with substantial financial

problem due to reduced work output and more usage of health care


37

services, predominantly primary health care (Cummings,

Caporino, & Kendall, 2014).

A vast literature has shown that depressive disorders are

differently prevailing in males and females. At the age of puberty

and reproduction period these differences can easily be observed

(Bebbington, 1996). Some studies have reported that females have

almost twice times chances of getting depressive disorders as

compared to males (Bebbington, 1996; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987).

Pioneer researches in the field human psychology revealed that

women had more negative emotions than men as suggested in a

nationwide survey conducted by (Field, Gurin, & Veroff, 1960). In

adolescents same case is prevalent even today. It is also evident

from previous researches that men embrace their anger and utilize

it for their benefits but usually women cannot use it as productive.

But some researchers have reported that women have more

interactions with the anger and frustrations situations they become

more skilled to deal with and act accordingly (von Arb et al.,

2009).

Many researchers have depicted in their researches that age

has significant impact on having depression and its intensity. There

are some controversies regarding direction of relationship between

age and depression. As some suggested that depression increases

as age increases (Luppa et al., 2012) but some other reported

opposite results in their studies (Bebbington, 1996; Cipriani et al.,

2009; Jorm, 2000; Rodgers et al., 2000; Wade, Cairney, & Pevalin,

2002). It is observed that age has strong impact on individual’s

emotional life and its stability. Lorr (1989) revealed that young

adults have very high level of competency, physical abilities and

intellectual abilities which need lot of transitional changes as well

(Lorr, 1989). Adolescents are at high risk in getting anxiety and

other psychological problems ( Burke, Burke, Regier, & Rae,

1990). It is also assumed that as the age increases, individual’s


38

ability of coping with psychological issues will increases and

subsequently decreases the level of anxiety. Some studies also

suggested that social anxiety disorders prevailed in young age or

adolescence (Kessler et al., 2005; Tsang et al., 2008). There are

some indications in literature that older persons reported lower

levels of anger in their routine lives than their younger counterparts

(McConatha, Leone, & Armstrong, 1997; Schieman, 1999).

Theoretically it has been observed in scientific researches

that male child is treated differently as compared to female child.

Females usually have different socialization patterns and social

restriction than males which ultimately creates differences. This

difference will lead towards more disruptive behavior in males

than females (Abikoff et al., 2002). Literature has shown that as

age increases students become mature and their attitude towards

classroom conflicts and other such activities which are considered

as disruptive behavior are reduced. It means age has positive

impact on the reduction of this negative behavior. Here are some

researches which depict that age has positive impact on the

disruptive behavior of students (Kochanska, Brock, Chen, Aksan,

& Anderson, 2014; Tremblay et al., 1992). A study concluded that

boys performed better almost two times in groups as compared to

girls (Thomas, Ricciardelli, & Williams, 2000). A large scale

German study results showed that there is no relationship between

age with self concept and self esteem. Impact of age is invariant

for different grades and gender (Arens & Hasselhorn, 2013). In the

light of above review a need was felt to see how Pakistani youth

show these emotional and social problems.

Findings of a study showed that females have more

tendency of having serious psychological distress as compared to

men. This relationship exists in all ages. In early ages its intensity

is low and then increases with age. This study has shown that age


39

and gender has strong impactt on psychological distress and its

types (Matud et al., 2014).

Objectives of this study are threefold: Firstly to identify the

pattern of emotional and social problems prevailing in Pakistani

Youth. Secondly to study the age and gender differences in

adolescents with regard to Anxiety, Depression, Anger, Disruptive

Behavior, and Self-Concept, thirdly to see a pattern of correlation

among these variables.

Method

Sample

The target population of this study was comprised of

Pakistani adolescents studied in different colleges of Rawalpindi

and Islamabad. Sample of the study consisted of 300 adolescent

(150 girls and 150 boys). Their age ranged between 14 and 19

years. Age range was further divided into two groups’ early

adolescents (14-16 years) and late adolescents (17-19 years). They

were selected through convenient sampling technique.

Instrument

Beck Youth Inventories (BYI). Second edition of the Beck

youth inventories was developed by Beck, Beck, Jolly, and Steer in

2005. Items are scaled from 0 (Never) to 3 (Always). It consists of

five subscales, twenty-item in each subscale of 100 items in five

subscales. Each of the five inventories contains 20 statements each

about thoughts, Feelings or behaviors associated with emotional

and social impairment in children and adolescents. The scales are

written at a second grade reading level. The five scales include:

1. Beck Depression Inventory for Youth (BDI-Y). This

inventory is designed to identify symptoms of depression in

children and adolescents including negative thoughts about


40

self or life, and future; feelings of sadness; and

physiological indications of depression.

2. Beck Anxiety Inventory for Youth (BAI-Y). The items in this

inventory reflect adolescent’s fears, worrying, and

physiological symptoms associated with anxiety.

3. Beck Anger Inventory for Youth (BANI-Y). The items in this

inventory include perceptions of mistreatment, negative

thoughts about others, feelings of anger and physiological

arousal.

4. Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth (BDBI-Y).

Behaviors and attitudes associated with Conduct Disorder

and oppositional defiant behavior are included.

5. Beck Self-Concept Inventory for Youth (BSCI-Y). The items

in this inventory explore self-perceptions such as

competency, potency and positive self-worth.

Procedure

The study was conducted on the sample of 300 students

from different school and colleges of Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

The research protocols were administered individually on students

in their designated classrooms. Consent was taken from the

students before filling the questionnaires.


41

Results

Table 1

Correlation between Self concept Inventory, Depression Inventory,

Anxiety Inventory, Anger Inventory, Disruptive behavior Inventory

(N=300)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5

1. BSCI - -.293** -.56** -.47** -.47**

2. BAI - .48** .49** .41**

3. BDI - 81** .75**

4. BANI - .78**

5. BDBI -

**p<.01

Note. BSCI= Bec Self-Concept Inventory; BDI = Beck Depression

Inventory;BAI= Beck Anxiety Inventory; BANI=Beck Anger Inventory for

Youth; BDBI=Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth.

Table 1 is presenting the nature of correlation between Self

concept, Depression, Anxiety, Anger and Disruptive behavior. It is

evident that self concept is inversely related with other negative

dimensions of psychological distress. Similarly Anxiety had significant

positive relationship with depression. Anxiety had significant positive

relationship with anger. It also had significant positive relationship with

disruptive behavior and anger. Anger and disruptive behavior is also

positively related with each other.


42

Table 2

Differences in Depression, Anxiety, Anger, Self concept and Disruptive

behavior among adolescents male and female (N=300)

Boys (n =150) Girls ( n = 150) 95%CL

Variables M SD M SD t(298) p LL UL

BDI 59.30 11.70 58.11 11.15 .90(298) .36 -1.40,3.79

BAI 64.11 7.86 59.49 9.09 4.71(298) .00 2.69,6.55

BANI 56.45 9.88 57.14 9.94 -.61(298) .55 -2.95,1.56

BSCI 46.62 8.89 48.83 10.19 -1.1(298) .27 -3.39,.96

BDBI 64.19 17.18 70.33 16.97 -3.1(298) .00 -10, -2.5

Note. BSCI= Bec Self-Concept Inventory; BDI = Beck Depression

Inventory;BAI= Beck Anxiety Inventory; BANI=Beck Anger Inventory for

Youth; BDBI=Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth *p<.05, **p<.01

Table 2 indicates gender differences was found in two

areas, for example on BAI t(298)= 4.71, p < .001 and BDBI

t(298)= -3.1, p < .001 with males having higher scores on anxiety

than females and females scored higher on disruptive behavior as

compared to males.


43

Table 3

Differences in Depression, Anxiety, Anger, Self concept and Disruptive

behavior among Early and Late adolescent (N=300)

Early adolescents

(n=158)

Late adolescents

(n=142)

95%CL

Variables M SD M SD t(df) p LL UL

BDI 52.97 9.73 65.08 9.67 -10.8 .00 -14.3,-9.9

BAI 59.13 9.0 64.7 7.54 -5.8 .00 -7.5,-3.7

BANI 51.8 8.63 62.3 8.25 -.10.6 .00 -12.3, -8.4

BSCI 51.5 8.80 44.5 9.06 -6.8 .00 4.97,9.03

BDBI 59.4 15.3 76.13 15.09 -9.5 .00 20.2, -13.3

Note. BSCI= Bec Self-Concept Inventory; BDI = Beck Depression Inventory;

BAI= Beck Anxiety Inventory; BANI=Beck Anger Inventory for Youth;

BDBI=Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth.

Table 3 indicates that age differences were found in all

areas, early adolescents showed less depression, anxiety, anger and

disruptive behavior as compared to old adolescents whereas, early

adolescents showed more positive self concept than old

adolescents.


44

Discussion

Contrary to previous researches, this study indicated some

interesting results. As evident from literature there is no

relationship between age and self concept or self esteem (Arens &

Hasselhorn, 2013) our results, however, suggested that positivity

of self concept decreased with age (Table 2). Pakistani adolescents

usually perceive their selves from the eyes of others, their social

self is more important and hence as they are maturing in age they

become more critical about themselves and less self assured. The

demands from the environment enhances as parents usually want

them now to take the responsibility; while peer group demands for

more independent roles confirming the social norms of the group.

Further they start to be more conscious about their outlook. These

stressors may create social distress, as well as a fear of negative

evaluation. (Craske, 2003). They show negative emotions like

anxiety and depression.

The results of this study showed that age has strong impact

on anxiety and depression (Table 2). Previous studies are in line

with this notion that in Pakistan the age range of 15 to 17 is an age

which puts a lot of pressure on boys, as their roles in the society

start converting from dependent to more independent one. They are

expected to be as dependent and submissive as they were before

and at the same time also get the pressure from peer group for

more independent and autonomous role (Ahmad & Zakia, 2013).

The stressors of physical and emotional changes along with the

stress of role demands to a growing child put the pressure of social

evaluation and expectations, which may result in vulnerability to

social anxiety. Recent studies also maintained that late adolescents

group has high scores and level of depression, anxiety. As some

studies suggested that depression increases as age increases (Luppa

et al., 2012). Co morbidity between anxiety and depressive

disorders in adolescents is also present (Merikangas et al., 2011).


45

The results of this study also showed that age has a strong

relationship with disruptive behavior and anger (Table 2). Previous

literature has shown that as age increases students become mature

and their attitude towards classroom conflicts and other such

activities which are considered as disruptive behavior are reduced.

Some researches which depict that age has positive impact on the

disruptive behavior of students (Kochanska, Brock, Chen, Aksan,

& Anderson, 2014; Kuperman et al., 2014; Tremblay et al., 1992).

However, older children are more likely to use aggression to react

to threats to their self-esteem. Depression, anger and self concept

were not significantly different in males and females (Scott et al.,

2010). As children age, their reactions to insults, putdowns, and

other threats to their self-concept become more important triggers

of aggressive behavior (U.S. Department of Justice, 2000).

Moreover it is suggested that males score higher in anxiety

than females (Table 1). In literature different findings are observed

about the disruptive behavior in males or females. Few researches

have suggested that women have almost twice the risk of having

anxiety disorders than men if they both do same thing. Like

women have more element of social phobia, hormonal problems

phobia and some other types of anxiety disorders are also common

in women. Whereas some studies opined that male child is treated

differently as compared to girl babies and hence females usually

have different socialization patterns and social restriction than

males which ultimately creates differences. This difference will

lead towards more disruptive behavior in males than females

(Abikoff et al., 2002).

Further results showed that females scored higher on

disruptive behavior than males (Table 1) which reflects that

Pakistani females express their emotions outwardly and vent off

more as compared to their male counterparts. Previous researches

findings showed that girls begin to express more externalizing


46

emotions than boys in adolescence may reflect a trend for girls to

be more expressive than boys of emotions overall as they reach

adolescence. It may also reflect a recent change in gender roles for

adolescent girls. For example, Brown (1999) has argued that anger

and other externalizing emotion expressions have become more

common among adolescent girls in recent years.

The results also showed that anxiety is positively related

with depression, anger and disruptive behavior (Table 3). Previous

researches have suggested that adolescents suffer from depression

leading to feeling of loneliness and sad. Studies have also indicated

that adolescents with depression also experience symptoms such as

hopelessness, self blame, suicidal thoughts, low self esteem, anger

and irritable behavior (Elgard & Arlett, 2002). Moreover, previous

studies indicated that depression and anxiety are correlated

(Kashani & Orvaschel, 1988). This study will be useful in

providing awareness about emotional and social difficulties in

adolescents. Knowledge about gender or age related differences in

self concept, self esteem, anger, anxiety, depression, disruptive

behavior and their relationship might provide valuable knowledge

for designing effective self esteem enhancement and distress

mitigation interventions.

Conclusion

On the basis of study findings it’s concluded that gender is

important variable in playing role in creating variation with respect

to dimensions (anxiety and disruptive behaviors) of psychological

distress. Anxiety level in males is higher than females and

disruptive behavior is higher in females. Age had significance

influence in all the dimensions of psychological distress.


47

Limitations and suggestions

This study was limited to Pakistani adolescents of

Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Therefore the results of this study may

not be generalized to country level. Time duration was one of the

major limitations of this study. It is suggested to work with larger

sample of adolescents for more generalized findings for future

studies.

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second chance in the second decade: summary.


52

Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of

Pakistani Adults

Sonia Bibi, Dr. Sobia Masood,


Mustanir Ahmad

Hazara University, Mansehra – Pakistan

Sana Bukhari


The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between self-compassion

and adjustment among married individuals. Sample comprised of 263 married

individuals (130 women, 133 men), living in Islamabad and Rawalpindi, with an

age range from 20 to 60 years (M = 79.43, SD = 10.36). Purposive and

convenience sampling technique was employed for data collection. Self-

Compassion was measured by using the Urdu version of Self-Compassion Scale

(Imtiaz, 2010), and Dyadic Adjustment was measured using Urdu version of

Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Naseer, 2000). Results of the study showed that there

was a significant positive relationship between self-compassion and marital

adjustment. It was also found that self-kindness, self-judgment, and over-

identification were the significant predictors for marital adjustment. Men and

women did not show any significant differences in self-compassion and marital

adjustment. Duration of marriage was found to be positively related with Self-

Compassion. It was also found that, individuals having masters or above

qualification reported more isolation as compared to individuals with lower

education. Results showed that people with arranged marriages reported more

self-kindness as compared to those with love marriages. The implication of this

study in counseling and domestic settings are discussed.

Keywords. Self-Compassion, Adjustment, Married individuals


2. Assistant Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan

3. Hazara University, Mansehra – Pakistan


Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Sobia Masood, National Institute of Psychology,

Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad , Pakistan. Email: [email protected].


Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults

53

Psychology has long been focused on exploring how an

individual’s thoughts and feelings about themselves can affect their

functioning within interpersonal relationships. In this regard, the

construct of self has always received much attention (Neff & Beretvas,

2013). Self-compassion has generated an interest in social scientists in

relation to a range of psychological indicators such as happiness, life

satisfaction, increased well-being, and adaptive psychological

functioning (Neff, Krikpatrick, & Rude, 2007; Hollis-Walker &

Colosmio, 2011). Self-compassion has also been recognized as a coping

strategy, as well as a buffering agent against depression and anxiety

(Raes, 2010). Self-compassion is a construct which works as a coping

mechanism (Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, & Hancock, 2007). It has been

seen that individuals that are high in self-compassion show more

optimism in their behaviors as compared to others. In addition to that, in

comparison to attachment style and trait self-esteem, self-compassion is

more affiliated with prosocial behavior (Neff & Beretvas, 2013).

Self-compassion is defined as, showing kindness towards one’s

own-self and learning from one’s previous experiences, instead of being

self-critical for one’s failure or suffering from common distress (Neff,

2003). Most of the researchers posit that self-compassion is a more

helpful and sophisticated way of bringing happiness in an individual’s

life. Researches indicate that people who are more compassionate

towards themselves improved their life more fruitfully as compared to

those who were more self-critical, since it is related to stable and long-

lasting emotions of safety and self-respect. It has also been shown that

self-compassionate people handle distressing situations in their lives in a

positive and constructive manner (Leary et al., 2007).

A study also established that individuals who are more self-

compassionate are more likely to cooperate or compromise in

disagreement or controversial circumstances with others, at the same

time as compared to those individuals who are less self-compassionate

they are inclined to be minimize their needs towards others (Yarnell &

Neff, 2013).


54

Research consistently associates self-compassion with reduced

levels of anxiety and depression. The reason for this association could be

that, self-compassion reduces self-blame in a person, which is one of the

major causes of depression and anxiety (Blatt, 1995).

Since self-compassion is linked to a number of positive

constructs, researches have explored its relationship with marital

adjustment as well. Marital adjustment refers to feelings of pleasure and

cohesion between spouses (Mukerjee & Sinah, 1990). Marital

adjustment is closely related to marital quality, marital satisfaction, and

as well as marital happiness. This construct is one of the most explored

domains in the literature of family research. One cause for the persistent

consideration of this concept might be that marital adjustment is not

merely linked to good individual and relational competence, rather it is

also linked to overall happiness in life. Scientists have paid much

attention to understanding the factors that play a role in the success of a

marriage and which cause its failure.

Self-compassionate people live their life in a more meaningful and

hopeful manner, in which they overcome their life stressors or problems

as a challenge rather than as a problem. It has significant importance at

the individual level and interpersonal or relational level. Self–

compassion comes helps increase and enhance interpersonal

relationships including marital relationships. According to Neff and

Beretvas (2013), those individuals who are more self-compassionate,

depict their spouse as more close and supportive as compared to those

who lack self-compassion. More self-compassionate partners or spouses

tend to be more satisfied in their relationships. The reason for it can be

that, self-compassionate people have more emotional resources which

are made available to their partners, along with care and

support.Unfortunately, the institution of marriage is in jeopardy

throughout the world, and Pakistan has not been immune to it; divorce

rate in Pakistan is at an all-time high (Karim & Janjuah, 2015). Which is

why it is important to investigate the important factors that may

potentially contribute to negativity in marital relationships. In addition to


55

that it is also absolutely crucial to study the variables that may help

strengthen the bond between spouses. Therefore, in this study, keeping

the scope narrow and precise, the relationship between self-compassion

and marital adjustment is examined, with the supposition that self-

compassion enhances and improves marital relationship. Furthermore,

gender differences across study variables were also explored.

Method

Objectives

This study was designed to fulfill the following objectives:

1. To investigate the relationship between self-compassion and

marital adjustment.

2. To explore the gender differences in self-compassion and marital

adjustment.

Hypotheses

Following are the hypotheses of the present study:

1. There will be a positive relationship between self-compassion and

marital adjustment.

2. Women will score higher on self-compassion as compared to

men.

3. Men will report higher marital adjustment as compared to women.

Sample

A sample of 263 married individuals, 130 women (49.4%) & 133

(50.6%) men; age ranging from 20 to 60 (M = 79.43l, SD = 10.36) was

approached in the cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi through the use of

purposive convenience sampling technique. The sample was diverse in

terms of education level, with 11.4% of the sample having 10 years of

education, 41.4% having up to 14 years of education, and 46% of the

population having 16 years of education. The sample was also


56

categorized on the basis of marriage type, including love marriage

(31.2%), arranged marriage (51.7%) and both love and arranged

(17.1%). Lastly, 43.3% of the sample belonged to a joint family system

and 44.5% belonged to nuclear family system.

Instruments

In order to fulfill the objectives of this study the following instruments

were used:

Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). It was originally developed by

Neff (2003) and then later translated into Urdu and adapted by Imtiaz

(2012). The Urdu version of SCS was used in the present study. This

scale contains 25 items with six subscales including Self-kindness (items

no. 5, 12, 18,22 & 25), Self-judgment (items no. 1, 8, 11, 15, & 19),

Common humanity (items no.3, 7 &10), Isolation (items no.4, 13, 17, &

24), Mindfulness (items no. 9, 14, 16, & 21), and Over-identification

(items no. 2, 6, 19, & 23). It is a five-point Likert scale with response

categories ranging from (1) almost never to (5) almost always. Items no.

1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24 were reverse scored. Previous

studies have shown SCS to have excellent internal consistency. Previous

studies have shown SCS to have an excellent internal consistency (r =

.92) (Neff, 2003).

Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). Dyadic Adjustment Scale

(DAS) is a self-report questionnaire of marital adjustment. It was

originally developed by Spanier (1976) and it was adapted and translated

into Urdu by Naseer (2000). In the present study Urdu version of DAS

was used. This scale is comprised of 27 items with four subscales

including Dyadic Consensus (items no. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13),

Affectional Expression (items no. 2, 4, & 26), Dyadic Satisfaction

(items; 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, 20, & 27), and Dyadic Cohesion (items no.;

21, 22, 23, 24, & 25). Item number 1-20, 22, 23, 24 and 25 were

reported on 6-point rating scale ranging from (0) never to (5) always.

Item number 21 was rated on a 4-point rating scale ranging from (0) no


57

one to (4) everyone. Item number 26 was dichotomous with (1) for yes

and (2) for no. High scores indicated high marital adjustment. In this

scale item 14, 15, 18, 19, & 2, were reversed scored. Naseer (2000)

reported satisfactory reliability of Urdu version of the scale i.e., α =.80.

Research Design

The present research was a co-relational study, employing survey

method for data collection.

Procedure

For the purpose of data collection, participants were approached

and were informed about the purpose of this study in detail. Special

emphasis was given to the potential implications of this study. Since the

study is concerned with marital adjustment, only married individuals

were approached. Participants were also provided with an information

sheet about the topic and purpose of this study. A consent form was then

given to the participants, which they were asked to sign as a written

proof of their voluntary participation. Each questionnaire booklet

contained a demographic sheet as well. Ethical considerations were kept

in mind throughout the data collection procedure. Participants were

assured that they had the to quit the study at any time without any

consequences. They were also told that they were allowed as much as

time as they required and that their responses shall be kept confidential

and anonymous, and the information provided by them will be used

solely for research purposes.

After data collection, all the data was analyzed using SPSS

version 21. Throughout the course of data collection, a total of 300

questionnaires were distributed while only 285 were returned. Out of

these, 22 questionnaires incomplete and thus were excluded from the

study. Therefore, the overall response rate came to 87.66%.


58

Results

In order to draw any results from the data collected for this study

it was important to first determine whether the instruments, that were

used, had adequate reliability. For this purpose, Cronbach’s Alpha

coefficient was calculated (see Table 1). The results show that all scales

and their subscales display acceptable internal consistencies, considering

very low item count of some subscales.

Following that, the relationship between study variables was

explored (see Table 1), in order to determine the direction and strength

with which study variable were related to each other. Results show that

self-compassion has a significant positive relationship with its all

subscales. Pearson product moment correlation also shows that self-

compassion and dyadic adjustment has a significant positive correlation.

This finding provided support for the hypothesis number 1 of this study.

It can also be seen that self-compassion is significantly positively

related with subscales of dyadic adjustment, including Dyadic

Satisfaction and Dyadic Cohesion while it shows nonsignificant

relationship with Dyadic Consensus and Affectional Expression. Table 1

also shows that Dyadic Adjustment is significantly positively related

with Self-Kindness, Isolation, Mindfulness and Over-Identification

while it shows non-significant relationship with self-judgment and

common humanity.


59

Table 1

Correlations among Dimensions of Self-Compassion and Dyadic Adjustment (N=263)

Note. SCS = Self-Compassion Scale; SK = Self-kindness; SJ = Self-judgment; CH = Common Humanity; ISO = Isolation; MI = Mindfulness; OI

= Over-Identification; DAS = Dyadic Adjustment Scale; DC = Dyadic Consensus; AE = Affectional Expression; DS = Dyadic Satisfaction; DCO

= Dyadic Cohesion **p<.01 and *p<.05.

Scales Items α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 SCS 25 .71 - .58** .58** .28** .60** .53** .68* .40** .05 .14 .26** .13*

2 SK 5 .60 - -.26 .38** -.06 .53** .06 .41** .13* .11 .27** .24**

3 SJ 5 .53 - -.25** .57** -.08 .65** .10 .04 .14 .08 .01

4 CH 3 .53 - -.21** .37** -.14* .16 -.42 -.44 .09 .08

5 ISO 4 .60 - -.05 .63** .19** .05 .14 .06 -.02

6 MI 4 .64 - .04 .26** -.94 -.56 .15* .11

7 OI 4 .54 - .30** .09 .17* .22** .02

8 DAS 27 .89 - .87** .27** .82** .57**

9 DC 11 .87 - .21* .46** .32**

10 AE 3 .78 - .28** .16

11 DS 8 .78 - .41**

12 DCO 5 .71 -


60

Table 2

Multiple Regression Analysis predicting dyadic adjustment from subscales of

Self-Compassion (N = 263)

Note. CI = Class Interval; LL = Lower Limit; UL = Upper Limit; SK = Self-

Kindness; SJ = Self-Judgment; CH = Common Humanity; ISO = Isolation; MI

=Mindfulness; OI = Over-Identification.

***p < .001; *p < .05

Table 2 shows that self-kindness and over identification

significantly positively predict dyadic adjustment. Whereas self-

judgement shows to be a significant negative predictor. Insignificant

results were shown by the subscales of common humanity, isolation

and mindfulness. In the end, it can be seen that 20% variance was

accounted for, in this regression model.

Predictor

B

SE

β

95% CI

LL UL

Constant 42.22 11.67 19.12 65.33

SK 1.68 .48 .32*** .72 2.65

SJ -.61 .54 -.11* -1.69 .47

CH .48 .68 .05 -.87 1.83

ISO .34 .64 .05 -.93 1.61

MI .40 .60 .06 -.78 1.59

OI 1.58 .65 .26*** .27 2.88

R2 .23

ΔR2 .20


61

Table 3

Mean Differences across Gender on Self-Compassion and Dyadic Adjustment

(N=263)

Scales

Men

(n=133)

Women

(n=130)

95% CI

M SD M SD t p LL UL Cohen’s d

SCS 78.87 10.66 80.01 10.06 .89 .37 -1.37 3.65 0.11

SK 15.91 3.83 15.68 3.57 .51 .60 -1.13 .665 0.08

SJ 15.22 3.33 15.93 3.65 .16 .10 -1.38 1.56 0.20

CH 9.65 2.21 9.18 2.47 1.62 .10 -1.04 .099 0.21

ISO 12.20 3.18 12.98 3.30 1.93 .05 -.012 1.56 0.21

MI 12.65 2.95 12.58 3.09 .19 .85 -.80 .66 0.03

OI 13.29 3.04 13.38 3.07 .24 .80 -.65 .83 0.03

DAS 97.25 20.5 94.46 19.75 .80 .42 -9.67 4.09 0.13

DC 49.34 8.76 46.60 9.12 2.48 .01 -4.91 -.56 0.30

AE .4828 .504 .4872 .503 .051 .96 -.168 .17 0.00

DS 32.40 7.06 30.50 7.19 2.15 .03 -3.62 -.16 0.26

DCO 16.61 5.26 15.59 5.31 1.56 .12 -2.30 .26 0.21

Note. CI = Class Interval; LL = Lower Limit; UL = Upper Limit; SCS=Self-

Compassion Scale; SK=Self-kindness; SJ=Self-judgment; CH=Common Humanity;

ISO=Isolation; MI=Mindfulness; OI=Over-Identification; DAS=Dyadic Adjustment

Scale; DC=Dyadic Consensus; AE=Affectional Expression; DS=Dyadic Satisfaction;

DCO = Dyadic Cohesion.

Table 3 illustrates mean differences in study variables across

gender. It can be seen that there is a significant difference in the means

of Isolation, Dyadic Consensus and Dyadic Satisfaction. Where women

score higher on Isolation and men score higher on Dyadic Cohesion as

well as Dyadic Satisfaction. There were no significant gender

differences across any other study variable.


62

Discussion

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

between self-compassion and adjustment among married individuals.

The study also looked into the role of gender self-compassion and

marital adjustment. For this purpose, two scales; Self-Compassion

Scale (Imtiaz, 2012), and Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Naseer, 2000)

were used.

The first hypothesis of this study stated that there will be a

positive relationship between self-compassion and marital adjustment,

this hypothesis was tested by using Pearson Product Moment. The

results of the correlation analysis provided support for this hypothesis

(see Table 1). Thus, the present study suggests that practicing self-

compassion may enhance relationships or maintain their interpersonal

adjustment respectively. This result is in accordance with the previous

work done on self-compassion and relationship maintenance (Baker &

Mcnulty, 2001; Jami & Kamal, 2017; Kalsoom, Masood, & Jami,

2017). In that study too, the results indicated positive correlation

between self-compassion and marital adjustment among men and

women. In that study results shows that among women, as compared to

men, were more likely to be naturally more motivated to maintain their

relationships for cultural and or biological reasons.

Multiple regression analysis was carried out using the subscales

of Self-Compassion to see which components of self-compassion

strongly predicted marital adjustment. The results revealed that Self-

Kindness was the strongest positive predictor of marital adjustment.

Previous researches have suggested that marital adjustment is positively

associated with positive affect while it is negatively correlated with

negative affect (Celik & Iskender, 2015; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel,


&

Gul, 2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, & Amin,

2017).


63

Second hypothesis of this study stated that women will show

higher self-compassion than men. In order to test it, that independent

sample t-test was computed on study variables across gender. However,

the results did not support this hypothesis, showing no significant

gender differences.

Hypothesis number 3 proposed that men would show more

marital adjustment as compared to women. The findings revealed

significant gender differences on two subscales of marital adjustment,

showing that men scored higher on more Dyadic Consensus and Dyadic

Cohesion; thus, supporting the 3rd

hypothesis of this study. This finding

is in line with previous literature (Gaur & Bhardwaj, 2015; Nema,

2013).

Limitations and Suggestions

Following are the limitations of the present study that future

researchers are encouraged to rectify for more reliable results.

1. The sample was limited to the cities of Rawalpindi and

Islamabad. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalized to the

overall population of Pakistan. Future researchers are suggested

to take sample from all over Pakistan, in order to increase

generalizability.

2. There could be the element of biasness on the part of

respondents as the scales were of self-report nature.

3. This study is based on a purely quantitative research design,

thus in-depth investigation was not possible. Future studies with

these variables are recommended to use a qualitative research

design, like conducting interviews.

Implications of the Study

The finding of the present study can help married individuals

can enhance their lives while becoming better adjusted with their

spouses. People having self-compassion tend to be optimistic thinkers

and learn from their previous mistakes and improve their lives. Self-


64

compassionate individuals deal with their life stressors more effectively

or in a balanced way as compared to self-critical people. They are more

kind and understanding not only to themselves but also to those around

them. Self-compassionate individuals show less aggressive behaviors

and have fewer conflicts in their marital relationship. Thus, marriage

counselors can help couples work on their self-compassion in order to

enhance their marital adjustments.

Conclusion

Overall the results of present study suggested that self-

compassion plays an important role in interpersonal adjustment and in

relationship buildings, especially marital relationships. It is suggested

from the findings of the present study that men show more marital

adjustment as compared to women. In addition to that it was also seen

that self-compassion was an important contributor in improving and

enhancing interpersonal relationship outcomes. According to Neff and

Beretvas (2013), individuals with more self-compassion express greater

psychological association with their partners, more acceptance,

autonomy and less isolation and conflict. Although, this area of

research requires more investigation, the findings of the present study

can prove to be useful for counselors, who can conduct training

programs to help individuals become more compassionate towards

themselves as well as with others. In this way having a better chance of

leading more productive, and fruitful lives.

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67

The Moderating Role of Pregnancy Status among Coping

Strategies, Depression, Anxiety and Stress across

Pakistani Married Women

Sunita Peter, Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus

Jaffar Abbas, Shanghai University, Baoshan Campus

Muhammad Aqeel, Tanvir Akhtar & Khowla Farooq

Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus

Current study designed to investigate the moderating role of pregnancy status

among coping strategies, stress, anxiety and depression across Pakistani

women. Sample consisted of 200 married women (Pregnant, n= 100; Non-

Pregnant, n=100) with age ranged from 20 to 40 years. Purposive sampling

technique was used based on the cross-sectional research design. The married,

pregnant and non-pregnant women were inquired at the gynecology and

obstetrics department of hospitals in Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Taxila,

Pakistan. Two scales were applied to assess depression, anxiety, stress, active

avoidance coping, problem focused coping, emotional support, religious

coping, in married women. This study revealed that Active Avoidance Coping

was significantly predicting to depression (β=.25, p<.05), anxiety (β=.26,

p<0.5), and stress (β=.26, p<.05) in pregnant women. However, Emotion

focused coping was also significantly predicting to stress (β=.23, p<.05) in

pregnant women. In addition, results also revealed that problem focused

coping was significantly predicting to depression (β=.10, p>.05) and anxiety

(β=.29, p<.05) in pregnant women. Our study analysis revealed that pregnancy

status was playing role of moderator among coping strategies, stress, anxiety

and depression across Pakistani women. This study would be helpful for

health and clinical settings to spread awareness for pregnant women, how to

handle psychological problems with their health issues.

Keyword. Pregnancy, coping strategies, depression, anxiety and stress

1. Department of Psychology, Foundation University, Rawalpindi.

2. Ph.d scholar, Shanghai University, Baoshan Campus, Shanghai China

3. Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus.

4. Head of Psychology Department, Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus.

5. Department of Psychology, Foundation University, Rawalpindi.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sunita Peter Department of

Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus. Email: [email protected].

The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,

Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women

68

Pregnancy is a time of joyfulness in a woman’s life

(Hamilton & Lobel, 2008). However, for some women it can be a

time of stressfulness (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008; Peñacoba‐Puente,

Carmona‐Monge, Marín‐Morales, & Naber, 2013). Along with

social stressors, pregnant women experience changes in their

physique, their interpersonal relationships change and they

experience changes in their self-identity; these changes cause

pregnant women distress (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008).

Coping is the effort made by a person at the cognitive and

behavioral level, in order to deal with the situations that cause

stress and have negative consequences (Lazarus & Folkman,

1984). According to the Lazarus model of coping, there are two

factors; Problem Focused and Emotion Focused Coping (Lazarus

& Folkman, 1984). Problem focused Coping is situation centered,

here the person pays more attention to the solution of the problem,

planning around the problem, and gathering information about the

problem whereas, Emotion-focused Coping is more centered

towards the emotions of a person towards the stressful situation

encountered and how a person feels about themselves and others in

the light of the stressful situation (Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).

Another coping strategy is the Religious Coping strategy, it was

found to be the strongest predictor of high levels of optimism and

religiosity (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008; Jami, & Kamal, 2017;

Kalsoom, Masood, & Jami, 2017; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel,


& Gul, 2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, &

Amin, 2017). In a study Mikulincer and Florian (1999), found that

women who used Avoidant Coping had weak attachments to their

fetuses and also had low mental health, specifically in the first

trimester of their pregnancies.

Numerous prior studies have looked at ways women cope

with stress during pregnancy. The studies already conducted on the

pregnant sample with regards to their coping strategies of choice,



69

include pregnancies with a risk factor that is detrimental to the

health and wellbeing of the mother and the child (Demyttenaere,

Maes, Nijs, Odendael, & Van Assche, 1995; Geerinck‐Vercammen

& Kanhai, 2003; Lowenkron, 1999). Other literature that is

available, includes teenage pregnancies or pregnancies induced

through the in-vitro system of fertilization (Baor & Soskolne,

2010; Kirchner, Muñoz, Forns, Peñarrubia, & Balasch, 2011;

Lukse & Vacc, 1999).

Given the findings of past researches, it is clear that the

Active Avoidant Coping is a dangerous mechanism employed by

pregnant women while the Emotion Focused Coping yield positive

results on account of reducing stress (Rudnicki, Graham,

Habboushe, & Ross, 2001).

Pregnancy brings about a joyful time in a woman’s life, but

it can be stressful for some as well (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008). A

very high number of women experience symptoms of Depression

during their pregnancy (de Tychey et al., 2005) and Stress

(Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).

Pregnant women also experience Anxiety this brings about

Dysfunction in their life activities (Benner, 2000). It is found that

Major Depressive Disorder, is a chronic and recurrent illness (Judd

et al., 1998), in women aged 15 to 44 years of age, in developed

and developing regions, globally (Murray & Lopez, 1997),

previous studies reveal that around 30% women, worldwide,

harbor some level of Depression. (Da Costa et al., 2000; Dayan et

al., 2002; Einarson et al., 2001; Evans, Heron, Francomb, Oke, &

Golding, 2001; Gotlib, Whiffen, Mount, Milne, & Cordy, 1989;

Johanson, Chapman, Murray, Johnson, & Cox, 2000; Kelly, Russo,

& Katon, 2001; O'Hara, 1986), it is very unfortunate that although

a very significant number of pregnant women experience

symptoms of Depression, yet they go unobserved and treated

indifferently (Chokka, 2002). All in all, pregnancy is undoubtedly,



70

a stressful time period in a woman’s life (Peñacoba‐Puente et al.,

2013).

Birth complications like low birth weight of the child, poor

neonatal status, premature birth and intrauterine growth retardation

are all consequences of the emotional distress and symptoms of

Depression and Anxiety experienced by the expecting mother

(Abdel-Gawad, Badr, & Shaban, 2005; Berle et al., 2005; Costa,

Brender, & Larouche, 1998; Da Costa et al., 2000; Dole et al.,

2003; Hansen et al., 2000; Hedegaard, Henriksen, Sabroe, &

Secher, 1993; Pagel, Smilkstein, Regen, & Montano, 1990; Rondo

et al., 2003), although negative or unclear findings have also been

reported (Berle et al., 2005; Brooke, Anderson, Bland, Peacock, &

Stewart, 1989; Hedegaard, Henriksen, Secher, Hatch, & Sabroe,

1996).

Furthermore, it was found that Depression in women was

particularly predominant in at the time of pregnancy and then child

rearing, one such proof is of the women in the United States of

America; 10% of these women meet the diagnostic criteria for

major depressive disorder (Gotlib et al., 1989). There are various

reasons why women who are expecting a child may fall into

Depression, problems in the marital life, an unplanned or unwanted

conception and past history of depression in the family, all become

factors that make pregnant women vulnerable to Depression

(Kitamura, Shima, Sugawara, & Toda, 1993). Treatment for

Depression includes the use of selective serotonin re-uptake

inhibitor and the traditional tricyclic antidepressant drugs, it is seen

that they are highly effective in treatment (Kumar, Marks, Platz, &

Yoshida, 1995; Montgomery, 1995).

It is observed that women, who belong to minority groups,

use the Avoidance Coping most frequently, in response to

Depression (Rudnicki, Graham, Habboushe, & Ross, 2001).



71

According to Orejudo and Frojan, (2005), women who are not

pregnant tend to use the Problem Focused Coping Strategies more,

they seek social support, gather information and positive

reappraisal, and this supports their wellbeing. The coping strategies

that are maladaptive and cause an increase in the levels of

Depression and Anxiety are avoidance and escape, confrontation,

self-blaming, ruminative thoughts, maximization and exaggerated

emotional response (Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen,

& Wadsworth, 2001; Garnefski, Legerstee, Kraaij, van den

Kommer, & Teerds, 2002; Pakenham, Smith, & Rattan, 2007;

Penley, Tomaka, & Wiebe, 2002; Skinner, Edge, Altman, &

Sherwood, 2003).

Anxiety is another constituent of the psychological distress

felt by pregnant mothers, it is linked with the behavioral and

emotional problems that the child may develop in the course of

their lives (O'connor, heron, glover, & team, 2002).

Stress is a psychological stressor and coping with Stress

and stressful situations is not a singular concept. One of the more

popular concepts of Stress is that it is a process (Lazarus, 1966;

Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The concept of Stress as a process

leads to the assumption that some coping strategies are adaptive

and some are maladaptive in the dealing with stress, while, this is

so, it also implies that coping is situational. Individuals tend to be

subjective in their use of Coping Strategies in relevance to the

stressful situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The assessment and

the research done on Stress and Coping Strategies is strongly

related to the Lazarus mode, however, Lazarus (1999), brought to

attention that there are methodological difficulties in approaching

Stress as a process for all researchers. In the light of this finding,

most researchers focus on the individual coping strategies used by

people when they come across stressful situations rather than,

focusing on the stressor itself.



72

As far as Pregnancy is concerned, most of the research is

done where pregnant women are exposed to the stressors and their

use of coping strategies is analyzed. Past studies show the analysis

of coping strategies in women with high-risk pregnancies

(Demyttenaere et al., 1995; Geerinck‐Vercammen & Kanhai, 2003;

Lowenkron, 1999), teenage pregnancies (Kaye, 2008; Myors,

Johnson, & Langdon, 2001), and in women undergoing in vitro

fertilization (Baor & Soskolne, 2010; Kirchner et al., 2011; Lukse

& Vacc, 1999). In contrast to the situation of an added stressor,

very little is known about the coping strategies used by women

who have normal or minimal stress pregnancies. However, these

previous situations maybe considered for low risk pregnancies as

well because without a doubt, normal or not, pregnancy is a tie of

stressfulness in a woman’s life.

Current study proved to be significant in the fields of

psychology with relation to pregnant women as there is previously

very less research conducted to study the effects of coping

strategies on pregnant women (Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).

Secondly it is important to know whether women with neurotic

tendencies develop the corresponding disorders while pregnant due

to hormonal changes and lack of positive coping strategies.

Furthermore, it is important to study pregnant women and to

determine if their levels of Coping Strategies affect overall mental

health specifically Psychological Distress.

The study is also significant to determine the mental

wellbeing of pregnant women in Pakistan given their treatment by

families and the attitude of health care professionals, which is not

very accommodating for them. This research hopes to change the

attitude of Pakistani’s towards pregnant women.



73

Method

Objectives

1. To study the relationship among coping strategies,

stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and non

pregnant women.

2. To study the moderating role of pregnancy status

among coping strategies, stress, anxiety and depression

in women.

3. Women who are in their 1st and 2

nd trimester are more

predisposed towards Psychological Distress compared

to those women who are in their 3rd

trimester.

Hypotheses

1. Active avoidance coping has a positive relationship with

stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant

women.

2. Emotional focused coping has a positive relationship with


women.

3. Problem focused coping has a negative relationship with


women.

4. Religious Coping has a negative relationship with stress,

anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant

women.

5. Women who are in their 1st and 2

nd trimester are more

predisposed towards Psychological Distress as compared to

those women who are in their 3rd

trimester.

Sample

Purposive sampling technique was used based on cross-

sectional design. Data was collected from Rawalpindi, Taxila and



74

Islamabad hospitals, where 100 pregnant women and 100 non-

pregnant married women of the ages 20-40 years were selected.

Age ranged from 20 to 40 years is best suitable as at this age

women are most likely to be married and pregnant. However over

the age of 40 the chance of medical risks increases (Aasheim,

Waldenström, Rasmussen, Espehaug, & Schytt, 2014) hence the

age limit for the sample is up to 40 years.

Instrument

Brief Cope Scale. It was devised by Carver (1997). It is a

28-item self-report measure of both adaptive and maladaptive

coping skills. The scale yields four subscales; Active Avoidance

Coping (items number: 1, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 16, 19, 21, 26),

Emotional Focused Coping (items number: 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 24,

28), Problem Focused Coping (items number: 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 23,

25) and Religious Coping (items number: 3, 8, 22, 27). The scale’s

developer does not advise a particular method for second-order

factoring and suggests that researchers develop their own models

for second-order factors based on data from individual research

samples.

Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale. It developed by

Lovibond and Lovibond (1995) and translated by Zafar and

Khalily, (2014). Which includes three self-report scales designed

to measure the negative emotional states of depression, anxiety and

stress (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Each of the three scales

contains 14 items, divided into subscales of 2-5 items with similar

content. The Depression scale assesses dysphoria, hopelessness,

devaluation of life, self-deprecation, and lack of

interest/involvement, anhedonia, and inertia (items are: 3, 5, 10,

13, 16, 17, 21, 24, 26, 31, 34, 37, 38, and 42). The Anxiety scale

assesses autonomic arousal, skeletal muscle effects, situational

anxiety, and subjective experience of anxious affect (items are: 2,



75

4, 7, 9, 15, 19, 20, 23, 25, 28, 30, 36, 40, and 41). The Stress scale

is sensitive to levels of chronic non-specific arousal. It assesses

difficulty relaxing, nervous arousal, and being easily

upset/agitated, irritable/over-reactive and impatient (items are: 1, 6,

8, 11, 12, 14, 18, 22, 27, 29, 32, 33, 35, and 39). Respondents are

asked to use 4-point severity/frequency scales to rate the extent to

which they have experienced each state over the past week.

Procedure

The participant were inquired at the gynecology and

obstetrics department of hospitals in Rawalpindi, Islamabad and

Taxila, Pakistan. All the subjects approached and briefed about

the purpose of the current study. The informed consent was taken

before the subjects filled the questionnaires and all their queries,

relevant to the scales and intent of research were answered to the

satisfaction of the pregnant women. The study has been endorsed

by the ethical committee of the Foundation University, Rawalpindi

Campus of Institutional/ethical/ Review Board.

Analysis plan

The data was first entered and computed on Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The reliability of all the

applied scales along with their subscales was also measured on

SPSS. After which correlations between variables were run. To

check the involvement of demographic variables, Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA), was run on SPSS.

To check for the moderating role of Pregnancy among

Coping Strategies and development of Psychological Distress, the

Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) software was used. Two

groups were made based on the sample; pregnant and non-pregnant

women and the regression analysis were run according to the



76

hypothesis that needed to be tested. The results are computed in

their respective tables in the following chapter.

Results

Table 1

Correlation matrix between Coping Strategies and Psychological

Distress in pregnant women (N=100).

M SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 BCS 51.1 10.6 .74 - .868** .789** .787** .619** .540** .475** .602** .433**

2.AAC 13.9 4.6 .45 - .527** .538** .484** .483** .430** .522** .396**

3 PFC 15.3 3.3 .49 - .557** .344** .434** .353** .522** .341**

4 EFC 13.9 3.4 .48 - .303** .439** .377** .438** .404**

5 RFC 7.8 2.1 .41 - .272** .288** .356** .129

6DASS 41.3 25.0 .93 - .912** .919** .938**

7 DS 10.6 8.9 .85 - .753** .775**

8 AS 13.3 8.4 .82 - .805**

9 SS 17.5 9.9 .82 -

Note: Correlation results are reported in this table. BCT= Brief Cope Scale, AAC= Active

Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC= Emotion Focused Coping, RFC=

Religious Focused Coping, DASS= Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, DS= Depression Scale,

AS= Anxiety Scale, SS= Stress Scale.

Table 2

Correlation matrix between Coping Strategies and Psychological

Distress in non-pregnant women (N=100).

M SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 BCS 50.92 9.35 .74 - .803** .652** .708** .666** .400** .389** .327** .392**

2 AAC 14.79 4.18 .45 - .257** .414** .481** .443** .428** .374** .425**

3 PFC 14.76 3.30 .49 - .345** .263** .067 .070 .062 .055

4 EFC 13.34 3.05 .48 - .274** .192 .167 .133 .232*

5 RFC 8.02 2.51 .41 - .429** .437** .353** .396**

6 DASS 48.99 24.71 .93 - .932** .913** .925**

7 DS 13.89 9.25 .85 - .769** .807**

8 AS 15.45 8.83 .82 - .762**

9 SS 19.64 8.67 .82 -

Note: Correlation results are reported in this table. BCS= Brief Cope Scale, AAC= Active

Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC= Emotion Focused Coping, RFC=

Religious Focused Coping, DASS= Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, DS= Depression Scale,

AS= Anxiety Scale, SS= Stress Scale



77

The results revealed that Active Avoidance Coping was

positively significant (p<.01) correlated with Psychological

Distress among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding the

hypothesis 1 which states that “Active Avoidance Coping has a

positive relationship with Psychological Distress in Pakistani

pregnant women” was accepted.

The results revealed that Problem Focused Coping was


Distress among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding the

hypothesis 3 which states that “Problem Focused Coping has a

negative relationship with Psychological Distress in Pakistani

pregnant women” was rejected.

The results reveal that Emotional Focused Coping was


Distress among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding hypothesis 2

which states that “Emotional Focused Coping has a positive

relationship with Psychological Distress in Pakistani pregnant

women” was accepted.

The results revealed that Religious Coping was partially

significant correlated (p<.01, n.s) with Psychological Distress

among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding the hypothesis 4

which states that “Religious Coping has a negative relationship

with Psychological Distress in Pakistani pregnant women” was

partially accepted.



78

Table 3

Trimester wise difference on Depression Anxiety and Stress among

pregnant women (N=200).

1st

trimester

2nd

trimester

3rd

trimester

(n=14) (n=28) (n=59)

Variables M SD M SD M SD F p

DS 15.85 13.38 7.21 4.40 11.00 8.65 4.88 .010

AS 15.57 11.17 14.14 7.53 12.28 8.01 1.08 .341

SS 18.57 11.75 17.08 8.83 17.38 10.03 .108 .898

Note: this table shows difference between psychological distress among

pregnant women with respect to their duration of pregnancy. DS=

Depression Scale, AS= Anxiety Scale, SS= Stress Scale

The table 3 indicates one way analysis of variance for

Psychological Distress for pregnant women in their 1st 2

nd and 3

rd

trimester. The results indicate that Depression was highly

significant among pregnant women. However, Anxiety and Stress

remained non-significant throughout the term of pregnancy. Thus

hypothesis 5 which states that “women who are in their 1st and 2

nd

trimester are more predisposed towards Psychological Distress as

compared to those women who are in their 3rd

trimester was

partially accepted.



79

Figure 1. The moderating role of Pregnancy between Coping Strategies

and development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress

Table 4

The moderating role of Pregnancy between Coping Strategies and

development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress (N=100).

Depression Anxiety Stress

B S.E β B S.E β B S.E β

AAC .481 .228 .249** .484 .194 .266*** .568 .254 .265***

EFC .419 .297 .159 .256 .253 .103 .679 .331 .233*

PFC .276 .300 .104 .728 .255 .291*** .320 .334 .108

RFC .333 .411 .082 .361 .350 .094 -.487 .458 -.108

Note. The table shows the moderation between Coping Strategies and Psychological Distress

across pregnant women. AAC= Active Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC=

Emotion Focused Coping, RFC= Religious Focused Coping.

This AMOS analysis revealed that Active Avoidance

Coping was significant predictor for Depression (β=.249, p<.05),

Anxiety (β=.266, p<0.5), and Stress (β=.265, p<0.5) among

pregnant women. This study also shows that Emotion Focused

Coping was non-significant predictor for Depression (β=.159,



80

p>0.5) and Anxiety (β=.103, p>0.5) across pregnant women.

However, Emotion Focused Coping was significant predictor for

Stress (β=.233, p<0.5) across pregnant women. In addition the

results also showed that Problem Focused Coping was non-

significant predictor for Depression (β=.104, p>0.5) and Stress

(β=.108, p>0.5) but significant predictor for Anxiety (β=.291,

p<0.5) across pregnant women. Lastly, the study revealed that

Religious Coping was non-significant predictor for Depression

(β=.082, p>0.5), Anxiety (β=.094, p>0.5) and Stress (β=-.108,

p>0.5) across pregnant women. Thus the results suggest that

Pregnancy is a partial mediator between Active Avoidance Coping,

Emotion Focused Coping, Problem Focused Coping, Religious

Coping and Depression, Anxiety and Stress.

Figure 2. The moderating role of status of non-pregnancy between

Coping Strategies and development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress



81

Table 5

The moderating role of status of non-pregnancy between Coping

Strategies and development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress (N=100).

Depression Anxiety Stress

B S.E β B S.E β B S.E β

AAC .673 .232 .304*** .607 .233 .288*** .615 .220 .297***

EFC -.049 .299 -.016 -.084 .300 -.029 .218 .283 -.117

PFC -.243 .263 -.087 -.175 .264 -.065 -.308 .250 .077

RFC 1.170 .368 .318*** .842 .369 .240** .909 .349 .264***

Note. The table shows the moderation between Coping Strategies and Psychological Distress across

non-pregnant women. AAC= Active Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC=

Emotion Focused Coping, RFC= Religious Focused Coping.

The results analysis revealed that Active Avoidance Coping

was significant predictor for Depression (β=.304, p<.05), Anxiety

(β=.288, p<0.5), and Stress (β=.297, p<0.5) among non-pregnant

women. This study also shows that Emotion Focused Coping was

non-significant predictor for Depression (β=.016, p>0.5), Anxiety

(β=-.029, p>0.5) and Stress (β=-.117, p>0.5) across non-pregnant

women. In addition the results also showed that Problem Focused

Coping was non-significant predictor for Depression (β=-.087,

p>0.5), Anxiety (β=-.065, p>0.5) and Stress (β=.077, p>0.5) across

non-pregnant women. Lastly, the study revealed that Religious

Coping was significant predictor for Depression (β=.3.18, p<0.5),

Anxiety (β=.024, p<0.5) and Stress (β=.264, p<0.5) across non-

pregnant women. Thus the results suggest that status of non-

pregnancy is a partial moderator between Active Avoidance

Coping, Emotion Focused Coping, Problem Focused Coping,

Religious Coping and Depression, Anxiety and Stress.



82

Discussion

Current study planned to examine among coping strategies,


women. Moreover, to investigate the moderating role of pregnancy

status among coping strategies, stress, anxiety and depression in

women.

The present study results revealed that Active Avoidance

Coping Strategy was positive associated with depression, anxiety

and stress in pregnant women. Regarding to hypothesis no. 1

which stated that Active avoidance coping has a positive

relationship with stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and

non pregnant women was supporting in current study. Previous

study findings were similar with current study results. Numerous

prior studies explained that pregnancy or the conception of a child

leads couples towards parenthood, this brings about a change in

their lives, and for mothers the change includes physical and

psychological change together. Consequently, Pregnancy while

being a time of happiness (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008) also is a time

of Psychological Distress (De-Tychey et al., 2005; Hamilton &

Lobel, 2008; Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013). Previous study also

indicate that the Active Avoidant Coping Strategy is a maladaptive

coping skill (Borcherding, 2009) and it contributes to

psychological distress in pregnant women (Hamilton & Lobel,

2008).

The second aim of the current study was to investigate

emotional focused coping has a positive relationship with stress,

anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant women.

Hypothesis number 2 is also reported in Table 1 of correlation. The

hypothesis have been approved, hence illuminating that the

increased use of the emotion focused coping is maladaptive

(Borcherding, 2009), and leads towards increased level of



83

Psychological Distress in pregnant women (Mulder et al., 2002).

Hence, it is not a beneficial coping strategy and its use should be

avoided, especially by pregnant women as it will have detrimental

effects on the health of the mother as well her expected child. The

results in table 2, for non pregnant women, indicate that, the use of

emotion focused coping will not cause women to develop

Depression and Anxiety. However, the more the orientation of

women is towards emotions, they will be more stressed.

Regarding to hypothesis no. 1 which stated that problem

focused coping has a negative relationship with stress, anxiety and

depression in pregnant and non pregnant women was supporting in

current study. Problem focused coping is a beneficial and adaptive

coping strategy (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008), the hypothesis 3 aimed

to find the negative relationship between Problem Focused Coping

and Psychological distress however the corresponding results to

these hypothesis, reported in table 1 of correlation are disproved

indicating that the Pakistani sample of pregnant women has an

increase in their Psychological Distress with the use of Problem

Focused Coping. Similar results are reported in Table 2 of

correlation for non pregnant women. The more they use Problem

Focused Coping the more psychologically distressed they are.

The results resemble the word of Lazarus and Folkman

(1984), that explains that Problem Focused Coping is not always

beneficial, often times it is an obstacle to the psychological well-

being. Any coping strategy requires an appropriate context for its

use (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), if there is a discrepancy among

the situation and the strategy used to cope with it, it will not yield

beneficial results.

One other aim of this study was to examine the negative

relationship between Religious Coping and Psychological distress.

Religious Focused Coping is a positive approach towards dealing



84

with Psychological Distress (Giurgescu, Penckofer, Maurer, &

Bryant, 2006; Hamilton & Lobel, 2008). The table 1 of correlation

and have been partially disapproved. These results again indicate

that Pakistani pregnant women have an impeding progress towards

psychological well-being with their use of the Religious Focused

Coping. The use of Religious Focused Coping by non pregnant

women is also unhelpful in dealing with Psychological Distress, as

indicated by the results of correlation in table number 2. It is not

always necessary for Religious Coping to be beneficial, sometimes

excessive reliance on one’s spiritual resources alone can cause

increased levels of anxiety and ambiguity (Peñacoba‐Puente et al.,

2013).

An additional aim of this study was to see the role of the

demographic variable; duration of pregnancy, on the levels of

Psychological Distress in pregnant women. For this a trimester

wise categorization was made for expecting mothers. The women

in their 1st trimester have their pregnancy between the first and

third months, women in the 2nd

trimester lie between the fourth an

sixth month of pregnancy while the women in their 3rd

trimester

fall in the seventh to ninth month of pregnancy.

It was aimed to see that women in their 1st and 2

nd trimester

are more psychologically distressed; have high levels of

Depression, Anxiety and Stress, as compared to women in their 3rd

semester. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was run on SPSS to

differentiate between the three groups of pregnant women. The

result of hypothesis number 5 has been reported in table 3 of

ANOVA, it is clear that Depression is highly significant in

pregnant women while Stress and Anxiety remain non-significant.

Thus, hypothesis 5 has been partially accepted. The high levels of

Depression are attributable to the changes a pregnant woman goes

through and the apprehension she feels towards her future and the



85

future of her child (Milgrom et al., 2008; Peñacoba‐Puente et al.,

2013).

Lastly, this study aimed to study the moderating role of

Pregnancy between Coping Strategies and Psychological Distress;

Depression, Anxiety and Stress. Moderation was run on the

Analysis of Moment Structure; (AMOS) software with Pregnancy

as the moderator. The results have been reported in Table 4. It was

found that pregnant women who had employed the Active

Avoidance Coping significantly predicted Psychological Distress.

Their levels of Psychological Distress were high.

Secondly, the results showed that pregnant women who

used Emotion Focused Coping had high levels of Stress and lower

levels of Depression and Anxiety. It was also seen that Problem

Focused Coping was a non-significant predictor of Depression and

Stress, showing that if pregnant women are to use Problem

Focused Coping they will be able to deal with Depression and

Stress, however, it was also seen that Problem Focused Coping

significantly predicted Anxiety. This could be in relevance to

finding the appropriate solution and being apprehensive about its

effectiveness.

Finally, it was seen that Religious Focused Coping is a

non-significant predictor of Psychological Distress in pregnant

women, indicating that pregnant women find relief and peace in

their spiritual resources. Hence, the obtained results have revealed

that Pregnancy is a partial mediator between the four types of

Coping and Psychological Distress. The results add on to the

Lazarus and Folkman (1984), model of coping as it clearly states

that coping is contextual, while some coping strategies like

Problem Focused Coping and Religious Coping might be adaptive

in some situations and become obstacles in other situations similar

is the case with Emotion Focused Coping, however, Active



86

Avoidance Coping remains maladaptive in all situations and is a

negative strategy to use (Borcherding, 2009; Hamilton & Lobel,

2008; Huizink, de Medina, Mulder, Visser, & Buitelaar, 2002;

Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).

The results reported in table 5 are for the moderating role

of the status of non pregnancy on Psychological Distress. It is seen

that the use of Active Avoidance Coping and Religious Focused

Coping has a significant impact on the development of Depression,

Anxiety and Stress, while the use of Emotion Focused Coping and

Problem Focused Coping are an adaptive strategy and they do not

cause the development of Psychological Distress.

Further research should be conducted on pregnant women

regarding their living circumstances and the specific factors that

bring about the psychological distresses. This will be beneficial in

the long term where the root of problems can be targeted and

solutions can be generated.

Implementation

This research proved to be beneficial in the hospital

settings especially in gynecology department as the nurses and the

doctors will be able to understand the emotional and psychological

wellbeing of expecting mother along with their physical wellbeing.

Secondly, the study will help mental health professionals to

understand condition specific mental health issues of pregnant

women and will be able to provide more efficient psycho-

education to their families. In addition this study will prove to be

very helpful for pregnant women as they will be able to

comprehend the emotional changes that occur due to the sole fact

that they have conceived a child. Also, they will be able to choose

more positive coping strategies to overcome their emotional

instability.



87

Moreover, the current study will assist in changing the

mindset of the spouse and other family members of pregnant

women which will consequently enable the providence of a more

comfortable home environment with lesser responsibilities which

automatically contributes to lower levels of Depression, Anxiety

and Stress.

Limitations and Suggestions

The present study was one of the initial attempts to study

the problems of pregnant women in Pakistan, the sample was

collected from the province of Punjab only, and it does not include

the wide ranging sample of the entire country. Moreover, it only

studies the problematic areas of psychological distress, future

studies can employ the investigation of other psychological issues

and problems that Pakistani pregnant women face.

Further research should also be conducted on pregnant

women regarding their living circumstances and the specific

factors that bring about the psychological distresses. This will be

beneficial in the long term where the root of problems can be

targeted and solutions can be generated.

The current study has the sample of adult women who

belong to lower socioeconomic status and were mostly,

uneducated, hence, a point of consideration, for future researches

can be the addition of an educated sample of pregnant women as

well as the inclusion of younger sample of pregnant women in

Pakistan.

Conclusion

It has been identified that pregnancy is although a time of

the anticipation of happy times and the joy of parenthood, it is also

accompanied by Psychological Distress. Different women have

different ways of coping with these problems, some are effective



88

like the Problem Focused Coping while others like the Active

Avoidant Coping is maladaptive. The study has reinforced the

importance of the consideration of the context in which the woman

is living and the use of situation appropriate coping strategies. If

awareness is created upon the matter, familial and social support is

provided and women are given a relaxed atmosphere, there will be

a significant reduction in the psychological distress of pregnant

women and their physical, emotion and psychological well-being

will be insured consequently, ensuring the health and well-being of

their expected offspring.

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