Foundation of Foundation of individual behavior.individual behavior.

Perception and Perception and Attribution.Attribution.

Chapter Learning Chapter Learning ObjectivesObjectives

The overall nature of perception and The overall nature of perception and differentiate between Sensation and perception.differentiate between Sensation and perception.

The student will be able to outline the The student will be able to outline the perceptual process and also able to understand perceptual process and also able to understand the sub processes of perception.the sub processes of perception.

The student will be able to understand the The student will be able to understand the social perception process.social perception process.

The student will be able to explain attribution The student will be able to explain attribution process.process.

The student will be able to identify and explain The student will be able to identify and explain the common perceptual errors. the common perceptual errors.

5-2

What is a Sensation? What is a Sensation?

Sensation refers to the state when Sensation refers to the state when the raw sensory inputs are the raw sensory inputs are registered by our sensory organs.registered by our sensory organs.

Refers to the initial contact between Refers to the initial contact between organisms and their physical organisms and their physical environment.environment.

What is Perception?What is Perception?

A process by which individuals select, A process by which individuals select, organize and interpret their sensory organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.their environment.

People’s behavior is based on their People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.reality itself.

The world as it is perceived is the world The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.that is behaviorally important.

The perceptual processThe perceptual process

External Environment

Feeling Hearing Smelling Touching Tasting

Perceptual selection

Perceptual Organization

Perceptual interpretation

Feedback and Behavior

Perceptual SelectionPerceptual Selection

Refers to the process of selecting Refers to the process of selecting certain stimuli for inclusion in our certain stimuli for inclusion in our conscious experience, or awareness conscious experience, or awareness at any given time.at any given time.

Factors affecting Factors affecting Perceptual Selection Perceptual Selection

PerceptualSelection

External ForcesIntensity

SizeContrast

RepetitionMotion

Novelty orFamiliarity.

Internal ForcesLearningAttitudeMotives Interests

ExpectationsExperience

Perceptual organization.Perceptual organization.

Refers to the process by which Refers to the process by which individuals individuals groupgroup stimuli into stimuli into recognizable patterns or identifiable recognizable patterns or identifiable whole objects. The process can be whole objects. The process can be described in the light of the described in the light of the following principles,following principles,

1.1. Perceptual grouping.Perceptual grouping.

2.2. Figure – Ground.Figure – Ground.

3.3. Perceptual Constancy.Perceptual Constancy.

Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt Psychology.

The principle of grouping of stimuli The principle of grouping of stimuli (Perceptual grouping) has its roots in the (Perceptual grouping) has its roots in the Gestalt psychology which founded in Gestalt psychology which founded in Germany. The group of psychologists who Germany. The group of psychologists who contributed were Max Wertheimer, Kurt contributed were Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. The German Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. The German word Gestalt means form or configuration word Gestalt means form or configuration and the theory maintained that the mind and the theory maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from should be thought of as resulting from the whole pattern of sensory activities the whole pattern of sensory activities and the relationships within this pattern. and the relationships within this pattern.

An Illustration.An Illustration.

Some of the grouping principles Some of the grouping principles based on Gestalt Psychology are,based on Gestalt Psychology are,

1. Principle of Similarity.1. Principle of Similarity.

2. Principle of Proximity.2. Principle of Proximity.

3. Principle of Continuity.3. Principle of Continuity.

4. Principle of Closure.4. Principle of Closure.

Principle of similarity.Principle of similarity.

Objects of the same shape, Objects of the same shape, size ,color tend to be grouped size ,color tend to be grouped together.together.

Principle of Proximity

The tendency to perceive stimuli The tendency to perceive stimuli which are near one another as which are near one another as belonging together.belonging together.

Fig - 1

Fig - 2

Principle of continuity.Principle of continuity.

The tendency to perceive objects as The tendency to perceive objects as continuing patterns.continuing patterns.

Principle of closure.Principle of closure.

Refers to the tendency of filling in Refers to the tendency of filling in gaps or disjointed parts to make the gaps or disjointed parts to make the perceived world more complete.perceived world more complete.

Fig -1 Fig -2

Figure and groundFigure and ground

‘‘Figure and ground’ The most prominent Figure and ground’ The most prominent form of perceptual organization explain form of perceptual organization explain how individual use elements of the scene how individual use elements of the scene which are similar in appearance and shape which are similar in appearance and shape and group them together as a whole. and group them together as a whole.

Similar elements (figure) are contrasted Similar elements (figure) are contrasted with dissimilar elements (ground) to give with dissimilar elements (ground) to give the impression of a whole.the impression of a whole.

Perceived objects stand out as separable Perceived objects stand out as separable from their general background. from their general background.

Visual representation.Visual representation.

A breakdown of figure and ground occurs A breakdown of figure and ground occurs with camouflage, where the objective is to with camouflage, where the objective is to make the figure so much like the ground make the figure so much like the ground that it disappears from view. that it disappears from view.

Perceptual Constancy.Perceptual Constancy.

Refers to the tendency to perceive Refers to the tendency to perceive certain characteristics of an object certain characteristics of an object as remaining constant or stable.as remaining constant or stable.

1. Size Constancy.1. Size Constancy.

2. Shape Constancy.2. Shape Constancy.

3. Color Constancy.3. Color Constancy.

IllusionIllusion

Illusions are perceptions but they do Illusions are perceptions but they do not agree with our other not agree with our other perceptions.perceptions.

Fig – 1

Fig - 2

X Y

(A)

(B)

Social perception.Social perception.

The process of integrating and The process of integrating and interpreting information about interpreting information about others so as to accurately others so as to accurately understand them.understand them.

The two important aspects of Social The two important aspects of Social perceptionperception

1. Social Identity theory.1. Social Identity theory.

2. The Attribution Process.2. The Attribution Process.

Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory

A conceptualization recognizes the A conceptualization recognizes the way we perceive others and way we perceive others and ourselves is based on both our ourselves is based on both our unique characteristics and our unique characteristics and our membership in various groups. membership in various groups.

Personal identity

I am 7 feet tall.I am gregarious.

I am interested in chess.

Social Identity

I am an Indian.I am a student of CSREM.

I am a member of the red cross society.

Attribution theory.Attribution theory.

It refers to the cognitive process by It refers to the cognitive process by which people draw conclusions which people draw conclusions about the factors that influence or about the factors that influence or make sense of another’s behavior.make sense of another’s behavior.

The conscious process of attaching The conscious process of attaching or attributing causes or reasons to or attributing causes or reasons to the actions or events.the actions or events.

Heider’s “Naive” Heider’s “Naive” Psychology.Psychology.

Fritz Heider(1958) proposed the Fritz Heider(1958) proposed the theory which explored how theory which explored how individuals try to understand the individuals try to understand the meaning of other people’s behavior meaning of other people’s behavior with relations to personal and with relations to personal and impersonal factors. impersonal factors.

Kelly’s theory of Causal Kelly’s theory of Causal attribution.attribution.

Kelly’s attribution theory grew out of Kelly’s attribution theory grew out of Haider’s Naïve psychology. The main Haider’s Naïve psychology. The main concern of this theory is how we concern of this theory is how we determine whether an action is caused determine whether an action is caused by internal or external forces.The basic by internal or external forces.The basic method we use to identify the causes of method we use to identify the causes of a particular effect is the presence-a particular effect is the presence-absence test. If presence of a cause absence test. If presence of a cause leads to effect and absence of it does not leads to effect and absence of it does not lead to any effect.lead to any effect.

3 Factors 3 Factors

Kelly Identified 3 basic factors we use in Kelly Identified 3 basic factors we use in deciding the cause of a response.deciding the cause of a response.

1.1. ConsistencyConsistency : The extent to which a : The extent to which a particular response occurs whenever a particular response occurs whenever a situation is present.situation is present.

2.2. Consensus Consensus : The extent to which other : The extent to which other people respond in the same situation and in people respond in the same situation and in the same manner.the same manner.

3.3. DistinctivenessDistinctiveness : The extent to which the : The extent to which the person responds differently in various person responds differently in various situations.situations.

Theory of Attribution.Theory of Attribution.

Consistency

How often did the person acted in this

Way In the past?

Distinctiveness

How often does thePerson act this wayIn other settings?

Consensus

How often do other peopleAct in this way in

Similar situations?

Internal Attribution

External Attribution

FrequentlyHigh consistency

FrequentlyLow distinctiveness

SeldomLow consensus

SeldomLow consistency

SeldomHigh Distinctiveness

FrequentlyHigh consensus

Perceptual Biases Perceptual Biases

The fundamental Attribution Error.The fundamental Attribution Error. Halo Effect.Halo Effect. The Similar to me Effect.The Similar to me Effect. Self Fulfilling Prophecy.Self Fulfilling Prophecy.

The Pygmalion Effect.The Pygmalion Effect.

The Golem Effect.The Golem Effect.

Sterotyping.Sterotyping.