Formation of Early Kingdoms

Formation of Early Kingdoms

Scholars have divided the early kingdoms in the region unto TWO (2) categories: Agrarian kingdoms and Maritime kingdoms.

Dependent on one another. Agrarian kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia

include Dvarati (Menam and Irrawady), Funan (Mekong basin), and Angkor (Mekong basin).

Agrarian kingdoms in island Southeast Asia include Mataram, Kediri, Janghala, Singhasari, and Majapahit.

Characteristics of Agrarian KingdomsCharacteristics of Agrarian Kingdoms

Main centers confined to deltas and river basins (Menam Chao Phraya, Mekong, Irrawady)

Settlements close to water sources and agricultural areas.

Domesticated plants and animals, produce own food but many still nomadic.

A more settled existence. Rivers and seas as main communication routes.

Lives centered around animism and natural environment.

Hinduism and Buddhism altered belief system. High and refined culture. Technological advancement – monuments and

irrigation systems. Diplomatic relations with China and India. Subsistence agriculture for home and local

consumption.

Padi (rice) – the most important food crop. Dry rice: huma, ladang, taungya, chena etc. Wet rice: irrigated, rainfed etc. Also widely believed that the first domesticated

food crops were tubers with padi growing wild. Second and fourth century padi was cultivated

extensively due to the existence of irrigation and water control.

Higher yields possible with wet rice.

Increase in population led to sedentary lifestyle. Some form of urban society evolved dependent

on hinterlands for food. Urban ruling class dominate the agricultural

producers. Angkor – irrigation belonged to the state. Apart from Angkor – kingdom of Funan also

dependent on agricultural activities. Collection of jungle produce also an important

economic activity for barter trading.

In the Malay Peninsular – Kuala Selinsing is thought to have played the role of a port in the collection of jungle produce.

In agrarian kingdoms trading is NOT considered integral to the economy – only when surplus is realized.

Langkasuka is thought to be an agrarian state involved in trading activities.

Characteristics of Maritime KingdomsCharacteristics of Maritime Kingdoms

Actively engaged in TRADING as the most important economic activity.

Notable examples MELAKA and SRIVIJAYA. Srivijaya became an empire, controlled the sea

routes – Straits of Melaka and Sunda. Located near the sea enabled contacts and

external relations with other kingdoms.

Foreign cultures directly assimilated by local inhabitants.

Trade in Southeast Asia closely related with India and China – apart from kingdoms in the region.

Over time trading activities became extensive to include Japan, Banggala, Persia, and Arabia.

Some involved in the collection of sea produce. Also act as collection centers for trade in

agricultural and forest produce from hinterlands.

Factors leading to the expansion of maritime kingdoms: availability of fresh water supply, food, warehousing, docks, security, strategic location of SEA, local seafarers, shipbuilding capabilities etc.

Early stage – most of the maritime kingdoms found in mainland SEA eg. Lngkasuka, Pan-Pan, Tun-Sun, Chih-Tu and Tan Tan.

All played major roles as commercial and trading centers.

This is due to the fact that the Straits of Melaka has yet to be a major sea route prior to the 5th century.

It was only after the opening of the Straits of Melaka that powerful maritime kingdoms emerged including Kan-To-Li, Srivijaya, and Melaka.

These ports became popular stopover for ships from various parts of the world.

Main produce of the region: agricultural, forest, sea products, tin, and gold.

Peninsular known as Svarnabhumi (Land of Gold) – Golden Khersonese (Land of Gold) –Ptolemy.

Imports: bronze, ornamentals, cloth, carpet, perfumes, ceramics etc.

Measures introduced – tahil, kati, and bahara. Majority of those involved in trading were the

upper class – aristocracy.