Forestry Department

1

Forestry Department Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Mangroves of North and Central America

1980-2005: Les mangroves d’Amérique du Nord et

d’Amérique centrale 1980-2005: Los manglares de América del Norte y de

América Central 1980-2005:

COUNTRY REPORTS

RAPPORTS NATIONAUX

INFORMES NACIONALES

Forest Resources Assessment Programme

Working Paper 138 Rome, 2007

Disclaimer Forest Resources Assessment Working Papers report on issues and activities in the forest resources assessment field. These working papers do not reflect any official position of FAO. Please refer to the FAO website (www.fao.org/forestry) for official information. The purpose of these papers is to provide early release of information on ongoing activities and programmes and to stimulate discussion. Comments and feedback are welcome. For further information, please contact [email protected] or Mette Løyche Wilkie Senior Forestry Officer FAO Forestry Department Viale delle Terme di Caracolla 00153 Rome, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

© FAO 2007

CONTENTS Acknowledgements............................................................................................................. ii Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1 Anguilla............................................................................................................................... 3 Antigua and Barbuda .......................................................................................................... 7 Aruba................................................................................................................................. 11 Bahamas............................................................................................................................ 14 Barbados ........................................................................................................................... 19 Belize ................................................................................................................................ 23 Bermuda............................................................................................................................ 28 British Virgin Islands........................................................................................................ 32 Cayman Islands................................................................................................................. 36 Costa Rica ......................................................................................................................... 40 Cuba .................................................................................................................................. 46 Dominica........................................................................................................................... 52 República Dominicana...................................................................................................... 56 El Salvador........................................................................................................................ 60 Grenada ............................................................................................................................. 65 Guadeloupe ....................................................................................................................... 69 Guatemala ......................................................................................................................... 73 Haïti................................................................................................................................... 78 Honduras ........................................................................................................................... 82 Jamaica.............................................................................................................................. 86 Martinique......................................................................................................................... 91 México .............................................................................................................................. 95 Montserrat ....................................................................................................................... 101 The Netherlands Antilles ................................................................................................ 105 Nicaragua ........................................................................................................................ 109 Panamá............................................................................................................................ 114 Puerto Rico...................................................................................................................... 119 St. Kitts and Nevis Islands .................................................................................................. 1 Saint Lucia .......................................................................................................................... 5 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines..................................................................................... 10 Trinidad and Tobago......................................................................................................... 14 Turks and Caicos............................................................................................................... 19 United States of America .................................................................................................. 23 United States Virgin Islands ............................................................................................. 28 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 33 Annex 1. The world's mangroves 1980-2005: Regional working papers......................... 34

Acknowledgements

The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 (FRA 2005) represents a major effort of FAO’s Forestry Department, FAO member countries, donors, partners and individual experts. More than 800 people have been directly involved in the process. National correspondents and their teams provided detailed country reports for the assessment. In addition to a detailed report from each country and the main report (FAO, 2006a), several thematic studies were prepared. One of these is The world’s mangroves 1980–2005. In addition to the main report (FAO, 2007) five regional working papers have been produced providing more detailed information on the mangroves in the 124 countries and areas in which they are found. This document is one of these working papers. FAO is grateful for the support of all countries, organizations and experts inside and outside the organization that have made this study possible. More than 150 people have been involved, including 107 national correspondents to FRA 2005 and their colleagues, national and international experts. Institutional and individual contributors are listed in Annex 1. FAO also recognizes the important collaboration, support and financial resources provided by ITTO in the framework of the interagency initiative for a revised World Atlas of Mangroves. FAO also thanks colleagues in the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME), the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, the Man and Biosphere Programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the International Network on Water, Environment and Health of the United Nations University for their collaboration in the data gathering process and remote sensing interpretation; and Spacedat s.r.l. for assistance with the distribution map. Serena Fortuna was responsible for compiling and analysing the data and preparing this working paper; Mette Wilkie initiated the study and provided technical guidance when needed.

ii

1

Introduction Mangroves are commonly found along sheltered coastlines in the tropics and subtropics where they fulfil important socio-economic and environmental functions. These include the provision of a large variety of wood and non-wood forest products; coastal protection against the effects of wind, waves and water currents; conservation of biological diversity, including a number of endangered mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds; protection of coral reefs, sea-grass beds and shipping lanes against siltation; and provision of habitat, spawning grounds and nutrients for a variety of fish and shellfish, including many commercial species. High population pressure in coastal areas has, however, led to the conversion of many mangrove areas to other uses, including infrastructure, aquaculture, rice and salt production. Numerous case studies describe mangrove losses over time, but information on the status and trends of the extent of mangroves at the global level has, so far, been scarce. The first attempt at estimating the total mangrove area in the world was undertaken as part of the FAO/United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Tropical Forest Resources Assessment in 1980, where the world total was estimated as 15.6 million hectares. More recent estimates have ranged from 12 to 20 million hectares. Countries with small areas of mangroves have been excluded from many studies because of lack of information and because their combined area of mangroves would not significantly affect the world total. The world’s mangroves 1980–2005 is a thematic study undertaken within the framework of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. It was led by FAO in collaboration with mangrove specialists throughout the world, and was co-funded by the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). It builds on the 1980 assessment, on the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) and 2005 (FRA 2005), and on an extensive literature search and correspondence with mangrove and forest resources assessment specialists. The main aim of this study is to facilitate access to comprehensive and comparable information on the current and past extent of mangroves in the 124 countries and areas where they are known to exist, highlighting information gaps and providing updated information that may serve as a tool for mangrove managers and policy- and decision-makers worldwide. Some 2 900 national and subnational data sets on the extent of mangrove ecosystems were collected during this process, permitting the compilation of an updated list of the most recent reliable estimate for each country. Regression analyses based on historical data provided revised estimates for 1980, 1990, 2000 and a forecast for 2005. The extrapolation to 2005 was constrained by the lack of recent information for a number of countries. This estimate is thus indicative and is likely to change when results from ongoing and future assessments become available. The main report entitled The world’s mangroves 1980–2005 (FAO, 2007) presents a global overview of mangrove vegetation, species composition and distribution, together with an indication of the main uses and threats in each region. The results indicate that global mangrove area is currently about 15.2 million hectares, with the largest areas found in Asia and Africa, followed by North and Central America. An alarming 20 percent of the global mangrove area, or 3.6 million hectares, has been lost since 1980. More recently, the rate of net loss appears to have slowed down, reflecting an increased awareness of the value of mangrove ecosystems. However, the annual rate of loss is still disturbingly high.

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The report also highlights that regular updating of information on the extent and condition of mangroves is needed as an aid to policy- and decision-making for the conservation, management and sustainable use of the world’s remaining mangrove ecosystems. Detailed qualitative and quantitative information for each country is reported in five regional working papers as a complement to the information in the main report. This document is one of those regional working papers. It is an unedited compilation of country profiles providing more detailed information on the extent of mangroves and changes over time, a vegetation description and an indication on major threats and uses of these coastal forests. The country profiles are the result of an intense cooperation between FAO staff at Headquarters and in our Regional Offices and national experts. Each country profile is presented in the official UN language of communication and is structured - with some exceptions for those countries where insufficient information is available - according to six sections:

• Vegetation description, uses and threats; • Mangrove species checklist; • National level mangrove estimates; • Trends in mangrove area extent over time; • Summary status of mangrove area extent over time; • Formulas used for the trend analysis.

Following the classification used by Tomlinson 1987, mangroves may be divided into three groups according to their features: major elements (strict or true mangroves), minor elements and mangrove associates. During this assessment Tomlinson’s list of true mangrove species was modified by adding some species commonly found as exclusive mangrove species (Saenger et al. 1983). Information on minor elements and mangrove associates is not included in this report. All the national level mangrove area estimates collected during the preparation of this assessment are presented in each country profile. However, differences in methodologies, classifications, mapping scales etc. make a direct comparison of the estimates difficult. Consequently only the estimates considered as the most accurate and reliable were used for the analysis of the area changes over time. These are clearly marked in the tables. Detailed information on the formula used for the trend analysis is available for each country, with the exception of those countries/territories where related information was not available. The findings of this study will also contribute to the revised edition of the World Atlas of Mangroves, first published in 1997 by the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) in collaboration with the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) and the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). The second edition is being developed as a joint initiative of ISME, ITTO, the Man and the Biosphere Programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UNEP-WCMC, the International Network on Water, Environment and Health of United Nations University, and FAO. The atlas will promote conservation, restoration, management and sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems. Further information on and contacts for this initiative are available at www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove-atlas.

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Anguilla Vegetation description, uses and threats Anguilla is a low lying limestone island, where mangroves occur in ten sites on the margin of seven saline ponds; other stands are found along three saline ponds on the adjacent Scrub Island. Among the mangrove species present on the island, the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) is the tallest, growing up to 25 m. The second tallest species is Avicennia germinans (20 m) followed by Laguncularia racemosa (15 m) and Conocarpus erectus. No information on mangrove uses or threats is currently available. Awareness of mangrove importance is raising in the country, as their loss can negatively impact rural population livelihood, habitat for wildlife, coral reefs state and fisheries industry. Reference: Anguilla National Trust. 2001. Preservation for Generations. Vol 6, No. 1. http://www.ant.ai/news.2.2001.html

Anguilla National Trust. 2001. Preservation for Generations. Vol 6, No. 5. http://www.ant.ai/news.7-8.2001.html

Bacon, P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

True mangrove species checklist Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans Avicennia schaueriana Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle

National level mangrove estimates

Year Area (ha) Source Trend Methodology/Comments

1980 517 Spalding, M., Blasco, F., Colin F. 1997. World Mangrove atlas. The International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan, 178 pp.

The figure could represent the extent of the entire wetlands. Mangrove data were taken from a series of Preliminary Data Atlases published by The Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program (ECNAMP), a cooperative effort of the Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. Data for these atlases have been drawn from a wide variety of sources, in most cases the scale of the maps is between 1:50 000 and 1:300 000.

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1991 90 Bacon, P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

X Ground survey.

1993 300 Bacon, P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Cited in: WCMC. 2000. Coral reefs and mangroves of the world. http://www.wcmc.org.uk/marine/data/coral_mangrove/ . The figure reported by WCMC is an approximated figure based on Bacon, 1993 (i.e. 270 ha of wetland). In Bacon, 1993 the author specifies that mangroves occupy only one third of the wetland (90 ha).

Trends in mangrove area extent over time 90 90 909090

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha

Figures used for trends Figures not used for trends Calculated estimates Trend

No major changes appear to have occurred in this country over the last twenty years.

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Summary status of mangrove area extent over time

Most reliable, recent mangrove area estimate

Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Anguilla 90 1991 90 90 90 90

Formulas used for the trend analysis The trend analysis provided in this report is based on the qualitative information.

7

Antigua and Barbuda Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangroves are found on both Antigua and Barbuda islands. Antigua's low-lying coasts have many saline ponds and tidal mud flats that carry stunted mangrove vegetation of the species Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans (syn A. nitida) and Laguncularia racemosa. Mangroves are found usually on mud or sandbanks sites that are not actually inundated but have a high brackish-water table. "Manchineel" swamps of Hippomane mancinella with some Annona glabra and Acrostichum sp. are often found bordering the mangrove swamps. Whereas the mangrove trees are commonly stunted and do not exceed 4.5 m in height, the manchineel attains 9 to 12 m with girths of up to 1.2 m. The biggest area of mangroves occurs in Hansons Bay (Antigua) swamp, with some trees reaching up to 10 m. In Barbuda fringing mangroves are found around salt flats and lagoons, the biggest stand being along Codrington Lagoon. Traditional use of mangroves wood and ecosystem have been firewood, fishing, crab catching and bird hunting activities. Some mangrove areas have been lost during the last twenty years because of infrastructure development, such as marinas, hotels and harbours. Mangrove several functions and benefits (e.g. habitat for terrestrial and marine fauna, prevention of coastal erosion and protection of the coasts from storms) are widely recognized by the national authorities. Reference: Antigua and Barbuda Environment Division. 2003. Mangroves. http://www.environmentdivision.info/features/mangroves.htm

CCA. 1991. Antigua and Barbuda: country environmental profile. CCA/IRF/Environmental Awareness Group/USAID.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997 World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp

True mangrove species checklist Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans (syn Avicennia nitida) common Avicennia schaueriana Conocarpus erectus occasional Laguncularia racemosa common Rhizophora mangle dominant

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1980 300 Atkins Land and Water Management. 1983. Soil and water conservation, Windward and Leeward Islands, Phase 1: Reconnaissance Study. Draft Final Report, as cited in Caribbean Development Bank, DFSGmbH, Regional Forestry Sector Study, Country Report, Antigua and Barbuda, 1983.

Cite in: FAO. 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report – Antigua and Barbuda. Unpublished. Mangroves were classified as closed forest with anopy cover higher than 40% and trees taller than 5m. This type of classification may have left aside many areas, since in Antigua and Barbuda mangrove trees are often stunted (<4.5 m)

1982 1 500 Putney, A.D. 1982. Survey of conservation priorities in the Lesser Antilles. Technical Report 1. Caribbean Conservation Association.

X Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60pp. The "Year" is the publication year.

1982 1 215 WCMC. 2000. Coral reefs and mangroves of the world. http://www.wcmc.org.uk/marine/data/coral_mangrove/

The figure given in the website is 121 500 ha. Taking into account the references used for this figure (Putney. 1982 and Bacon, P.R. 1993) and the total land area of the country (i.e. 19 400 ha. Reference: Deutsche Forstinventur-service GmbH, Caribbean Development Bank. 1983. Regional Forestry Sector Study, Country Report Antigua and Barbuda), this figure should be considered as a typing error, and an average between the two cited sources.

1991 1 316 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

Map analysis. Mangrove data were taken from a series of Preliminary Data Atlases published by The Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program (ECNAMP), a cooperative effort of the Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. Data for these atlases have been drawn from a wide variety of sources, in most cases the scale of the maps is between 1:50 000 and 1:300 000.

1991 1 175 Bacon, P. R. 1991. The Status of Mangrove Conservation in the Caricom Islands of the Eastern Caribbean. Report to the Commission of the European Communities as part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan for the Caribbean Region. University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. 211 pp.

X Ground survey

Trends in mangrove area extent over time 1

570

700

1 1

75

850

1 2

00

500

1 000

1 500

2 000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha




Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Antigua & Barbuda

1 175 1991 1 570 1 200 850 700

Formulas used for the trend analysis Linear: y = mx + b where m is the slope and b is the intercept. The estimates for 2000 and 2005 are rounded figures.

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Aruba Vegetation description Mangroves in Aruba form fringe communities especially found along the shore of Spaans Lagoon and on some of the barrier islands which lie in a chain along the southwest coast. An important mangrove community has also developed in the brackish lake of Bubali Pond, a former saline lagoon now fed by fresh water from treated sewage discharges. Some of the species spread in this island are Avicennia germinans and Conocarpus erectus. The Het Spaans Lagoen, located in the Southwest coast of Aruba, is a wetland of international importance designated as Ramsar site in 1980. Reference: Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997 World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

Jones, T. (Ed.) 1993. Het Spaans Lagoen. In: A directory of wetlands of international importance

True mangrove species checklist Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus



1982 100 Krinstensen, I. 1991. Personal communication

Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp.

1986 420 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

X Map analysis. Mangrove data were taken from a series of Preliminary Data Atlases published by The Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program (ECNAMP), a cooperative effort of the Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. Data for these atlases have been drawn from a wide variety of sources, in most cases the scale of the maps is between 1:50 000 and 1:300 000


0

420

420

420

420

0

100

200

300

400

500

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

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1993

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1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


No significant changes seem to have occurred in the country over the last twenty years



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Aruba 420 1986 420 420 420 420

Formulas used for the trend analysis The trend analysis provided in this report is based on the qualitative information.

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Bahamas Vegetation description, uses and threats In this country there are 20 mangrove sites spread all over the archipelago, among which 10 are found in protected areas. The Inagua National Park, an important area for breeding, passage and wintering of many species of waterbirds with a dense stand of Avicennia marina and Conocarpus erectus has been designated Ramsar site in 1997. Mangroves form a major vegetation type on some of the islands, with particular concentration on Great Inagua, the Bight of Aklins (between Crooked Island and Aklins Island), the western shores of Andros and Great Abaco and the north shore of Grand Bahama. There are no major rivers and most of the mangroves are coastal or lagoon formations. Mangrove forests are dominated by Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Rhizophora mangle Losses of some wetland areas have been caused by development of tourism infrastructures (resorts, marinas and residential areas), mosquito control and access to waterfront. Mangroves and all other coastal communities have to face different threats, among which the pollution caused by leaks and spills of petrochemicals, run-offs from land pollutants (fertilizers and pesticides), sediments from coastal development, the improper disposal of garbage. Awareness of the importance of mangrove ecosystem is increasing in the country; the environmental and socio-economic benefits that these forests provide for the country are now being recognised. An experts committee highlighted the fact that the preservation of the coastal areas is critical to the future socio-economic development of the Bahamas and organized, together with the Government, the “Coastal Awareness Month” (April 2005). Some form of protection exist thanks to the Wild Bird (Protection) Act 1905, which include waterfowl habitats and consequently also mangroves. Reference: Bahamas Information Service. 29/03/2005. Pollutants continue to pose problems to the environment. Press release. www.bahamas.gov.bs

Bahamas Information Service. 28/02/2005. Experts say preservation of coastal areas critical to social-economic development. Press release. www.bahamas.gov.bs

Scott, D.A. & Carbonell, M. 1986. A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK; 684 pages.

Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Ramsar. nd. A Directory of Wetlands of International Importance. http://www.wetlands.org/RDB/Ramsar_Dir/Bahamas/BS001D02.htm

Spalding M., Blasco F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World mangrove atlas. The International Society for Mangroves Ecosystems. Okinawa, Japan, 178 pp.

WWF. 2001. Bahamian mangroves. By Tognetti, S. & Burdette, C. Peer review in process. www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt1403_full.html

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True mangrove species checklist Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle



1986 428 600 Russell, C. 2000. Bahamas Country Report: Forestry Outlook Study for the Caribbean. In Latin American and the Caribbean Forestry Commission. 20th session

This figure represents the extent of the entire wetlands. The percentage of mangroves is not known.

1991 233 200 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal Communication

Cited in: Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

1991 141 957 Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 155-210 Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

X Expert estimation based on Scott and Carbonell, 1986. The 1986 publication reported around 425 870 ha of saline wetlands with mangroves and among which one third was covered by mangroves. Scott, D.A. & Carbonell, M. 1986. A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK, 684 pages.

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1992 211 400 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

Map analysis. Data maps have been copied onto a 1:1 000 000 base map from three sources by Berndtson and Berndtson, n.d. and Sealey and Burrows, 1992. None of these sources should be considered highly accurate; no better data were available at the time of the preparation of the Atlas Berndtson and Berndtson. n.d. Bahamas North 1:500 000 Road Map. Berndtson and Berndtson Publications, Furstenfeldbruck, Germany. (Used for: Bimini Island - 1:100 000). Berndtson and Berndtson. n.d. Bahamas South 1:500 000 Road Map. Berndtson and Berndtson Publications, Furstenfeldbruck, Germany. (Used for: Aklins Island only - 1:500 000: Mayaguana - 1:500 000: Great Inagua - 1:500 000: Exuma Islands - 1:500 000: Cat Island - 1:500 000: San Salvador - 1:250 000: Long Island - 1:500 000). Sealey, N and Burrows, E.J. eds. 1992. School Atlas for the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Longman Group UK Ltd., Harlow, UK. 49pp. (Used for Grand Bahama - 1:600 000; Abaco - 1:650 000: New Providence - 1:110 000: Andros - 1:730 000).


80 0

00

145

000

140

000

140

000

141

957

50 000

100 000

150 000

200 000

250 000

300 000

350 000

400 000

450 00019

80

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha

Figures used for trends Calculated estimates Figures not used for trends Trend

18



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Bahamas 141 957 1991 180 000 145 000 140 000 140 000

Formulas used for the trend analysis The estimates for 1980 and 1990 have been calculated applying the FRA 1990 (FAO, 1995) annual change (-2.1 percent) while the estimates for 2000 and 2005 are expert estimates based on qualitative information.

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Barbados Vegetation description, uses and threats Barbados is a low-lying limeston island; mangroves are scattered in very few sites such as Gibbes, Holetown, Brighton beach, Chancery Lane Swamp and Graeme Hall Swamp, which is the only significant site in the country. Five true mangrove species were once found in this country, however nowadays only Conocarpus erectus, Rhizophora mangle and Laguncularia racemosa, which is highly widespread in the country, remain. There are no human settlements in mangrove areas, however these forests have been highly damaged in the past, leading to a relevant reduction in the total mangrove area extent, mainly caused by the development of tourism structures. Graeme Hall Swamp is the largest inland water body in Barbados; it is now protected in a natural reserve habitat of several migratory and resident birds and few locally rare and endangered species. This ecosystem has been however highly degraded during the last centuries, starting in the early 1700s. The main causes of this degradation have been the infrastructure development (e.g. coastal roadways and bridge), the land conversion to pasture, cutting of mangroves and several human recreational activities (especially hunting), which then ceased between 1970 and 1981. The swamp is now mainly used for recreational activities and the cutting of mangroves is limited to few trees that overhang the embankment roadway and clog the exit of the canal to the sea. Due to the site modifications (drainage, canalisation, and other urban development) few mangrove sites have been lost over the time, leading to the local extinction of Acrostichum aureum and Avicennia schaueriana, which were first found at Indian River near Fontabelle and Constitution River near Bridgetown respectively. Reference: Carrington, S. 2005. Information provided for the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 thematic study on mangroves. Unpublished.

Lucas, C.H. 2000. Data Collection and Outlook effort for Forestry in the Caribbean - Barbados. In: proceedings of the EC-FAO Workshop on Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forestry Management 21-25 February, 2000, Port of Spain, Trinidad

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

True mangrove species checklist Avicennia germinans uncertain Conocarpus erectus Chancery Lane only Laguncularia racemosa common Rhizophora mangle Graeme Hall Swamp only Acrostichum aureum and Avicennia schaueriana were once present in the country; however they disappeared due to road construction and canalisation.

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1980 30 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

X Map analysis. Mangrove data were taken from a series of Preliminary Data Atlases published by The Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program (ECNAMP), a cooperative effort of the Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. Data for these atlases have been drawn from a wide variety of sources, in most cases the scale of the maps is between 1:50 000 and 1:300 000. This figure may be slightly on the higher size

1991 14 Bacon, P. R. 1991. The Status of Mangrove Conservation in the Caricom Islands of the Eastern Caribbean. Report to the Commission of the European Communities as part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan for the Caribbean Region. University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. 211 pp.

X Ground survey

1991 12 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal communication


1999 64 Lucas, C.H. 2000. Data Collection and Outlook effort for Forestry in the Caribbean - Barbados. In: proceedings of the EC-FAO Workshop on Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forestry Management 21-25 February, 2000, Port of Spain, Trinidad

Estimation.

2004 4 Eckelmann, C. 2004. personal communication.

X Mangrove extent for the five sites are based on expert estimate (Mr. Carrington, Professor of Plant Biology at the University of the West Indies), with the exception of Graeme Hall, which is the result of a 1980 inventory (Topographic survey by Godson Associate, April 28, 1980). No major area changes seem to have occurred in this site since the last inventory.


16

7

44

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha




Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Barbados 2004 4 30 16 7 4

Formulas used for the trend analysis Polynomial trend line: y=b+c1x+c2x2+c3x3+..+cnxn where b and c1…cn are constants.

23

Belize Vegetation description, uses and threats Belize has a relatively extensive and varied coastline, with numerous islands called cayes (pronunciation “key”, local name for offshore islands derived from the Spanish language "cayo") associated with its coastal lagoons, barrier reef and large coral atolls. Mangroves are generally widespread on the coast and cayes, while some small isolated patches of Rhizophora mangle are found inland. Mangrove communities are classified into distinct community types in Belize, fringe, overwashed, basin and riverine communities. The first one is mainly Rhizophora mangle which can range from dwarf to very tall and colonizes the coast of the mainland and cayes. The overwashed formations are found along the cayes coasts and consist of Rhizophora mangle, the only species in Belize with ecological and morphological features suitable to resist in a constant inundated environment; the basin mangrove communities are dominated by Avicennia germinans and grow in depressions behind river levees and beach ridges on many of the larger cayes, where there is an hyper-saline condition reaching 90 ppt; Rhizophora mangle in this environment grow up as dwarf mangrove. The riverine system represents the richest and best developed mangrove forest in Belize due to the high nutrient loads coming from upland. This community is dominated by the Rhizophora mangle on the edges of all steams and rivers near the coast and may run upstream for several km. Moving from the river bank to inland we can find Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, and finally Laguncularia racemosa. Trees in this system may reach notable heights, and according to recent studies conducted by the University of Maryland, they represent the tallest mangrove trees on the Atlantic coast of the Americas. Some small freshwater mangrove communities are also present in Belize, surrounded by broadleaf forest and in rare cases pine savannah, which could either be a relict formation due to shift in coastal transgression, tidal surges associated with catastrophic hurricanes or disseminated by major hurricanes. Belize has the lowest population density of all the Central American countries, still there is a relatively high pressure on the mangrove forests from rapid growth in tourism, housing reclamation and aquaculture development. Besides anthropogenic threats, mangroves in this country are threatened also by natural hazards, such as frequent and large hurricanes. The recognition of mangroves as valuable forests led to the development of legal conservation measures; the process for public and private mangrove protection were legislated by the government of Belize in 1989 with the Statuary Instrument No.89/1989. The Statuary Instrument No. 86/1992 law were then amended in 1992, which controls and regulates the uses of all mangrove species in Belize. Nowadays mangroves have been seen as a critical part of the Belize hazard mitigation plan, enhancing coastal protection especially against natural events such as hurricanes and their associated wind and tidal surges. More recently they are also protected through other overlapping legislation across several public agencies. Reference: Hanson, G. 2005. Information provided for the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 thematic study on mangroves. Unpublished. Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

Wright, A.C.S., D.H. Romney, R.H. Arbuckle & D.E. Vial. 1959. Land in British Honduras: Report of the British Honduras Land Use Survey Team. Colonial Research Publication No. 24. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London.

24

True mangrove species checklist Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle



1940 80 016 Zisman, S.A. et al. 1992. The Mangrove of Belize: 1. Distribution and composition. Manuscript FORECO 1076

Satellite and Aerial photos

1976 240 800 FAO. 1978. Forestry Development. Belize FO:DP/BZE/75/008.

Cited in: Arnold, J. E. M., Armitage, F. B. 1989. Belize Tropical Forestry Action Plan. UK ODA-CIDA-USAID-FAO. 273 pp. Extent of both mangroves and swamps.

1980 75 000 FAO, UNEP. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la América Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (en el marco de SINUVIMA). FAO, UNEP, 343 + 86 pp.

Estimation.

1983 73 000 Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. and J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on ecology Papers No.3. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. 88 pp.

Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year.

1990 77 155 Furley, P.A. and Munro, D.M. 1993. The wetlands of Belize: ecology, environment and utilisation. Department of Geography, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh(15) 102pp.

Aerial photography

1990 32 032 Belize National Report. Forest and Climate Change Project, Herrera 2002. The above data was originally derived from the Land Information Centre of the Lands & Surveys Department /Ministry of Natural Resources

Cited in: FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Belize. By Salas, O. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 143. Unpublished. This figure is an underestimate of the extent of mangroves since it is not including mangrove formations in saline swamps (the data provided for this ecosystem was including the palmetto trees, Acoelorrhaphe wrightii which is not a mangrove species)

25


1990 78 511 Zisman, S.A. et al. 1992. The Mangrove of Belize: 1. Distribution and composition. Manuscript FORECO 1076

X Remote sensing, aerial photography and ground truthing.

1990 78 317 Gray, D. Zisman, S., Cowes, C. 1990. Mapping the Mangroves of Belize. Technical Report Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh. UK WWF-US Proj. N. 6782&NRI (ODA&EMC T0071)



Map analysis. Maps were provided in digital form Zisman, S. 1992. Mangroves in Belize: their characteristics, use and conservation. Consultancy Report No 3. Forest Planning and Management Project. ODA/Ministry of Natural Resources, Belmopan, Belize. 152 pp.

1995 65 767 White, W. A., Raney, Jay, Tremblay, T. A., Crawford, M. M., and Smith, S. S. 1996. Deforestation in Belize 1989/92-1994/96. The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology, final report prepared for USAID under contract no. 505-0043-C-00-6006, in cooperation with the Land Information Centre, Forest and Lands and Survey Departments, and the Ministry of Natural Resources, Government of Belize, 48 pp.

Remote sensing imagery from 1993, 1994 and 1996 and ground survey.

1995 64 848 Meerman J. and W. Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems: Belize. Programme for Belize, Belize City, Belize

Cited in: FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Belize. By Salas, O. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 143. Unpublished. The map provided in this document, was essentially an update of the 1995 Vegetation map of Belize by Iremonger and Browkaw, which borrowed from the 1959 Natural Vegetation Map of Belize by Wright et al.

2000 95 625 World Atlas of Mangroves initiative www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove-atlas

LANDSAT 2000 imagery interpretation undertaken by UNEP-WCMC.

Trends in mangrove area extent over time

78

500

76

500

76

000

78

511

50 000

100 000

150 000

200 000

250 000

300 000

1940

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


Major loss in mangrove area extent in this country occurred between 1992 and 2002 mainly because of illegal cutting, urban development and aquaculture development in the south of Belize.

27



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Belize 78 511 1990 78 500 78 500 76 500 76 000

Formulas used for the trend analysis Linear: y = mx + b where m is the slope and b is the intercept.

28

Bermuda Vegetation description, uses and threats Bermuda has only three species of mangroves, Avicennia germinans (black mangrove), Conocarpus erectus (buttonwood) and Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), which occupies only a limited area. These forests are of relevant interest because they represent the northernmost mangroves in the world (32°20'N). They are of low island type, with salinity regimes controlled by ground water outflow. Trees of Avicennia germinans may grow till 12 m in height in the mud of salt lagoons and bays, while Rhizophora mangle only reach 8 m. During the present century there has been some decrease in mangrove area due to land reclamation, anchorage and harbour development and waste disposal. Nowadays there are five protected areas with mangroves and the awareness of their importance as habitat for terrestrial and marine species and as protection of storms and coastal erosion is increasing. Reference: Bermuda Online. 2005. Bermuda’s Flora. Flowers, trees, fruits, grasses, herbs, trees, vegetables grow year round http://www.bermuda-online.org/flowers.htm

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

True mangrove species checklist Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Rhizophora mangle




Map analysis. Mangrove polygons were copied from the 1:10 560 six-map series (DOS, 1975) onto a c.1:100 000 base map and digitised. DOS. 1975. Bermuda. 1:10 560 - six sheets. Series: E8110 (Bda 311) Edition: 2-Bda 1975. Directorate of Overseas Surveys, London, UK.

1980 17 Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M., 1986. A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK, 486 pp.

X Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. The exact figure provided by the authors is 16.7 ha.

1992 16 Thomas, M. L. & A. Logan. 1992. A Guide to the Ecology of the Shoreline and Shallow-Water Marine Communities of Bermuda. Special Publication 30, Bermuda Biological Station for Research, 345 pp.

X Cited in: Smith, S.R. 1998. Bermuda. In: UNESCO, 1998. CARICOMP. Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove sites. Coastal region and small island papers 3, UNESCO, Paris, xiv + 347 pp.

29


1993 20 Ellison, J. 1993. Mangroves of Bermuda and the Cayman Islands.

Cited in: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp. The figure cited in the document is: less then 20 ha


16

15 15

16

17

0

5

10

15

20

25

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


31



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Bermuda 16 1992 17 16 15 15


32

British Virgin Islands Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangroves on British Virgin Islands are scattered throughout the islands (Beef Island, Anegada, Jost Van Dyke, Tortola and Virgin Gorda), mostly as scrubby fringe communities. Th coastlines are generally rocky and mangroves are mainly found on the northern coasts of the islands, where the frequence of sandy beaches is higher. Fringing mangroves and lagoons occur on the south coasts. Fifty-five sites with mangroves have been identified on these islands, with the largest areas being found on the eastern end of Anegada and around the salt pond-salina systems at the western end. The species Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, Conocarpus erectus and Avicennia germinans are widespread in these islands Mangroves have been declared a “critical natural resource” by the Government; some areas are protected under conservation and planning legislation and the Conservation & Fisheries Department has also recently started a management programme. Despite the fact that the importance of these forests is now recognized by certain groups of people (e.g. fishermen and conservationists), they are still generally seen as unhealthy environment and useless swamps. Some sites are already severely stressed and are facing increased development pressures. Only minor use with no commercial exploitation aim is made for poles, firewood and charcoal. On the other hand, the reclamation of land for the development of the tourism sector, and in minor part for aquaculture, led to the destruction of several areas over time. Other negative impacts have been produced by the use of wetlands as sites for dumping solid waste and by the land based pollution. Some mangroves were also damaged by the Hurricane Hugo in 1989, however many of these forests played a significant role in the protection of the inland. The Island of Anegada as a whole is considered a priority area for the conservation of mangroves, salt ponds and coral reefs within the Lesser Antilles. Reference: British Virgin Islands - Gateway to the Virgin Islands Government. n.d. Mangroves. http://www.bvi.gov.vg/template.php?main=atbvi&section=environment&sub=coastal_zones_and_sea_areas&fourth=mangroves Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997 World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.


33





1990 627 Blok-Meevwig, J. 1990. Mangrove system of the British Virgin Islands: Resource Mapping and Assignment to protection Categories. Conservation & Fisheries Department, Ministry of Natural Resources & Labour, British Virgin Islands, Technical Report No. 5; 45pp.

X Cited in: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155-210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

2001 587 British Virgin Islands Government. 2001 Use of the coastal zones and seabeds

X Source: Survey Department


0

590

57058

7

630

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


35



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha British Virgin Islands

587 2001 660 630 590 570


36

Cayman Islands Vegetation description, uses and threats The Cayman Islands consist of three low-lying limestone islands which have widespread mangroves and associated swamp lands. Mangrove lands make up some 36 percent of Grand Cayman, 1 percent of Cayman Brac and 40 percent of Little Cayman. The largest single community occurs in the central mangrove swamp on Grand Cayman, which also represents the largest area of inland mangroves in Central America. The species found in this country are Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Conocarpus erectus, which in many places nearly form mono-specific stands. An extensive loss of mangroves has occurred as a result of the 1977 Development Plan for Grand Cayman; many areas have been reclaimed for tourist development, road construction, golf courses, marinas and housing. The majority of Grand Cayman’s mangroves are contiguous within the almost pristine Central Mangrove Wetland, which extends over 3 430 ha. The majority of this land resides in private ownership, without any formal protection. Mangrove losses have been extensive along the western peninsula of Grand Cayman, predominantly due to residential expansion. Cayman Brac’s small wetland area (Westerly Ponds) has been extensively filled, with little mangrove remaining on the site. On the other hand Little Cayman’s wetlands remain relatively intact. The majority of this land falls under the ownership of the Crown, but several areas are subject to on-going land claims from private parties. Unfortunately residential and commercial expansion, coastal development and extractive industry remain current threat for the mangroves forest in this country. In addition to human based damages, on September 12th 2004, the Cayman Islands were severely impacted by Hurricane Ivan, which caused some $1.8 billion in damage, the high winds and storm surge produced significant destruction to the coastal and central mangrove wetlands of Grand Cayman. The species most significantly affected was Avicennia germinans, especially larger specimens, which have for the most part been destroyed. One year after the storm, some significant regeneration is noted, mostly Laguncularia racemosa, however tracts of dead wood remain extensive in the most severely affected areas. Legal protection has been provided to mangroves at Little Sound and Grand Cayman Reference: Bacon, P.R. 1993. Mangroves in Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155-210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Cottam M., 2004. Information provided for the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 thematic study on mangroves. Unpublished

Procter, D, & Fleming, L.V. eds. 1999. Biodiversity: the UK Overseas Territories. Peterborough, Joint Nature Conservation Committee.


37





Map analysis. Vegetation data, including mangroves, were taken from the Directorate of Overseas Surveys (D.O.S.) 1:25 000 four-map series (1978). For Grand Cayman, mangrove was digitised by Andrew Dunn of Edinburgh University. D.O.S. 1978. Cayman Islands 1:25 000. Series E821 (D.O.S. 328), Sheets 1, 2, 3 and 4 Edition 3-D.O.S. 1978. Directorate of Overseas Surveys, UK and Survey Department, Cayman Islands

1991 11 655 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal communication


1991 7 268 Bacon, P.R. 1993. Mangroves in Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155-210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Ground survey

1998 13 000 Faizool, S. 1998. Forestry policy of Cayman Islands. In Forestry policies in the Caribbean Reports of 28 selected countries and territories. p.167-180. Forestry Paper #137/2.

Approximate estimate of mangrove swamps.

1998 7830 Cottam M. 2004. Information provided for the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 thematic study on mangroves. Unpublished

X Rough estimate based on analysis of vegetation maps (ground-truthed satellite imagery)


8 50

0

8 00

0

7 70

0

7600

7 83

0

0

5 000

10 000

15 000

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha

Figures not used for trends Figures used for trends Calculated estimates Trend



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha Ha Cayman Islands 7 830 1998 8 500 8 000 7 700 7 600

Formulas used for the trend analysis The trend of mangrove area changes over time is based on qualitative information; mangrove coverage decreased of around 1 000 ha of mangroves over the last 20 years (especially on western peninsula of Grand Cayman and Westerly Ponds of Cayman Brac); around 200 ha of which since 1999. (Cottam M., 2004.)

40

Costa Rica Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros Mangroves in this country are found on both coasts, the Pacific and the Caribbean one. The Pacific coast of Costa Rica is about five times as long as the Caribbean one due to a complex structure of many embayment, estuaries and gulfs. Its mangrove forests make up around 99 percent of all the Costa Rica's mangrove area. Relevant mangrove areas are found in the Nicoya Gulf, in the Tivives Protection Zone, and in the Térraba-Sierpe Mangrove Forest Reserve, in the South of the country, which is the largest mangrove forest in the country. On the Atlantic coast small patches of mangroves are found in the north-east (Chirripó River), and north of Limón. Northern mangrove structure is not highly developed as they have a canopy height of only about 20 m due to the low rainfall and a long dry season (December to April). South of the Golfo de Nicoya, there is a transition zone where the forests are more diverse and better developed, with trees reaching a height of 45 m as a result of higher rainfall and a shorter dry season (less than three months). Rhizophora sp. is the most common species in this country, while other relevant species are: Avicennia bicolor, Laguncularia racemosa, and Pelliciera rhizophorae The population explosion, started in the country in the early forties, had negative effects on the conservation of natural resources. The impact of the demographic growth didn’t spare mangroves: the ecosystem was quickly affected by substitute activities or the procurement of forest products such as tannin (especially from Rhizophora bark), charcoal, construction material, etc. Mangrove land have been drained and converted, particularly in the Nicoya Gulf, to rice fields, salt ponds, agriculture land and shrimp farm. Aquaculture has been encouraged by the government during the 1970s and after few failures, again some years later. During the 1980s many salt ponds have also been converted to the more remunitive shrimp production activities. Among the procurement of non-wood products from mangroves the collection of Anadara tuberculosa and Anadara similis is one of the main activities. Indirect legal action to protect mangroves in Costa Rica started in XIX century, when the “Ley de Aguas”, No. 11 of 26th May 1884, stated that all the coast till one mile landward was belonging to the state, lately reconfirmed by the “Ley de Aguas” of 1942 and the “Ley de la Zona Marítimo Terrestre” of 1977. The process evolved during the years and in 1940 the first law to rule the use of mangroves came in force (Art. 17 del reglamento de la Ley General sobre Terrenos Baldíos), mangrove wood could be extracted only after communication to the local government and paying according to the weight of the extracted wood. The process of mangrove protection finally resulted in 1996 with the “Ley Forestal No. 7575”, which completely ban wood extraction and mangrove exploitation. According to the same law (Art. 18) construction of shrimp/salt ponds is not allowed anymore, and no more shrimp farm licence are released, while already established farms carry on with their activities. In spite of the legal protection currently active, some mangrove areas are still degraded by illegal cutting (mainly for charcoal) Jímenez, J.A. 1994. Los manglares del Pacífico de Centroamérica. EFUNA, Heredia, Costa Rica. 352 pp.

Programa Nacional de Humedales, MINAE. 2001. Politica de humedales de Costa Rica. http://www.ramsar.org/wurc_policy_costarica.htm

Pizarro, F. & Angulo, H. 1994. Diagnostico de los manglares de la costa Pacifica de Costa Rica. In: Suman, D.O. ed. 1994. El ecosistema de manglar en America Latina y la cuenca del Caribe: su manejo y conservación. p: 34-64. University of Miami and The Tinker Foundation. Miami. 263 pp.

Pizarro, F., Piedra, L., Bravo, J., Asch, J. And Asch, C. 2004. Manual de procedimientos para el manejo de los manglares. Costa Rica. Heredia, EFUNA, 132 pp.

41


Lista de las especies exclusivas de los manglares Acrostichum aureum Avicennia bicolor Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Pelliciera rhizophorae Rhizophora harrisonii Rhizophora mangle Rhizophora racemosa

Estimaciones de los manglares a nivel nacional

Año Área (ha) Fuente Ten-

dencia Metodología/Comentarios

1975 39 200 FAO,UNEP. 1978. Los bosques del País y su Distribución por Provincias. Costa Rica, Desarollo Integral de los Recursos Forestales. Informe PNUD/FAO - COS/72/013

Citado en: FAO, PNUMA. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la America Tropical Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (en el marco de SINUVIMA) FAO, PNUMA , pp 343 + 86.

1979 64 452 Instituto Meteorológico Nacional. 1996.

X Citado en: CATIE. 1999. Taller sobre Evualución de los Recursos Forestales en Once Países Latinoamericanos. Memoria del taller. Catie, Turrialba Costa Rica.

1983 39 000 Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. and J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on ecology Papers No.3. UICN. Gland, Suiza. 88 pp.

Referencias secundarias, no se contó con una fuente primaria. El "Año" es el año de publicación. Podría estar basado en datos de FAO, PNUMA, 1981 (ver referencia anterior)

1985 40 844 Herrera Wilbert. 1985. Tipo de clima de Costa Rica

Teledetección.

1988 41 000 FAO. 1988. Proposed integrated forest management planning and utilization of mangrove resources in the Terraba-Sierpe reserve. Based on the work of Chong P.W. Informe técnico No. 2. Costa Rica Manejo integral de un area de manglar. TCP/COS/6652:FAO-DGF. 196 pp.

Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. El "Año" es el año de publicación. La cifra podría ser una estimación aproximada de Herrera Wilbert, 1985 (ver referencia antes mencionada).

1988 37 000 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.

Análisis de mapas. Este año es incierto. Los datos sobre los manglares, almacenados en forma digital, fueron extraídos de una serie de mapas (preparados en 1970 y revisados en 1988) a una escala de 1:200 000 tomados de la serie de mapas del Instituto Geográfico Nacional.

42



1990 30 000 Furley, P.A. and Munro, D.M. 1993. The wetlands of Belize: ecology, environment and utilisation. Department of Geography, Edinburgh University, Edinburgo. 102pp.

Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria.

1991 41 289 Solórzano, R., R. De Camino, R. Woodword, J. Tosi, V. Watson, A., Vásquez, C. Villalobos, J. Jimenez, R. Repetto, and W. Cruz. 1991. Account Overdue: Natural Resource Depreciation in Costa Rica. World Resources Institute. Washinghton, D.C., 110 pp.

Citado en: Polanía, J. 1993. Mangroves of Costa Rica. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 129-138. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports OIMT/ISME Proyecto PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japón 272 pp.

1992 51 350 Instituto Meteorológico Nacional (IMN) –Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUD)-Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería (MAG)- Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN)- Dirección General Forestal (DGE). 1996. Atlas del Cambio de Cobertura de la Tierra en Costa Rica 1979-1992. Costa Rica.

X Cited in: Polanía, J. 1993. Mangroves of Costa Rica. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 129-138. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

1992 41 330 Jiménez. 1992. Mangrove forest of the Pacific Coast of Central America. In: U. Seelinger, ed. 1992. Coastal Plant Communities of Latin America. p. 259-267. Academic Press, San Diego, 392 pp.

Referencia secundaria. No se contó con una fuente primaria.

1993 41 300 Solórzano, R., de Camino, R., Woodward, R. Tosi, J., Watson, Vásquez, A., V., Villalobos, C. Jiménez, J. Repetto, R. and W, Cruz. 1991. Accounts overdue: natural resource deprectioation in Costa Rica. Tropical Science Center, San José, Costa Rica y Instituto Mundial sobre Recursos, Washington, EU 110 pp.

Citado en: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, Reino Unido. 60 pp. El "Año" es el año de publicación.

1994 41 292 Estimaciones realizadas por el Laboratorio de manglares, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica

Citado en: Jiménez, J.A. 1994. Los manglares del Pacífico de Centroamérica. EFUNA, Heredia, Costa Rica. 352 pp. El “Año” es el año de publicación.

43



1994 41 292 Expert estimate provided by Laboratorio de manglares, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica

Cited in: Jiménez, J.A. 1994. Los manglares del Pacífico de Centroamérica. EFUNA, Heredia, Costa Rica. 352 pp. The “Year” is the publication year.

1998 49 372 Bravo, J. and Rivera, L. 1998. Humedales de Costa Rica. Cartografía Técnica y Litografía. Instituto Geográfico Nacional. Programa Uso y Conservación de Humedales, Escuela de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad Nacional Series Edition: 1 (series of 9 maps).

Interpretation of the hardcopy map undertaken by UNEP-WCMC in the framework of the World Atlas of Mangroves initiative. Map scale:1: 200 000

2000 41 840

Centro Científico Tropical (CCT), Universidad de Alberta, Fondo de Financiamiento Forestal de Costa Rica (FONAFIFO). 2002. Estudio de cobertura forestal de Costa Rica con imágenes Landsat TM 7 para el año 2000.

X Cited in: FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Costa Rica. By González, L.N.. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 106. Unpublished. Se utilizaron imágenes LANDSAT del satélite Mapeador Temático. Escala Utilizada 1: 200 000

2000 42 314 Madrigal. 2000. Amenazas, perturbaciones y beneficios de los manglares de la Costa Pacífica de Costa Rica. Tesis de licenciatura. Escuela de Geografía. Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica.

Bravo, J. personal communication

Tendencia en la extensión del área de manglares en el tiempo

63

400

53

400

41

000

41

840

10 000

20 000

30 000

40 000

50 000

60 000

70 000

80 00019

70

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha

Cifras no utilizadas Estimaciones Cifras utilizadas Tendencia

El área de manglares presentes en Costa Rica en el año 2005 se estimó con base en la información cualitativa actualmente disponible.

45

Sumario de la situación de la extensión del área de manglares en el tiempo

Estimación del área de manglares más reciente y confiable

Estimación del área de manglares

1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha Costa Rica 41 840 2000 63 400 53 400 41 800 41 000

Fórmulas utilizadas para realizar el análisis de tendencias Línea de tendencia polinomial: y=b+c1x+c2x2+c3x3+..+cnxn en donde b y c1…cn son constantes.

46

Cuba Descripción de la vegetación The archipelago of Cuba is formed by the Isla de la Juventud and the Isla de Cuba itself, which has a long coastline with numerous bays, lagoons and barrier islands. Mangroves cover an important portion of the total forest area, protecting the coast from erosion, particularly during tropical storms. The largest single area of mangroves occurs on the Zapata peninsula, on the south coast. Other relevant mangrove stands are found in the north of Pinar del Río province from San Antonio to Bahía Honda, from Peninsula de Hicacos to Nuevitas and from Cabo Cruz to Casilda. The species present in the country are the locally called “mangle rojo” (Rhizophora mangle), “mangle prieto” (Avicennia germinans syn. A. nitida), the “patabán” (Laguncularia racemosa) and the “yana” (Conocarpus erectus). Utilización y peligros Mangroves play a very important ecological and economic role in the country. Their wood is used for fuelwood, poles and construction. The charcoal produced from the genera Rhizophora, Avicennia and Conocarpus is recognised as of a very high quality product, and represent an important percentage of national charcoal production. The wood of Avicennia nitida is especially used for construction items, the “cujes” to dry the tobacco in the production fields are made of Laguncularia racemosa wood, while Rhizophora mangle bark is an important source of tannins. Mangroves also play a special role in apiculture, for honey and wax production; during the flowering of the mangroves, particularly Avicennia sp., over 40 000 bee hives are transported to the mangrove areas, particularly on the south coast. The extraction of wood for charcoal and construction, the sugar and tobacco industry, and the production of tannins as well as the pollution (mainly due to industrial and agricultural contamination) largely affected the forests over the last years. Fin and shell fisheries are also important: the oyster national exportation totally depended on mangrove’s health. Some mangrove area loss have been caused by coastal erosion. An important plantation programme is on in Cuba since 1980, through which nearly 42 000 ha of A. nitida, C. erecuts, L. racemosa and R. mangle have been planted in 2003 only. Mangrove protection was already in force in the past decade; however it has been only from 1998 with the Law No. 85, Forestry Law and its Regulation and derogations “Reglamento y Contravenciones” (adopted in 1999), when an effective management and control of the resources has been reached. Diago Urfé, I. & Palenzuela Diaz, L. 2004. Information provided for the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 thematic study on mangroves. Unpublished.

INDAF. 1976. Panorama de la silvicultura en Cuba. Editorial ORBE, Havana.

Padrón C.M., Llorente S. & Menendez, L. 1993. Mangroves of Cuba. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 147-154. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

Lista de las especies exclusivas de los manglares Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle

47




1970 626 000 Atlas Nacional de Cuba. 1970. Citado en: Fisher, P y Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. Datos originales de Melvin, S. Brown (Law Environmental, Inc., Kennesaw, Georgia) del 'Atlas Nacional de Cuba, 1970'. Las areas incluyen las salinas, lo cual probablemente produjo una sobrestimación de las diferentes áreas. El documento contiene una división por provincias.

1972 531 100 Betancourt, A. 1972. Los manglares de Cuba. Baracoa 2(2): 31-54

X Citado en: Padrón C.M., Llorente S. y Menendez, L. 1993. Mangroves of Cuba. En: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 147-154. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports OIMT/ISME Proyecto PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japón. 272 pp

1976 400 000 INDAF. 1976. Panorama de la silvicultura en Cuba. Editorial ORBE - La Habana

Citado en: FAO, UNEP. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la America Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (en el marco de SINUVIMA). FAO, UNEP, 343 + 86 pp. La estimación debería de ser considerada como una subestima de los recursos.

1986 448 000 FAO. 1986. Sintesis de siete seminarios nacionales en América Latina. Rollet, B., ed. FAO, Roma. 105 pp.

Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. El "Año" es el año de publicación.

1987 538 200 Padrón C.M., Llorente S. y Menendez, L. 1993. Mangroves of Cuba. En: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 147-154. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports OIMT/ISME Proyecto PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japón. 272 pp.

X Esta cifra es el resultado de la suma de la extensión en 1972 y los manglares plantados entre 1980 y 1987 (es decir 7 100 ha).

1989 784 800 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. y Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.

Análisis de mapas. Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 1989. Nuevo Atlas Nacional de Cuba: Flora y Vegetation: 1 Vegetation Actual. 1:1 000 000. Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. La estimación debería de ser considerada como una sobrestima de los recursos.

48



1992 529 700 Padrón C.M., Llorente S. y Menendez, L. 1993. Mangroves of Cuba. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 147-154. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports OIMT/ISME Proyecto PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japón. 272 pp.

Esta cifra fue calculada como porcentaje de la superficie del país ocupada por los bosques de mangle (4.80%)

1993 556 900 Padrón C.M., Llorente S. y Menendez, L. 1993. Mangroves of Cuba. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America. p. 147-154. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports OIMT/ISME Proyecto PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japón. 272 pp.

Esta cifra es el resultado de la suma de la extensión en 1972 y los manglares plantados desde 1980 (25 800 ha).

1998 532 100 Ministerio de Ciencia Tecnología y Medio Ambiente, Agencia de Medio Ambiente, Centro de Información, Gestión y Educación Ambiental (CIGEA). 1999. Situación Ambiental Cubana 1998. La Habana, Cuba. 33 pp.

Los bosques de mangle cubren el 4.8% por ciento de la superficie total del país (o el 26 por ciento de la cubierta forestal total). Tomando en cuenta el informe del Ministerio de Ciencia Tecnología y Medio Ambiente, Agencia de Medio Ambiente. 2000, (ver más abajo) esta cifra probablemente representa un error tipográfico. (532 100 ha en lugar de 531 100).

1999 510 000 Izquierdo, M.M., Pinto, M.A., Rodríguez, N.S. 1999. Los productos forestales no madereros en Cuba. Serie Forestal No13, Oficina regional de la FAO para América Latina. Santiago, Chile. 69 pp.


2000 550 000 Aizpuru, M., Achard, F., y Blasco, F. 2000. Global Assessment of Cover Change of the Mangrove Forests using satellite imagery at medium to high resolution. In EEC Research project n 15017-1999-05 FIED ISP FR – Joint Research center, Ispra.

Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. El "Año" es el año de publicación. Éste podría estar basado en Padrón et al., 1993 (ver arriba).

2001 539 497 Dirección Forestal, Ministerio de la Agricultura. 2001. Dinámica Forestal. Información anual recopilada a través de los Servicios Estatales Forestales Provinciales y Municipales

Field survey

49




Field survey


X Field survey


537

400

541

400

547

500

545

805

545

500

100 000

200 000

300 000

400 000

500 000

600 000

700 000

800 000

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha

Cifras utilizadas para las tendencias Cifras no utilizadas Estimaciones Tendencia

The increase of mangrove area occurred in the country is mainly due to the plantation activities implemented at national level.




1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha Cuba 545 805 2003 537 400 541 400 545 500 547 500

Fórmulas utilizadas para realizar el análisis de tendencias Potencial: y=cxb en donde c y b son constantes.

52

Dominica Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangrove ecosystem in Dominica is not very large, it occurs in ten small patches. The tallest mangrove trees belong to Avicennia germinans, and may reach a height of 21 m. Conocarpus erectus is also recorded in Dominica. There is some evidence of minor cutting and clearance at Eden River site and some clearing for cultivation has been observed, but beside this there is no commercial exploitation. There are seven protected areas with mangroves in the country. Reference: Bacon, P.R. 1993. Mangroves in Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155-210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp



Year Area (ha) Source Tren

d Methodology/Comments



1984 30 Earth Satellite Corporation. 1986. Preparation of Natural Vegetation Map for Dominica. West Indies Final report

Data from aerial photograph interpretation. This figure may be slightly on the higher size since it is referring to swamp forest, including, besides Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans, also Pterocarpus officinalis, not a true mangrove species. Cited in: FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Dominica. By Hypolite, E. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 082. Unpublished.

53

Year Area (ha) Source Tren

d Methodology/Comments


X Ground survey

2000 25 Wood, E. 2000. Land cover map for Dominica. Caribbean Vegetation and Landcover Mapping Initiative. The Nature Conservancy, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, US Forest Service, EROS Data Center, and US Geological Service.

Data derived from the LandSat based land cover and vegetation map produced as part of the Caribbean Vegetation Mapping project. This figure may be slightly on the higher size since it is referring to swamp forest, including, besides Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans, also Pterocarpus officinalis, not a true mangrove species Cited in: FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Dominica. By Hypolite, E. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 082. Unpublished.


9

10

12

1010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha

Figures used for trends Figures not used for trends Calculated estimates

156 ha

Trend

55



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Dominica 10 1991 12 10 10 9

Formulas used for the trend analysis Mangroves in Dominica seem to have a fairly good conservation status; however some areas have been lost/degraded over the time. Estimates for 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2005 have been calculated applying an annual change rate (-1.1 percent) calculated for the swamp forests (data based on FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Dominica. By Hypolite, E. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 082. Unpublished.)

56

República Dominicana Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros La República Dominicana se ubica en la isla Hispaniola, que también alberga Haití. Los manglares se encuentran a lo largo de las costas de ambos países. En la costa caribeña, éstos conforman la segunda área de manglares más grande en extensión en el Caribe, después de la de Cuba. Sin embargo, el bosque más grande del país se localiza a lo largo de la costa septentrional, en el área de las bahías de Monte Cristi y Samaná. Los bosques permanentemente inundados se desarrollan a lo largo de las zonas costeras y áreas aledañas a las desembocadura de ríos y orillas de espejos de agua salobre, las especies dominantes son el mangle rojo, Rhizophora mangle, el mangle blanco, Avicennia germinans, syn A. nitida y Laguncularia racemosa (mangle amarillo); en la zona de bosque temporalmente inundado los árboles alcanzan una altura entre 5 y 20 m, Conocarpus erectus (mangle prieto) es la especie más abundante, con presencias esporádicas de Avicennia germinans. En los matorrales de humedales salobres abundan Conocarpus erectus y Laguncularia racemosa con una altura máxima de 2 metros. La amenaza principal para la salvaguarda de los manglares en este país es la industria del turismo. Los eventos naturales también representaron una causa de cambios de áreas en el país, como en los 1970, cuando un huracán destruyó un bosque cerca de Oviedo. En algunos casos, como en el área del actual Parque Nacional del Este hasta ardedor de los años 1930, los árboles fueron cortados para la producción de madera. Referencias: FAO. 1973. Inventario y fomento de los recursos forestales. Inventario Forestal FO:SF/DOM 8. Informe Técnico. Roma.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.

Tolentino, L. & M. Peña. 1998. Inventario de la Vegetación y Uso de la Tierra en la República Dominicana. Moscosoa 10: 179-203.

UNESCO. 1998. CARICOMP – Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove sites. Coastal region and small island papers 3, UNESCO, Paris, xiv + 347 pp.


57




1980 9 900 FAO, PNUMA. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la América Tropical Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (en el marco de SINUVIMA) FAO, PNUMA, pp 343 + 86.

Estimación y actualización basadas en: FAO. 1972. Informe sobre la rep. Dominicana. 11pp. (miméografo). Roma. Esta información debería ser considerada de índole subnacional, dado que representa la extensión de la costa oriental de manglares.

1983 32 500 Departamento de Inventario de Recursos (DIRENA). 1983.

X Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. El "Año de referencia" es el año de publicación


Datos tomados del mapa en Schubert, 1993 de escala aproximadamente 1:2 000 000, basado en fotografías aéreas de 1984 . Schubert, A. 1993. Conservación de la diversidad biológica en la República Dominicana. Oryx 27:115-121.

1991 23 500 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Comunicación personal

X Citado en: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp.

1998 21 215 Tolentino, L. and M. Peña. 1998. Inventario de la Vegetación y Uso de la Tierra en la República Dominicana. Moscosoa 10: 179-203.

X Teledetección.

Tendencia en la extensión del área de manglares en el tiempo 3

4 40

0

25

800

19

400

21

215

16

800

10 000

20 000

30 000

40 000

50 000

60 000

70 000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


59


Estimación del área de

manglares más reciente y confiable


1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha República Dominicana 21 215 1998 34 400 25 800 19 400 16 800


60

El Salvador Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros El Salvador es el país más pequeño de América Central y el único que carece de litoral en el Caribe. La alta tasa de densidad demográfica produjo una deforestación masiva tierra adentro y los manglares representan actualmente uno de los principales tipos de bosque en el país. Los manglares se encuentran a lo largo de todo el litoral pero se concentran especialmente en las lagunas y estuarios de la costa. Las áreas más sobresalientes son los estuarios de Punta San Juan y del río Lempa, ubicados, respectivamente, al centro y a oriente del país, así como el Golfo de Fonseca y la zona de frontera con Nicaragua. A occidente, las poblaciones de mangle se sitúan detrás de la laguna de Barra de Santiago. Las principales especies de manglar son Rhizophora mangle y Laguncularia racemosa. También existe el manglar casilar, considerado como manglar degradado de Rhizophora mangle. Los manglares han sido explotados en el tiempo para la producción de ácido tánico, de carbón vegetal y de madera de construcción. En algunas zonas, la urbanización incontrolada y la ocupación de tierras para la agricultura han llevado a su degradación. En años pasados, algunas áreas forestales han sido transformadas en saladares y en estanques de camarón aunque, hoy día, su impacto se ha reducido ya que no se dispensan más permisos. Referencias: FAO. 1975. Mapa ecológico de El Salvador. By L. R. Holdridge. MAG/FAO, San Salvador.

Olano,J. 2004. Información suministrada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.


Lista de las especies exclusivas de los manglares Avicennia bicolor Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle


Año Área (ha) Fuente Tendencia Metodología/Comentarios

1950 100 000 Cueva, N. 1962. Algunos obstaculos en el Desarrollo Económico de El Salvador. Banco Central, Resumen Anual. Diciembre 1961.

Citado en: Gammage, S., Benítez, M. y M. Machado. 2002. An entitlement approach to the challenge of mangrove management in El Salvador. Ambio 31 (4).

1961 30 000 Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. 1978. Forestry Annual. Servicio forestal Matazano, Ministeria de Agricultura y Ganadería, San Salvador.

Estimación aproximada basada en cuadros. Citado en: Gammage, S., Benítez, M. y M. Machado. 2002. An entitlement approach to the challenge of mangrove management in El Salvador. Ambio 31 (4).

61


1974 34 324 Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. 1978. Forestry Annual. Servicio forestal Matazano, Ministeria de Agricultura y Ganadería, San Salvador.


1975 45 283 CENREN/MAG. 1975. Servicio de Conservación de suelos.

Citado en: FAO. 1990. Política forestal. El Savador. Por Monzon, Perala A. Documento de campo. FAO-FO--TCP/ELS/0051. Roma, 159 pp.

1978 35 779 Miranda, M.E. 1983. Los Manglares de El Salvador. Seminario Nacional sobre Manejo Integrado de los Manglares. Tegucigalpa (Honduras), 21-24 jun 1983

Fotos aéreas (Inventario del Servicio Forestal 1978-1979).

1980 45 000 FAO, PNUMA. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la América Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (en el marco de SINUVIMA). FAO, PNUMA, 343 + 86 pp.

Basado en: FAO. 1975. Plan preliminar para el desarrollo forestal en El Salvador. FO:DP ELS/73/004. Documento de trabajo N. 5 basado en la labor de D. Moore. San Salvador (actualizado hasta 1980).


X Análisis de mapas. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. 1981. Mapa de Vegetación Arbórea de El Salvador. 1:200 000. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, Dirección General de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Programa Determinación del Uso Potencial del Suelo.

1986 36 000 FAO. 1986. Síntesis de siete seminarios nacionales en América Latina. Rollet, B (ed). FAO, Roma. 105 pp.

Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. El "Año" es el año de publicación. Podría referirse a Miranda, M.E. 1983.

1990 39 240 Nuñez et al. 1990. Inventario y políticas para los recursos naturales de El Salvador.

X Citado en: Rodríguez, Cruz E. A., Vaquerano Gomez L. A. 1996. Actualización del Registro Nacional de Plantaciones y Cuantificación de Volumen. Proyecto fortalecimiento a los recursos forestal, agua y suelo.

1990 35 234 Yanes, J., Ventura, N., Gonzalo, M. y Chávez, T. 1991. A diagnostic of the situation of the mangroves in El Salvador. Universidad Nacional de El Salvador, San Salvador.


62


1992 35 235 Jimenez. 1992. Mangrove forest of the Pacific Coast of Central America. In: U. Seelinger, ed. 1992. Coastal Plant Communities of Latin America. p. 259-267. Academic Press, San Diego, 392 pp.

X El “Año” es el año de publicación.

1994 31 830 Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. 1994. Current Soil use. Departamento General de Estadística Agropecuaria, San Salvador.


1994 26 800 Funes. 1994. Situación de los Bosques Salados en El Salvador. In: Suma D.O., ed. 1994. El Ecosistema de Manglar en America Latina y la cuenca del Caribe: su Manejo y Conservación. pp.106-16. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Universidad de Miami, Miami EE.UU.

X Citado en: Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. y Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.

2000 41 500 World Resources Institute. 2000. World resources 2000-2001: people and ecosystem—the fraying web of life. Washington, DC., PNUD. 400 pp.

Fuente secundaria, no se contó con una referencia primaria.

2004 28 000 Olano,J. 2004. Información suministrada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.

X Estimación aproximada. Inventario nacional en curso.


46

700

28

000

28

000

28

500

35

300

20 000

40 000

60 000

80 000

100 000

120 000

1950

1961

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha

Cifras utilizadas Cifras no utilizadas Estimaciones Tendencia La estimación para el año 2005 se basa en la información cualitativa actualmente disponible.

64




1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha El Salvador 28 000 2004 46 700 35 300 28 500 28 000


65

Grenada Vegetation description, uses and threats Twenty-two mangrove sites have been identified in Grenada. Most of them are small mangrove swamps made up of red (Rhizophora sp.), black (Avicennia sp.), white mangrove (Laguncularia sp.) and button mangrove (Conocarpus sp.). The largest stand is found on Levera Pond. Rhizophora mangle is dominant and form extensive coastal fringes with Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa. Trees have a mean height of 15 m. Mangroves have been used in minor scale to produce charcoal and firewood, while some areas have been damaged by tourism developments or conversion to agricultural land. Other losses have been caused by tourism and agriculture. Reference: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Beard, J. S. 1949. The natural vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry Memoirs 21. Clarendon Press, London. 192 pp.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp






66


1982 288 Eschweiler, J. 1982 Explanatory note to the land use maps of Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique (1982 Scale 1:25 000). Land Use Division, Ministry of Agriculture, St. Georges, Grenada.

X Cited in: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

1982 231 Paterson, G. 2000. Caribbean Workshop on Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forestry Management Country Report (Grenada).In: proceedings of the EC-FAO Workshop on Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forestry Management 21-25 February, 2000, Port of Spain, Trinidad .

Secondary reference based on aerial photographs interpretation

1982 190 Purey-Cust, J.R. 1992. Grenada National Forestry Action Programme report, FAO, Rome.

Secondary reference, no primary source provided.

1989 530 Weaver. 1989. Forestry development Grenada. Technical Report: Planning and Management Activities. FAO. Tech Coop Prog, FO:TCP/GRN/8851, St. Georges, Grenada

Cited in: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

1991 218 CCA/IRF. 1991. Grenada: Country Environmental Profile. Caribbean Conservation Association for Government of Grenada in association with Island Resourcers Foundation and the Grenada National Trust, 276 pp.

Cited in: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp. Largely based on: Eschweiler. 1982. (see above) and on Weaver. 1989 (see above). The "Year" is the publication year.

1992 255 FAO. 1992. Report on Land Use Watershed Management Grenada. Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Field document GCP/RLA/098/UK. By Gumbs, F.A., St. George's (Grenada), 44 pp.

X Aerial photographs interpretation (dated 1992). Source of photographs: Land Use Division. Ministry of Agriculture. Government of Grenada. The figure includes also Petite Martinique


5

260

230

215

255

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


68



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Grenada 255 1992 295 260 230 215


69

Guadeloupe Végétation, utilisations et menaces L’archipel guadeloupéen est composé de deux îles principales, la Grande-Terre et la Basse-Terre, séparées par un étroit bras de mer. Le 90 pour cent des zones de mangroves se trouvent des deux côtés du bras de mer et autour de l’ample baie de Grand Cul-de-sac Marin, où l’on trouve la plus grande forêt de mangroves de l’archipel. La Baie du Grand Cul-de-sac Marin, site Ramsar depuis 1993 et partie prenante de la Réserve de Biosphère (MAB) de la Guadeloupe, comprend la plus part des marécages côtiers. Les peuplements vierges sont denses et peuvent atteindre 21 mètres de hauteur. Les marécages à mangroves sont généralement présents côté mer tandis que les marécages d’eau douce à Pterocarpus sont présents côté terre; les marécages à Cladium ou Acrostichum se trouvent dans les zones saumâtres. Rhizophora mangle se retrouve en première ligne, de la plage vers l’intérieur, et puis mélangée à Avicennia germinans et A. shaueriana. Suit une forêt mixte de grandes mangroves, principalement composée de Laguncularia racemosa et Avicennia germinans. L’urbanisation côtière a donné lieu, dans le temps, à de petits changements dans la superficie et représente, avec l’industrialisation, la menace la plus importante. Cependant, les mangroves sont protégées, le public est sensibilisé au problème et de plus en plus de politiques de conservation sont adoptées. Référence: Imbert, D. 2005. Information présentée dans le cadre de l’Étude thématique sur les mangroves destinée à l’Évaluation des ressources forestières mondiales 2005 (FRA 2005). Non publiée.

IFRECOR. 1998. L'état des récifs coralliens en France Outre-Mer. http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/article.php3?id_article=793 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. 2003. The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. France. http://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_france.htm

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. et Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japon. 178 pp.

Liste des espèces exclusives des mangroves Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans Avicennia schaueriana Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle

Estimations au niveau national

Année Superficie (ha) Référence Tend

ance Méthodologie/Commentaires

1976 8 900 Office National des forêts, Direction des services pour la Guadeloupe. 1976. Vers un aménagement de la forêt soumise de Guadeloupe.

Estimation pour 1976. Référence secondaire, référence primaire non indiquée.

70

Année Superficie (ha) Référence Tend

ance Méthodologie/Commentaires

1980 3 983 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. et Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japon. 178 pp.

Analyse cartographique à l’échelle 1:150 000. La donnée sur les mangroves de la Guadeloupe a été tirée de CNRS (1980) tandis que les données pour St Martin et St Barthélemy sont tirées de Preliminary Data Atlases (ensemble d’atlas) publiés par The Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program (ECNAMP) réalisée par Caribbean Conservation Association et School of Natural Resources, Univ. de Michigan. Les données pour ces atlas mondiaux ont été déterminées à partir de plusieurs sources ayant, dans la plupart des cas, des cartes aux échelles 1:500 000 et 1:300 000. Les superficies de Acrostichum sp. et Pterocarpus sp. sont comptées dans cette estimation ; dans l’étude, Pterocarpus sp. n’a pas été considérée comme une espèce de mangrove (mais seulement comme une espèce compagne)

1983 8 000 Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. et J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on ecology Papers No.3. UICN. Gland, Suisse. 88 pp.

Référence secondaire, référence primaire non indiquée. L’ « année » correspond à l’année de publication. Se réfère probablement à Office National des forêts, Direction des services pour la Guadeloupe. 1976.

1986 7 500 Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. et Zantovska, J. 1986. Plants in danger: what do we know? UICN, Gland, Suisse et Cambridge, Royaume-Uni. 461 pp.

Cité dans : CEP. 1996. Status of Protected Area Systems in the Wider Caribbean Region. Technical Report No. 36 http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/techreports/tr36en/countries/guadeloupe.html L’ « année » correspond à l’année de publication.

1986 3 000 FAO. 1986. Sintesis de siete seminarios nacionales en América Latina. Rollet, B (ed). FAO, Rome. 105 pp.

X Estimation approximative. Référence secondaire, référence primaire non indiquée. L’ « année » correspond à l’année de publication. Information également présentée dans : IFRECOR. 1998. L'état des récifs coralliens en France Outre-Mer. http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/article.php3?id_article=793

1991 5 700 Jean Luc Toffart (Ecole Pratique de Hautes Études, Paris, France), nd.

Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Correspondance personnelle. Cité dans: Fisher, P et Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, Royaume-Uni. 60 pp. L’ « année » correspond à l’année de publication.

1997 2 950 Ibid. X Estimation approximative tirée de Chauvaud S. 1997. Cartographie par télédétection à haute résolution des biocénoses marines côtières de la Guadeloupe et de la Martinique. Estimation de la biomasse et de la production primaire des herbiers à Thalassia testudinum. Thèse de doctorat, Univ. Bretagne Occidentale, 242 pp. (2325 ha for Cul-de-sac) et Imbert, D. communication personnelle.

Tendances de l’étendue des zones de mangrove dans le temps

2 9

90

2 9

50

2 9

50

2 9

50

3 0

00

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

7 000

8 000

9 000

10 000

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Année

ha

Chiffres utilisés Chiffres non utilisés Estimations Tendance

Seulement de petits changements dans la superficie des mangroves ont eu lieu au cours des vingt dernières années.

72

Synthèse de la situation de l’étendue de mangroves dans le temps

Estimation fiable la plus récente de la surface de

mangrove

Surface de mangrove

1980

Surface de mangrove

1990

Surface de mangrove

2000

Surface de mangrove

2005

ha Année de réf. ha ha ha ha Guadeloupe 2 950 1997 3 000 2 990 2 960 2 950

Formules appliquées pour analyser les tendances Linéaire :

Soit y = mx + b où m est une pente constante et b est l’ordonnée à l’origine.

73

Guatemala Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros En Guatemala, los manglares se concentran en lagunas a lo largo de las costas del Pacífico, el área más extensa se sitúa alrededor de las lagunas, estuarios y deltas de la zona occidental cerca de la frontera con México y el río Ococito. En dirección este, se encuentran áreas importantes de manglar en el estuario del río Acome, las lagunas de Monterrico y el estuario del río Paz. En la costa del Caribe existen sólo pocas áreas, a lo largo de la Bahía de Amatique y el delta del Río Chocón. En todas las zonas, los manglares son explotados para la producción de carbón y leña. La tala incontrolada para madera de construcción, la producción camaronera y la extracción de la sal son actividades que representan una amenaza para muchas áreas. Algunas zonas han sido desboscadas también para fines agrícolas y para la urbanización, mientras que otras han sido degradadas por fuegos forestales. Algunas zonas agrícolas y de cultivo de camarón abandonadas permiten una regeneración natural de algunas especies de manglar, y aunque no haya un equilibrio total entre las áreas que se pierden y las que se regeneran, esto hace que el cambio de extensión forestal sea mínimo a lo largo de los años. En este marco además, muchas comunidades rurales son muy activas en plantación y protección tras reforestación de camaroneras abandonadas (por ejemplo en Retalhuleu) y de pequeñas áreas degradadas (por ejemplo departamentos de la Costa Sur: Escuintla, Suchitepéquez, Retalhueleu, San Marcos). Una parte de los manglares guatemaltecos están protegidos en tres áreas distintas: el Parque Nacional Sipacate Naranjo (que incluye acerca de 231 ha de manglares), la Reserva Natural privada “Manchón Guamuchal” (1 255 ha) y el Area de uso múltiple “Monterrico” (1 363 ha), sin embargo las actividades de control en estas áreas no son muy frecuentes, especialmente a causa de la falta de personal de protección y control y los manglares son aprovechados para la preparación de leña, postes y madera de construcción Referencias Margareth Dix, Juan F. Fernández. (Ed) 2001. Inventario Nacional de los Humedales de Guatemala. UICN-Mesoamérica. 176 pp. San José, Costa Rica.

Pérez Irungaray, G.E. 2004. Información proporcionada en el marco de la Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Mundiales 2005 (FRA 2005) – Estudio temático sobre manglares. No publicado.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997 World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.


74




1965 23 400 Morales C.J.V. 1983. Los manglares de Guatemala. In proceedings of the Conference: Seminario Nacional sobre Manejo Integrado de los Manglares. Tegucigalpa (Honduras), 21-24 jun 1983

X Interpretación de fotografías aéreas.


Interpretación de fotografías aéreas.


Estimación y actualización para 1980 basada en Mittak, W.L. 1977. Fortalecimiento del sector forestal - Estudios para la reforma nacional. FO:DP/GUA/72/006. Estimación aproximada.


Interpretación de fotografías aéreas.


Interpretación de imágenes satelitales.

1988 17 400 Anon. 1990. Guatemala Forest Mapping Project, 1990.

X Teledetección.


Análisis de mapas. Los datos del mapa de referencia son el producto de un mapa 1:250 000 de 1992, Mapa Preliminar de la Cubierta Forestal de Guatemala. Anon. n.d. Cubierta Forestal de la República de Guatemala - Plan de Acción Forestal de Guatemala. 1:500 000. La estimación podría faltar de las áreas de manglar más pequeñas.


Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente de datos primaria. El "Año" es el año de publicación. Aún si ésta cifra sólo representa la extensión de los manglares de la costa del Pacífico, ésta es muy similar a las estimaciones nacionales.

75



1996 12 000 UICN. 2001. Project on Sustainable Use of Resources Associated with Mangroves on the Pacific Coast of Guatemala. http://uicnhumedales.org/english/mangroves_guatemala.htm


1999 17 727 Instituto Nacional de Bosques. 2000. Mapa de Cobertura Forestal 1999. Documento enviado por e-mail.

X Encuesta terrestre y de teledetección.

2001 17 000 Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Instituto Nacional de Bosques, Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas, Ministerio de Agricultura, FAO (Plan de Acción Forestal para Guatemala). 2004. Mapa de Cobertura Forestal de Guatemala. Guatemala

Estimación aproximada basada en el análisis del mapa.


17

727

18

600

17

400

17

500

17

500

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

30 000

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha


50 000

Las estimaciones para los años 2000 y 2005 están basadas en la información cualitativa actualmente disponible para el país; aunque se hayan perdido/degradado algunas áreas de manglares a lo largo de los años, los cambios en extensión son mínimos, gracias a la regeneración natural y a las actividades de plantación y reforestación a nivel de comunidades locales. Las estimaciones para los años 1980 y 1990 se basan en el análisis de tendencia.

77





1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha Guatemala 17 727 1999 18 600 17 400 17 500 17 500


78

Haïti Végétation, utilisations et menaces Haïti et la République Dominicaine partagent l’île de Hispaniola qui est l’île la plus grande des Caraïbes après Cuba. Quelques espèces de mangroves se retrouvent le long des côtes ; en général, les peuplements de mangroves rouges (Rhizophora mangle) et noires (Avicennia germinans, syn A. nitida) sont les plus répandus. Les forêts de mangroves se retrouvent le long des grands estuaires, surtout le long de la cote nord, à l’est de Cap Haïtien, et sur la côte est, à sud de Gonaïves. Des peuplements se retrouvent également à Fort Liberté, dans le nord-est du pays. À Haïti, les mangroves sont parmi les écosystèmes les moins menacés bien que ces ressources soient en partie utilisées, surtout pour la production de charbon végétal et de perches. Référence: FAO, PNUE. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la America Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (dans le cadre de SINUVIMA). FAO, PNUE, 343 + 86 pp.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japon. 178 pp.

Liste des espèces exclusives des mangroves Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle

Estimations au niveau national Anné

e

Superficie

(ha) Source Tenda

nce Méthodologie/Commentaires

1956 19 450 FAO, 1978. Reboisement et lutte contre l'érosion, Haïti. Étude qualitative et quantitative de l’évolution du couvert forestier entre 1956-1958 et 1977- Rapport technique 2. HAI/72/012, Rome.

X Chiffres tirés de cartes basées sur l’interprétation de photos aériennes effectuées en 1956-1958


Analyse cartographique. La référence complète de la carte consultée n’est pas disponible mais les données de base comprennent des photographies aériennes prises en 1978 au 1:40 000 et des cartes des zones agricoles en 1982. Inconnu n.d. Atlas d'Haïti. Planche 8 Écologique, par Roca, P.-J. 1:1 000 000. Référence complète non disponible.

1980 17 800 FAO, PNUE. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la America Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (dans le cadre de SINUVIMA). FAO, PNUE, 343 + 86 pp.

X Estimation et mise à jour à partir de : FAO. 1978. Étude qualitative et quantitative de l'évolution du couvert forestier entre 1956-1958 et 1977. FO: DP/HAI/72/012. Rapport technique 2. À partir de l’étude de M. J. Berry et K.D. Musgrave. FAO, Rome.

79

Année

Superficie

(ha) Source Tenda

nce Méthodologie/Commentaires

1983 18 000 Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. et J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on ecology Papers No. 3. UICN. Gland, Suisse. 88 pp.

Probablement tiré de FAO, PNUE, 1981. (voir référence citée).

1988 15 000 Université Catholique de Louvain, 1998. Étude de la déforestation et la dégradation de l’environnement à Haïti. In. FAO, 1998. Forestry policies in the Caribbean, Vol 2: Reports of 28 selected countries and territories. Étude FAO Forêts. 137/2.

X Ce document cite une étude du Bureau de Développement et de la Production Agricole (B.D.P.A.) qui a estimé les Ressources Forestières d’après le plan d’occupation des sols de 1982, fondé sur des prises de vue aérienne de 1978 et mise à jour pour 1988.

Tendances de l’étendue des zones de mangrove dans le temps

17

800

15

000

13

700

15

000

14

300

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

1956

1960

1965

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Année

ha


Les estimations pour l’année 1980 sont tirées des données originales (FAO, PNUE. 1981) tandis que l’estimation pour 1990 est faite par un spécialiste du secteur.

81


Estimation fiable la plus récente de la surface de mangrove

Surface de mangrove

1980

Surface de mangrove

1990

Surface de mangrove

2000

Surface de mangrove

2005

ha Année de réf. ha ha ha ha Haïti 15 000 1988 17 800 15 000 14 300 13 700



82

Honduras Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros Honduras cuenta con áreas importantes de manglares tanto en el litoral del Pacífico, como en el litoral del Caribe. El litoral del Pacífico se ubica enteramente dentro del Golfo de Fonseca, el cual esta bordeado de amplias hileras de poblaciones de manglares que representan el 58 por ciento de la superficie total nacional de manglares. El litoral del Caribe tiene amplias áreas de manglares asociados a lagunas, estuarios y deltas. Los bosques de mangle comprenden: Avicennia bicolor, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpus erectus, Laguncularia racemosa, y Rhizophora mangle. El manglar se usa sobre todo para la leña y los taninos, que se extraen de la corteza; el aumento demográfico ha llevado a un rápido e insostenible aumento de la demanda en manglar, lo que representa una grave amenaza para la salud del manglar. El rápido y extenso desmonte de estos bosques para la cría del camarón así como también la expansión de estanques salados son consideradas las mayores amenazas del momento. Unas 150 hectáreas han sido reforestadas con Rhizophora mangle a fines energéticos y de restauración (i.e. Choluteca y Valle). Se cuentan 12 áreas protegidas con manglares, sin embargo no existen programas de ordenación nacional del manglar en Honduras. Referencias Lezama, R. 2004. Información suministrada en el cuadro del Estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales 2005 (FRA 2005). No publicado.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997 World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.

Lista de las especies exclusivas de los manglares Avicennia bicolor Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle




1965 297 800 FAO. 1967. Proyecto de Inventario Forestal FO-FAO/SF 26 HON/50 (map).

Teledetección. Esta cifra representa la extensión de todos los pantanos de manglar, incluyendo otras zonas húmedas y vegetación costera.


La cifra representa la extensión de todos los pantanos de manglar. Esta cifra podría estar basada en FAO. 1967 (arriba)

83



1981 145 000 Flores, O.A. 1983. Reseña del estado actual de los manglares en Honduras. In proceedings of the Conference: Seminario Nacional sobre Manejo Integrado de los Manglares. Tegucigalpa (Honduras), 21-24 jun 1983

X La cifra se basa en la información suministrada por la FAO, PNUMA. 1981. (ver arriba).

1991 117 000 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Comunicación personal.

Citado en: Fisher, P y Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Borrador de informe World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp.


X Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. El "Año" es el año de publicación.

1994 145 800 Oyuyela, O. 1994. Los Manglares del Golfo de Fonseca - Honduras. In: Suma, D.O., ed. 1994. El Ecosistema de Manglar en America Latina y la Cuenca del Caribe: su manejo y conservación. . pp 133-143. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, EE.UU.

Citado en: Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. y Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.

1995 54 300 Administración Forestal del Estado. (AFE-COHDEFOR) Estadísticas Forestales CIEF. 1998. Mapa Forestal de Honduras 1995. Area de Ordenamiento Territorial AOT – SERNA (Scale 1:500,000). http://serna.gob.hn/siniageo/metadata/cohfr231.htm

Teledetección. La gran discrepancia respecto a las demás cifras disponibles para este país obedece a que este documento indica sólo la extensión de los bosques de mangle. El documento también indica la extensión del área deforestada, por ej. 243,500 ha, por lo tanto corresponde a la extensión de 1965.

1996 46 000 Harcourt, C.S. y Sayer, J.A. 1996. The conservation atlas of tropical forests: the Americas. Simon and Shuster, New York, EE.UU. 335 pp.



Análisis de mapas. COHDEFOR n.d. Mapa de Recursos Costeros. 1:1 000 000. Mapa inédito. COHDEFOR El “Año” es el año de publicación.

2000 78 668 AFE-COHDEFOR-BCO. MUNDIAL-SAG-UNAH.2000. Mapa de Ecosistemas Vegetales de Honduras. Clasificación 65 y 67.

Interpretación de imagines LANDSAT 1993-2000.


118

400

67

200

78

668

152

500

50 000

100 000

150 000

200 000

250 000

300 000

350 000

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha

Cifras utilizadas Cifras no utilizadas Estimaciones Trend

85





1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha Honduras 78 668 2000 152 500 118 400 78 700 67 200

Fórmulas utilizadas para realizar el análisis de tendencias Lineal: y = mx + b en donde m es la pendiente y b es la constante

86

Jamaica Vegetation description, uses and threats Jamaica is fringed with mangroves around its entire coast, the largest concentrations being found on the south, associated with a variety of bays, lagoons and inlets. Rhizophora mangle is dominant but there are also extensive areas of Avicennia germinans, and some small stands of Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. The largest single areas are lagoon fringe communities, but a wide range of other community types are found, including basin, estuarine and even small overwash communities on offshore cays. Even if the largest concentration are on the south, the best structural development occurs on the north coast with tree densities of forty or more per hectare and with a mean height of 16 m (Florida Lands, Falmouth). The south coast is much drier and trees rarely exceed 6 m in height. There are no permanent human settlements in mangrove areas, however they are traditionally used for charcoal production, fishing and oyster harvesting. Minor commercial activity is associated with the use of mangrove stakes for oyster racks, garden poles and beach hut construction. Substantial areas have been cleared for urban development and the backs of other areas reclaimed for agriculture. About 30 percent of the original mangrove area is now lost, and damage is continuing with uncontrolled artisan activities, urban sprawl, dumping of waste, infrastructure improvement and tourism development along the coast. Damages to mangrove ecosystem lead to negative impact also in different sectors the major being the fishery, since a loss of mangroves may correspond to a reduction or a loss of feeding and nursery habitat for many marine species. Nowadays more than 6 000 ha of mangroves are protected in this country, both in National Parks and in other kind of protection areas. Reference: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Jamaica. By Owen, E. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 178. Unpublished.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

True mangrove species checklist Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle

87



1970 15 200 Expert estimate Expert estimate based on the figure and on the qualitative information provided in Bacon, P.R., 1993 (i.e. nearly 30% of the original mangroves have been lost). This data has not been used for trends since the year is a dummy date; however it has been taking into account as qualitative information.

1980 7 000 FAO, UNEP. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la America Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (en el marco de SINUVIMA). FAO, UNEP, 343 + 86 pp.

Estimation and updating based on FAO. 1972. Forest Inventory of Jamaica. By K.M. Gray and G.A. Symes - FO:SF/JAM/5. Technical Report No.3. Kingston.

1989 9 751 Evelyn O. B & Camirand R., 2003. Forestry cover and deforestation in Jamaica: an analysis of forest cover and estimates over time. Jamaica. In: International Forestry Review. pp. 354-363. 5(4), 2003

Analysis of forest cover change over period 1989 to 1998 using LANDSAT TM images (1:100 000), aerial photos and field checks. Cited in: FAO. 2005 Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Jamaica. By Owen, E. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 178. Unpublished. Also available at www.forestry.gov.jm

1991 10 624 Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

X Report based on a preliminary inventory of mangrove areas by Wetlands Evaluation Research Project (WERP) of the University of the West Indies and Natural Resources Conservation Authority. Ground survey, breakdown in sites provided.

1991 20 200 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal communication.

Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. Original data from Barry Wide (General Manager, Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica), based on a range of 20 200 to 28 300 ha for the wetlands (i.e. mangrove and marsh).

1997 9 731 Forestry Department-Government of Jamaica. 2000. National Forest Management and Conservation Plan. Draft

X Based on remote sensing: land use/cover types area 1989 and 1988 watershed management unit and protection status. Forestry Dep. 1994

88


1997 1 900 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

Map analysis. Digital data of Jamaica's vegetation were kindly made available by Doug Muchoney and Susan Iremonger of TNC, who together with Robb Wright and in collaboration with the Conservation Data Centre - Jamaica, have compiled vegetation cover information for the whole of the country. A written report entitled Jamaican Vegetation Types: a new classification and map, outlines in detail findings of their data collection and research and presents a description of the new classification.

1998 11 978 EC/FAO. 2000. Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management. In: ACP Countries Linking National and International Efforts. Proceedings of the Sub-Regional Workshop on Data Collection and Outlook Effort for Forestry in the Caribbean, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago

The figure is the extent of swamps and mangroves.


12

000

10

700

9 7

00

9 6

00

9 7

31

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


Qualitative information (Bacon. 1993) is reporting that around 30 per cent of original mangrove area extent have been lost during the last 20 years, the 1980 extent has been thus estimated at around 15 000 ha in the year 1980. Mangrove area extent for the years 1990, 2000 and 2005 are based on linear regression and expert estimate.

90



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Jamaica 9 731 1997 12 000 10 700 9 700 9 600


91

Martinique Végétation, utilisations et menaces La plus grande zone de forêt marécageuse de mangroves se retrouve autour de la Baie de Fort-de France. De plus petites zones se retrouvent sur les baies abritées de la côte orientale et méridionale de l'île. La végétation de mangrove montre clairement un modèle de zonage formé de quatre franges différentes qui vont de la côte vers l’intérieur : une première frange périphérique et côtière dominée par la Rhizophora mangle ; une seconde frange de forêt rabougrie ; une troisième frange plus interne de forêt claire dominée par la Rhizophora sp. ; une quatrième frange de forêt claire dominée par l’Avicennia germinans et/ou la Laguncularia racemosa. Il existe également deux zones différentes qui sont protégées par l’état. Les espèces les plus répandues, en Martinique ainsi que dans d'autres îles des Petites Antilles, sont : Acrostichum aureum, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpus erectus. L’urbanisation et l’industrialisation ont causé une légère perte de mangroves. Référence: IFRECOR. nd. État des milieux à La Martinique http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/article.php3?id_article=787&var_recherche=+martinique

Imbert, D. 2005. Information présentée dans le cadre de l’étude thématique sur les mangroves destinée à l’Évaluation des ressources forestières mondiales 2005 (FRA 2005). Non publiée.

Liste des espèces exclusives des mangroves Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans Avicennia schaueriana Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle

Estimations au niveau national

Année Superficie (ha) Référence Tendance Méthodologie/Commentaires

1983 1 900 Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. et J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on ecology Papers No.3. UICN. Gland, Suisse. 88 pp.

X Référence secondaire, référence primaire non indiquée. L' « année » correspond à l’année de publication.

1986 2 000 FAO. 1986. Sintesis de siete seminarios nacionales en América Latina. Rollet, B (ed). FAO, Rome. 105 pp.

Il pourrait s'agir d'une estimation approximative tirée de Saenger. et al. 1983.

1991 2 200 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Correspondance personnelle

Cité dans : Fisher, P et Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, Royaume-Uni. 60 pp.

92

Année Superficie (ha) Référence Tendance Méthodologie/Commentaires


Analyse cartographique à l’échelle 1:100 000. L’information sur les mangroves est tirée de la carte au 1:100 000 suivante : Martinique Carte 511 (n.d.) par l’Institut Géographique National (IGN) et publié par IGN, Paris, France. L' « année » correspond à l’année de publication.

1998 1 840 DAF-Agreste. 1998. X Cité dans : Office National des Forêts. 1998. Inventaire de la ressource forestière de la Martinique pour la FAO. Martinique

Tendances de l’étendue des zones de mangrove dans le temps 1

900

1 9

00

1 8

00

1 8

40

1 8

00

1 000

2 000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Année

ha


Quelques petits changements de l’étendue de mangroves ont eu lieu dans le temps.

94


Estimation fiable la plus récente de la surface de

mangrove

Surface de mangrove

1980

Surface de mangrove

1990

Surface de mangrove

2000

Surface de mangrove

2005

ha Année de réf. ha ha ha ha Martinique 1 840 1998 1 900 1 900 1 800 1 800



95

México Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros Los manglares de México se distribuyen en ambas costas del país; en la costa del Pacifico se desarrollan desde Chiapas (N 14º 30’ W 92º 15’) hasta la Baja California en la Laguna de San Ignacio (N 28º 00´; W 114º 30´), mientras que en la costa del Atlántico se encuentran desde la parte sur de Quintana Roo (en el litoral del Caribe; N 18º 15’; 87º 30´) hasta las coordenadas N 25º 45´; W 97º 09´ en la Laguna Madre en el estado de Tamaulipas (Golfo de México). Las áreas más amplias y desarrolladas son las ubicadas en las lagunas costeras con una entrada significativa de agua dulce y amplios estuarios. Estas áreas se encuentran sobre todo en el Golfo en las lagunas que se forman en las desembocaduras de los ríos mas caudalosos de México, el Río Grijalva, Usumacinta, Tulijá y Papaloapan como la Laguna de Términos, de Atasta, Pom, Machona, el Carmen, Sontecomapan, Alvarado y Camaronera además de bahías y pequeñas lagunas como las Bahías de San José, Espíritu Santo, de la Ascensión y las lagunas de Campechén, Yalahua, Mandinga, de Tamiahua, la zona lagunar del Río Tamesí y del río Soto la Marina. En la costa del Pacifico los bosques de mangle se encuentran distribuidos a lo largo de la costa: en Chiapas, en la zona conocida como las pampas de Maragato-La Cantileña, además que en los esteros de la Carreta y Palo Blanco, en las lagunas el Mosquito, Encrucijada y la Joya; en la provincia de Oaxaca estos ecosistemas se desarrollan en pequeñas zonas entre la Laguna Inferior y el Mar Muerto además que en las lagunas de Chacahua y Corralero; en Guerrero crecen en varias lagunas como la Tres Palos y la Coyuca; en Michoacán de Ocampo se localizan sólo en pequeñas áreas en la desembocadura de algunos ríos, como también en los estados de Colima, Jalisco y Nayarit, donde desarrollan bosques de significativa importancia en las lagunas de Agua Brava y Teacapan; en las costas de Sinaloa los manglares crecen en esteros, bahías y en ensenadas, desde Mazatlán hasta Los Mochis; en las provincias de Sonora y Baja California las especies de manglar se encuentran muy localizados y prácticamente sólo en forma de arbustos. En México estos ecosistemas pueden llegar a formar bosques muy densos y desarrollados, especialmente en los humedales costeros de los deltas del Grijalva y Usumacinta en la provincia de Tabasco y Campeche y en las lagunas costeras de Chiapas, donde los árboles alcanzan los 30 m y las comunidades de manglares se extienden al interior en la ribera de los ríos durante varios kilómetros. Con el aumento de la latitud, la diversidad del ecosistema disminuye y las comunidades vegetales se desarrollan en forma arbustiva. Las cuatro especies arbóreas más comunes en México son: Rhizophora mangle (mangle rojo), Laguncularia racemosa (mangle blanco), Avicennia germinans (sin. A. nitida, mangle negro) y Conocarpus erectus (mangle botoncillo). Muchas áreas de manglares en este país han sido deforestadas a lo largo de los años para ceder el paso a la agricultura, al ganado, a la acuicultura, a la urbanización y al desarrollo turístico. También se han seguido utilizando para sacar madera y leña mientras que las cortezas de Rhizophora, Laguncularia y Conocarpus se usan para producir ácido tánico. Todas las especies de mangle del país son vulnerables: son susceptibles al cambio climático y al aumento del nivel del mar, en particular las especies del Golfo de México. También es importante notar que a causa de los huracanes que impactaron las costas de México en 2005 (Emily, Wilma, y Stan) una vasta extensión de manglares todavia por establecer, fue dañada o perdida. Referencias Gimate Leyva, J.R. 2005. Información suministrada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.

96

Pennington, T.D. & Sarukhan, J. 1968. Manual para la identificación de campo de los principales árboles tropicales de México. México, INIF/FAO.

Rzedowsky, J. 1978. Vegetación de México. México, Editorial Limusa.


Victoria Hernández, A. 2005. Información suministrada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.

Yánez-Arancibia, A. & Lara-Dominguez, A.L. 2004. Información suministrada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.

Lista de las especies exclusivas de los manglares Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora harrisonii Rhizophora mangle




1971 1 420 230 Flores Mata, G., J. Jiménez, X. Madrigal, F. Moncayo y F. Takaki. 1971. Memorias del mapa de tipos de vegetación de la República Mexicana. Secretaría de Recursos Hidraúlicos, México

X Integración Bibliográfica y Cartográfica Citado en: López-Portillo, J. 2004. Información suministrada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.


Basado en la información suministrada por: Dirección General del Inventario Nacional Forestal. 1975. Mapa de Tipos de vegetación y uso del suelo de la República Mexicana. Escala 1:1 000 000 (fraccionado en 4 hojas). México; Dirección General del Inventario Nacional Forestal. 1977. Estadísticas del recurso forestal de la República Mexicana. Publicación D.G.I.N.F. No. 42 - México; Dirección General del Inventario Nacional Forestal. 1978. Estadísticas del recurso forestal de la República Mexicana - 1978. México.

1976 1 045 503 Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática. 1976. Vegetación y uso de suelo.

X Análisis visual de fotografías aéreas digitalizadas, escala 1:250 000, realizado en el INE. Citado en: Peters, E. 2005. Información suministrada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.

97



1976 1 200 000 Delegación mexicana. 1976. The forest situation in Mexico. North America Forestry Commision, Eight period of sessions, Ottawa, Canadá.



Basado en el cálculo de la tasa de deforestación (1973-1980) y actualizado hasta finales de 1980.


Análisis de mapas. Los datos digitales sobre los manglares fueron cortésmente suministrados por Conservation International y forman parte de CI/NAWCC/USFWS/SEDESOL, 1992. CI/NAWCC/USFWS/SEDESOL. 1992. Humedales de México. 1:3 800 000. Conservation International, North American Wetlands Conservation Council, US Fish and Wildlife Service and SEDESOL (Secretaría de Desarrollo Social).

1992 531 500 SARH. 1992. México 1991-1992 Inventario Nacional Forestal de Gran Visión: Informe Principal. Secretaría de Agricultura y Recursos Hidráulicos, Subsecretaría Forestal, México


1993 914 610 Conjunto de Datos Vectoriales de la Carta de Uso del Suelo y Vegetación. Escala 1:250 000 Serie IIV3R Continuo Nacional. INEGI.

X Citado en: Sandoval Uribe, A. 2004. Información proporcionada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado. Interpretación imágenes LANDSAT (escala 1:250 000) y verificación de campo.

1993 524 600 Yañez-Arancibia, A., Lara-Domingues, A.L., Zapata, G.J.V. & Arriaga, E.R. 1993. In Lacerda, L.D. y Field, C.D., eds. Proc. Workshop on conservation and sustainable utilization of mangroves in Latin America and Africa regions, Okinawa. p. 3-4.


1993 721 554 Subsecretaría Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre. 1994. Inventario Forestal Periódico 1994.

Verificación de campo y teledetección.

98



1994 488 000 Suman, D. 1994. Situación de los manglares en América Latina y la cuenca del Caribe. In: Suman, D. ed. 1994. El ecosistema de manglar en América Latina y la cuenca del Caribe: Su manejo y Conservación. p.1-10. Universidad de Miami.

Citado en: Red Manglar. 2001. Declaración de la Ciudad de México. Choluteca, Honduras C.A.

1999 733 828 Comisión Nacional del Agua 1999. Inventario de cuerpos de agua epicontinentales superficiales, costeros y humedales de la República Mexicana. Informe final (Atlas y Base de Datos). Gerencia y Saneamiento y Calidad del Agua.

Interpretación de imágenes en teledetección.

Citado en: De la Lanza, G. 2004. Información proporcionada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.

2000 500 000 Aizpuru, M., Achard, F., & Blasco, F. 2000. Global Assessment of Cover Change of the Mangrove Forests using satellite imagery at medium to high resolution. In EEC Research project n 15017-1999-05 FIED ISP FR – Joint Research center, Ispra.


2000 1 015 300 Palacio Prieto et al. 2000 Citado en: Yánez-Arancibia, A. and Lara-Dominguez, A.L. 2004. Información proporcionada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado.

2001 955 775 INEGI. 2001. México. Conjunto de Datos Vectoriales de la Carta de Uso del Suelo y Vegetación, Escala 1:250,000, Serie II (Continuo Nacional) Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografía e Informática, México.

Interpretación visual de imágenes y verificación de campo.

2002 882 032 Conjunto de Datos Vectoriales de la Carta de Uso del Suelo y Vegetación. Escala 1:250 000 Serie III Continuo Nacional. INEGI.

X Citado en: Sandoval Uribe, A. 2004. Información proporcionada en el marco del estudio temático sobre manglares destinado a la Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales (FRA 2005). No publicado. Interpretación de imágenes LANDSAT y verificación de campo. Debido a la escala del mapa original (1:250 000), la extensión de los manglares podría ser levemente subestimada.


985

600

820

000

882

032

1 12

4 00

0

885

000

200 000

400 000

600 000

800 000

1 000 000

1 200 000

1 400 000

1 600 000

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha


Las estimaciones para los años 2000 y 2005 se basan en la información cualitativa actualmente disponible para este país y en informaciones sobre dinámica de la superficie de manglar en las costas del atlántico y del pacífico producidas y amablemente comunicadas por INE (Instituto Nacional de Ecología), mientras que los datos para 1980 y 1990 son el resultado del análisis de tendencia en el tiempo

100




1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha México 882 032 2002 1 124 000 985 600 885 000 820 000


101

Montserrat Vegetation description, uses and threats Montserrat is a volcanic island with often steeply shelving shores and a coast morphology not very suitable for the development of rich mangrove forests. Trees of Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus may be found in four sites, Carr’s Bay, Collin River, Fox’s Bay and Old Road Bay. Among these Fox's Bay, with its permanent brackish pool, is the most important, where mangroves are also protected in the Bird Sanctuary There have been reports of damages to Fox’s Bay and Carr’s Bay caused by Hurricane Hugo and at Fox’s Bay from wandering livestock pressure and encroaching for residential development. In 1993 Carr’s Bay was also reported as severely deteriorated as a result of siltation and lack of water flow from land. Reference: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Butler, P., Willock, R. & Margetson, F. 1991. Making a move on Montserrat. Rare Centre for Tropical Bird Conservation. Philadelphia. 133 pp and annexes.

Margetson, F.A.L. 1991. Wetlands of Montserrat. Wetlands management in the Caribbean and the role of Forestry and wetlands in the economy. Institute of Tropical Forestry, Puerto Rico. 84 pp. Procter, D. & Fleming, L.V. eds. 1999. Biodiversity: the UK Overseas Territories. Peterborough, Joint Nature Conservation Committee.



102






X Ground survey. The real extent cited of the mangroves is "less than 5 ha"

1991 7 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal communication.


Trends in mangrove area extent over time 5 5 555

0

10

20

30

40

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha

Figures used for trends Calculated estimates Figures not used for trends Trend

No major changes appear to have occurred in this country over the last twenty years.



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha Ha Montserrat 5 1991 5 5 5 5

Formulas used for the trend analysis The trend analysis provided in this report is based on the qualitative information currently existing.

105

The Netherlands Antilles Vegetation description, uses and threats The Netherlands Antilles are formed up by five islands, Curaçao, Bonaire, St Maarten, Saba and St Eustatius. Mangroves are found only on the windward shore of Bonaire, and around Curaçao, restricted to a few isolated areas in drowned erosional valleys (e.g. at Willemstad and St. Jorisbaai). They consist mainly of Rhizophora mangle, which may grow up to 10 m in height. The largest area with mangroves in Curaçao is found at Spaanse Water bay, however well developed forests also occur along the eastern and north-eastern coastline. In Bonaire the only significant stand is found at Lac Bay (Het Lac), a shallow bay designated Ramsar site in 1980 for its importance as nesting and roosting areas for birds. Rhizophora mangle dominate the landward and seaward edges of the bay, reaching an average height of 8 m. Trees of Avicennia marina grow in the forest and around the drier ground, reaching 5 m in average. These forests are very peculiar as there is no riverine input to the system but there are several permanently dry cays and channels that supply water to the back mangrove. The extensive tourism development is probably the main threat to mangroves in Curaçao, where the ongoing destruction of their habitat led to a dramatic decrease in coverage, which has been nearly halved in the last century; nowadays the eastern and north-eastern coastline is especially threatened. A significant die-back of Rhizophora mangle has been recorded at the north-western tip of Bonaire, probably due to the hyper saline conditions caused by the landward damming of freshwater and choking of feeder channels on the seaward side resulting in water temperatures of 40°C and salinities of up to 100 ppt. Reference: Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997 World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. 2003. The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance – Netherlands. http://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_netherlands.htm

UNESCO, 1998. CARICOMP – Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove sites. Coastal region and small island papers 3, UNESCO, Paris, xiv + 347 pp. http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers/pors.htm and http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers/demayer.htm


106




X Map analysis Mangrove data were taken from a series of Preliminary Data Atlases published by The Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program (ECNAMP), a cooperative effort of the Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. Data for these atlases have been drawn from a wide variety of sources, in most cases the scale of the maps is between 1:50 000 and 1:300 000.



1991 1 400 Kristensen I. 1991. Personal communication.

Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. ECNAMP provided Resources Data Maps (Terrestrial Life Zones) which showed mangroves distribution for all islands in the Eastern Caribbean region as part of the 'Survey of Conservation Priorities in the Lesser Antilles'. The figure includes only Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, St. Martin and Bartélemy. The "Year" is the publication year.


140

1 0

00

1 0

00 1 1

38

1 1

00 1 000

2 000

3 000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


The estimates for 1990, 2000 and 2005 are expert estimates based on the qualitative information currently available.

108



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Netherlands Antilles 1 138 1980 1 140 1 100 1 000 1 000


109

Nicaragua Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros Los manglares crecen a lo largo de aproximadamente el 30 por ciento de la costa de Nicaragua y se distribuyen en proporciones casi iguales entre los litorales del Pacífico y del Caribe. Los bosques más desarrollados se sitúan en el extremo septentrional de la costa del Pacífico, particularmente en el Golfo de Fonseca (Estero Real), en la frontera con El Salvador y Honduras donde los árboles alcanzan una altura promedia de 15 metros. En la costa del Caribe, los manglares se distribuyen a lo largo del litoral y están asociados con deltas y lagunas, formando bosques más altos de los del Pacifico, alcanzando alturas de 25 m. Estas poblaciones tienden a una degradación menor respecto a la que afecta la costa del Pacífico. Los manglares son usados generalmente para producir leña, una fuente importante de energía para muchas personas, inclusive para una buena proporción de la población de algunas aldeas y ciudades costeras. Se calcula que la extracción legal de leña es de 9 000 m3 anuales, mientras que se extraen cerca de 4 000 a 7 000 tn3 anuales para postes y 5 000 m3 anuales para otros usos, en forma de madera. La extracción ilegal es probablemente superior. La corteza del mangle es importante para la producción de taninos, mientras que la pesca de cangrejos, camarones y moluscos es una actividad económica importante. La cría de camarones y la conversión de las áreas de manglares a otros usos aún no constituyen un problema sobresaliente. Existe una legislación destinada a restringir la corta de los manglares para producir madera, sin embargo es difícil asegurar su cumplimiento. Existen proyectos realizados conjuntamente con agencias internacionales a fin de formular planes para el manejo integrado y sostenible de los recursos de manglares, particularmente a lo largo de la costa del Pacífico, y algunas áreas de manglares han sido incluidas en la lista de Humedales de Importancia Internacional de Ramsar en 2001. Reference: Bégué, L. 1966. Les forêts du Nicaragua. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, No. 107, Nogent-sur-Marne, Francia, CIRAD-Fôret.


Convención de Ramsar sobre los Humedales. 2003. The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance – Nicaragua. http://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_nicaragua.htm

Lista de las especies exclusivas de los manglares Acrostichum aureum Avicennia bicolor Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Pelliciera rhizophorae Rhizophora harrisonii Rhizophora mangle Rhizophora racemosa

110




1979 115 190 Direna. 1983. Mapa Forestal de Nicaragua

X Teledetección.


La actualización y la estimación de la extensión de manglares a finales de 1980, se basa en varias fuentes de información.

1983 155 000 Polanía, J. & Mainardi V. 1993. Mangrove forests of Nicaragua. Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 139-146. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports OIMT/ISME Proyecto PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japón. 272 pp.

La cifra se basa en información suministrada por INETER y el Ministerio de Planificación de 1983. El "Año" es el año de publicación.

1988 71 670 MARENA. 1992. Mapa Forestal de Nicaragua.

X Teledetección.

1991 171 800 Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japón. 178 pp.

El análisis de mapas, Manglares, preparado por INRNA, 1991 considera los manglares de la costa del Pacífico como “Bosque claro sempervirente de manglares y tierras pantanosas de manglares sin vegetación arborescente”, en efecto, manglar degradado. INRNA. 1991. Estado Actual de la Vegetación Forestal de Nicaragua. 1:1 000 000. Instituto Nicaragüense de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente, Dirección de Administración de Bosques Nacionales.

1992 282 000 Arcia Dimas. 2001. Análisis del impacto de los programas forestales nacionales en siete países de América Central en el desarrollo económico global 1990/2000. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe Santiago, Chile.

Teledetección. Esta cifra corresponde a la extensión de manglares de acuerdo a la clasificación local.

111



1998 69 050 Instituto Nacional Forestal, Ministerio Agropecuario y Forestal (INAFOR-MAGFOR), 2000

X Método de clasificación supervisada. Imágenes de satélite LANDSAT TM 5 y 7 de los años 1996 a 2000. Citado en: FAO. 2005 Evaluación De Los Recursos Forestales Mundiales 2005 - Nicaragua. Por Cuadra Cruz, M. FRA 2005 Informe Nacional No. 195. No publicado.

2000 46 230 Iniciativa “Atlas mundial de los manglares” www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove-atlas/sp

Interpretación de imágenes LANDSAT del año 2000 hechas por UNEP-WCMC.


103

400

79

300

65

000

69

050

65

000

50 000

100 000

150 000

200 000

250 000

300 000

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha

Cifras utilizadas Cifras no utilizadas Estimaciones Tendencia

Las áreas para los años 2000 y 2005 son estimaciones basadas en la información cualitativa actualmente disponible.





1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha Nicaragua 69 050 1998 103 400 79 300 65 000 65 000


114

Panamá Descripción de la vegetación, utilización y peligros En Panamá los manglares se encuentran a lo largo de ambas costas, con mayor abundancia en la costa del Pacífico, particularmente en los Golfos de San Miguel y Chiriqui. En estas zonas los bosques se encuentran bien desarrollados y las formaciones de Rhizophora alcanzan hasta 30-40 m de altura, predominando en amplias áreas, mientras que otras especies forman poblaciones mucho más mixtas a lo largo de los gradientes de salinidad en los ríos y estuarios. La mayoría de la cubierta de manglares en la costa del Caribe se concentra en la región de las Bocas del Toro cerca de la frontera con Costa Rica. Los manglares del Caribe en general no se encuentran muy desarrollados y los árboles alcanzan menos de 5 m de altura. Las precipitaciones varían mucho a lo largo del país, alcanzando 6 000 mm anuales en las áreas de manglares de Bocas del Toro, pero manteniéndose regularmente entre 2 000 y 4 000 mm anuales en la mayoría de las áreas costeras. El ecosistema de los manglares se utiliza mucho para colectar larvas de camarón peneido a fin de proveer a los pequeños y numerosos criaderos situados a lo largo de la costa del Pacífico. Éstos bosques tienen considerable importancia en los ciclos vitales de la mayoría de las especies de camarón y de buena parte de los peces importantes para la pesca comercial. A nivel terrestre, los manglares son explotados para madera, leña y carbón y para la extracción de los taninos necesarios para la pequeña industria local. Algunas zonas han sido convertidas a uso agropecuario, a pastos para el ganado, para la producción de la sal, para el cultivo del camarón y para el desarrollo urbano, turístico e industrial, siendo las pérdidas más significativas aquellas ocurridas a lo largo del Golfo de Chiriqui. La ganaderia, las camaroneras y el desarrollo urbano siguen representando amenazas importantes para estos bosques junto con la polución, especialmente por el petróleo, debido a la gran cantidad de carburante transportado (70 millones de toneladas) a través del Canal de Panamá cada año; una fuga de petróleo en 1986 afectó severamente los manglares localizados a lo largo de 27 kilometros de costa. La legislación o las políticas de ordenación para la protección y el desarrollo de los manglares en este país son prácticamente ausentes, sin embargo a lo largo de los años se desarrollaron algunos proyectos para recuperar áreas degradadas; en el 1987 en la Bahía las Minas (Colón) se reforestaron 55 ha degradadas por el derrame de petroleo, mientras que en el Estero La Pipona y en el Estero Rico pequeñas areas de manglares (alrededor de 1 ha en cada una) fueron recuperadas. Referencias Magallón, F. 2005. Información proporcionada por la Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Mundiales 2005 (FRA) 2005 - Estudio Tematico Sobre Manglares. No publicado.


115

Lista de las especies exclusivas de los manglares Acrostichum aureum Avicennia bicolor Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Nypa fruticans (especie introducida) Pelliciera rhizophorae Rhizophora harrisonii Rhizophora mangle Rhizophora racemosa




1969 361 542 MACI-FAO. 1969. Ubicación actual de los bosques de Panamá. Proyecto de inventario y demostración forestal. Informe no publicado suministrado por RENARE, Panamá.

X Citado en: Cintrón G. 1985. Mangrove Area Management in Panamá. Characteristics and management guidelines for two mangrove areas in Panamá


Basado en: FAO. 1973. Inventariación y demostraciones forestales. Panamá. Asistencia técnica en reforestación. Informe de misión del Sr. Arturo Romero M-PCP 6 /PAN/02/T - Documento de Trabajo. Roma. Estimación para 1980 obtenida aplicando la tasa de deforestación.

1982 505 650 FAO. 1982. Mangroves Management and Harvesting, Panama. Basado en el trabajo de Letourneau, L.R. Dixon, R.G. Working document 82/44. RLA/77/019. FAO, Roma, 24 pp.


1982 500 000 FAO. 1982. Mangroves Management and Harvesting, Panama. Basado en el trabajo de Letourneau, L.R. Dixon, R.G. Working document 82/44. RLA/77/019. FAO, Roma, 24 pp.

Información basada en varias fuentes y en una encuesta terrestre en parte del país.

1988 170 827 Anguizola, R.M. and Cedeño, V.J. 1988. Inventario de manglares de la República de Panamá. Instituto Geográfico Nacional "Tommy Guardia", Panamá R. de Panamá.

Citado en: D'Croz, L. 1993. Status and uses of mangroves in the Republic of Panamá. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 115-128. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports OIMT/ISME Proyecto PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japón. 272 pp. Remote sensing imagery interpretation

116




Análisis de mapas. Instituto Geográfico Nacional “Tommy Guardia”. 1988. República de Panama - Inventario de Manglares. 1: 250 000. Cinco hojas. Instituto Geográfico Nacional “Tommy Guardia”, Panamá.

1991 297 532 Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario, Dirección Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables (RENARE). nd.

Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Comunicación personal. citada en: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. El "Año" es el año en que se efectuó la comunicación.


Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. "Año" es el año de publicación.

1992 181 775 ANAM-OIMT, 2003. Informe final de resultados de la cobertura boscosa y suo del suelo de la república de Panamá: 1992-2000

X Citado en: Magallón, F. 2005. Información proporcionada por la Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Mundiales 2005 (FRA) 2005 - Estudio Tematico Sobre Manglares. No publicado. Estudio basado en el análisis digital de imágenes de satélite con el objetivo de crear las bases de datos y cartografía digital para la evaluación y monitoreo de los recursos forestales de Panamá, aplicando los sistemas de información geográfica

2000 158 100 World Resources Institute. 2000. World resources 2000-2001: people and ecosystem—the fraying web of life. Washington, DC., UNDP. 400 pp.

Referencia secundaria, no se contó con una fuente primaria. "Año" es el año de publicación.

2000 174 435 ANAM-OIMT, 2003. Informe final de resultados de la cobertura boscosa y suo del suelo de la república de Panamá: 1992-2000

X Citado en: Magallón, F. 2005. Información proporcionada por la Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Mundiales 2005 (FRA) 2005 - Estudio Tematico Sobre Manglares. No publicado. Estudio basado en el análisis digital de imágenes de satélite con el objetivo de crear las bases de datos y cartografía digitalpara la evaluación y monitoreo de los recursos forestales de Panamá, aplicando los sistemas de información geográfica


190

000

174

435

170

000

250

000

100 000

200 000

300 000

400 000

500 000

600 000

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Año

ha

Cifras utilizadas Cifras no utilizadas Estimaciones Tendencia

La estimación de 2005 es una estimación con fundamento en juicios de expertos.

118




1980


1990


2000


2005

ha año ha ha ha ha Panamá 174 435 2000 250 000 190 000 174 400 170 000


119

Puerto Rico Vegetation description, uses and threats In Puerto Rico, mangroves are distributed on all the coasts. The south one, which is slightly drier, has mostly fringe and overwash communities with some scrubby basin communities, while the north coast has some riverine and basin communities. The largest single area is on the northeast coast around Torrecilla, which is a complex of estuarine and lagoon communities, while on the south-western coast the largest and best developed stand is represented by the Pitahaya mangrove forest, which reaches 1.2 km inland and stretches 6.5 km along the coast between Punta Guayacan and Punta Pitahaya. Another relevant mangrove area is found at La Parguera, an insular shelf on the southwest coast of Puerto Rico, characterized by an extensive development of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests. Here Rhizophora mangle dominates on the island reefs while few Laguncularia racemosa trees are also present. The original area of mangroves in this country was estimated to be around 30 000 ha, which has been considerably reduced over the past decades. A great portion (over the 75 percent) of this ecosystem was legally destroyed by the late 1970s as a means of reducing the numbers of malarial mosquitoes. Wide areas have been drained or filled and used for agriculture or urban development, while the major estuary of San Juan and large parts of the Jobos Bay has been developed as harbour facilities. La Parguera mangroves have however been affected by several human factors, especially for tourism development. Further threats to this area is represented by the sewage treatment plant (STP) related pollution, located between La Parguera and Isla Guayacan. Even if the importance of mangroves has been recognized, especially for commercial fisheries, human activity continued to threaten mangroves both directly through cutting or reclamation and through pollution. Despite these threats, in the 1980s the total area increased considerably, thanks to the increased legal protection, the colonization of new areas, and the reversion of agricultural land to its original state. In addition to this part of the Jobos Bay, the second largest estuarine area in the country was declared a national estuarine research reserve in 1981. Reference: Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997 World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

UNESCO. 1998. CARICOMP – Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove sites. Coastal region and small island papers 3, UNESCO, Paris, xiv + 347 pp.


120



1930 24 310 Martinez, R., Cintron, G. and Encarnacion, L. A. 1979. Mangroves in Puerto Rico: a structural inventory. Final report to the Office of Coastal Zone Management, NOAA, Washington, DC.

Cited in: Lewis, R.R III. 2001. Costs and Benefits of Mangrove Restoration. In: Thematic Review on Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture. Draft - 19th March 2001 annex 1: case studies. Case study 10. The date is a dummy date, since the figure refers to the original extent of mangroves, without citing the reference year.

1940 6 475 Holdridge L.R. 1940. Some notes on the Mangrove swamps of Puerto Rico. Caribbean Forester 1 : 19-29

Cited in: Odum, H.T., Copeland, B.J., McMahan, E.A. 1974. Coastal ecological systems of the United States Vol I. The "Year" is the publication year.

1965 6 718 Heatwole, H. 1985. Survey of the Mangroves of Puerto Rico...a benchmark study. Carib. J. Sci. 21 (3-4): 85-99.

X Aerial photos

1978 6 497 Carrera, C.J. and Lugo, A.E. 1978. Los sistemas de mangle en Puerto Rico. Programa de la zona Costanera. Depto. de Recursos Naturales, Puerto Rico.

Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal communication. Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. The "Year" is the publication year.

1979 3 000 Weaver, P.L. 1979. Tree growth in several tropical forests of Puerto Rico. US. Dept. Agri. Forest Service Res. Paper. Southern Forest Experiment Station. New Orleans, LA. 15 pp.

Cited in: FAO. 1986. Sintesis de siete seminarios nacionales en América Latina. Rollet, B., ed. FAO, Rome. 105 pp. The figure should be considered as an under-estimate.

1983 6 500 Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. and J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on ecology Papers No.3. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. 88 pp.

Secondary reference. The document could probably refer to Carrera, C.J. and Lugo, A.E. 1978 (see above). The "Year" is the publication year.

1990 4 700 Peter A.Franco, Peter L.Weaver, Susan Eggen-McIntosh 1997. Forest resources of Puerto Rico 1990. Resource Bulletin SRS-22

Remote sensing and aerial photos 1: 20 000. The study only measured commercial plots.

1990 8 746 Velásquez, E., Quiñones, M., Martínez, R., Salgado, S., Beatón Montes, R. 1990. Inventario de los manglares de Puerto Rico. Programa de Manejo de la Zona Costanera de Puerto Rico. Hoja Informativa del Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. http://www.ceducapr.com/inventariodemanglares.htm

The document provides the breakdown of the figure but no methodology.

121


1991 8 130 Kennaway, T. & Helmer, E.H. (unpublished data) International Institute of Tropical Forestry and Colorado State University

X Cited in: FAO. 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Puerto Rico. By González, E. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 203. Unpublished. This estimate is based on unpublished Landsat ETM+ satellite image classification with dates centred on the year 1991. The estimate include the mainland island of Puerto Rico and the outlying Puerto Rican islands of Vieques and Culebra. Mangroves are defined as: “Tidally and semi-permanently flooded evergreen sclerophyllous forest”


Map analysis. Mangrove areas were copied onto a 1:500 000 base map from a series of eight maps contained in UNDC, 1978. Subsequent to this work a more recent sketch map (Martinez, 1994) was made available. The mangrove distribution on this map is similar to that already prepared, but was used to add the coverage for Isla de Vieques. UNDC, 1978. Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement. Office of Coastal Zone Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce.

2000 8 870 Kennaway, T. & Helmer, E.H. (unpublished data) International Institute of Tropical Forestry and Colorado State University

X Cited in: FAO. 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - Puerto Rico. By González, E. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 203. Unpublished. This estimate is based on unpublished Landsat ETM+ satellite image classification with dates centred on the years 2000. The estimate include the mainland island of Puerto Rico and the outlying Puerto Rican islands of Vieques and Culebra. Mangroves are defined as: “Tidally and semi-permanently flooded evergreen sclerophyllous forest”

2001 6 410 Lewis, R.R III. 2001. Costs and Benefits of Mangrove Restoration. In: Thematic Review on Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture Draft - 19th March 2001 Annex 1: case studies. Case study 10

Expert estimate. According to the author this extent represents the actual extent of mangroves. The "Year" is the publication year.


7 65

0 9 0

00

8 87

0

8 30

0

0

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

1930

1940

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


Even though considerable mangrove areas have been lost over the past time (especially till the 1970s), an increase in their extent has been recorded starting from the 1980s. The 2005 extent is an expert estimate based on the qualitative information currently available.

123



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Puerto Rico 8 870 2000 7 650 8 300 8 900 9 000

Formulas used for the trend analysis Exponential: y = cebx where c and b are constants, and e is the base of the natural logarithm

1

St. Kitts and Nevis Islands Vegetation description, uses and threats Saint Kitts and Nevis are volcanic islands on which mangroves are found at fifteen sites; eight in St. Kitts and seven in Nevis. Except for some sites, such as Friar’s Bay Pond and Greatheeds Pond (St. Kitts) and Nisbett Settlement (Nevis), the majority of the sites contain few mangrove species. The most extensive stand is found at the Southeast Peninsula in St. Kitts, where a large number of both migratory and resident birds depend on the mangroves for feeding and nesting. The most common species are: Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia schaueriana. The series of white mangrove stands (L. racemosa) are located around fresh or brackish water lagoons. At Greatheeds Pond stands of A. germinans reach a maximum of 10 m in height, however in other sites they rarely exceed 5 m. In Nevis L. racemosa and Conocarpus erectus are the most common species. Relatively important losses of mangroves have occurred mainly due to conversions to salt production ponds on St. Kitts, now abandoned, and in minor part due to tourism expansion. Other small clearance of mangroves has been caused at the Nisbett Settlement by land ownership disputes and lack of appreciation of these ecosystems by the resort developers. Reference: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155-210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Department of Environment, Ministry of Health and Environment. 2000. Saint Kitts and Nevis national report on the status of land degradation and preparedness for the implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Report prepared for consideration by the fourth session of the Conference of the parties (cop 4) to the United Nations Convention to combat desertification (UNCCD). http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/lac/national/2000/saint_kitts_and_nevis-eng.pdf

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.


2





1991 79 Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

X Ground survey

1991 20 George, A.L. nd. Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal communication. Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. The “Year” is the year of the communication.


80

75

70

79

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


The estimates for 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2005 are expert estimates based on the qualitative information currently available.

4



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha St. Kitts and Nevis Islands 79 1991 85 80 75 70


5

Saint Lucia Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangroves in Saint Lucia cover a relatively small extent scattered on eighteen sites, mainly on the east coast of the country. Most of them are well-developed areas, notably estuarine and basin formations, with the largest stand being found at Mankòtè, a basin mangrove forest. Five species of mangrove are present in the country, among which Rhizophora mangle (which may grow up to 23 m high at Esperance Harbour), Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans form relatively large and well structured forest. Mangroves are sometimes associated with Pterocarpus officinalis. The history of mangrove use in Mankòtè started in the XVIII century (around 1760) when they were commercially harvested for fuel wood; the south of the Island was then used as American air base during the World War II and the mangroves used as camouflage for the airplanes till 1947. In 1960, once returned to the Government, local population begun again to exploit mangroves for charcoal production, fishing, timber harvesting and waste dumping, and Mankòtè became the main source of charcoal for the entire southeast portion of the island. Thanks to the protection provided to these mangroves by the CANARI (Caribbean Natural Resource Institute) and the ACAPG (Aupicon Charcoal and Agricultural Producers Group), the overall trend of tree cover degradation in the site had been reversed and the re-growth process ameliorated by the mid 1980’s. Mankòtè mangroves have been then declared Ramsar site in February 2002. Mangroves in Saint Lucia are still seen from the general public as unhealthy sites, generally targeted for land reclamation, solid waste disposal and as good source for fodder for livestock and charcoal. Despite that the Government has recognized their importance for fisheries and as habitat for the fauna (especially to some endemic birds), and has classified all mangroves as Marine Reserves. In some of these areas selective cutting is allowed. Despite their protection however mangrove degradation still goes on. Reference: Bacon, P. R. 1991. The Status of Mangrove Conservation in the Caricom Islands of the Eastern Caribbean. Report to the Commission of the European Communities as part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan for the Caribbean Region. University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. 211 pp.

Geoghegan, T. and A.H. Smith. 1998. Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods: Collaborative Management of the Mankòtè Mangrove, St. Lucia. Community Participation in Forest Management. A series by the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute

Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries and Forestry. 1995. Saint Lucia: country report to the FAO international technical conference on plant genetic resources. By Fontanelle, C. & Reid, E. 39 pp. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPS/Pgrfa/pdf/saintluc.pdf

Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries and Forestry. nd. Case study on benefit sharing arrangements – Mankòtè mangrove. The Saint Lucia Biodiversity Enabling Activity Project.


The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. 2002. The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance – Saint Lucia. http://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_saintlucia.htm

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. 2003. Ramsar's past, on-going and future activities related to Small Island Developing States (SIDS). http://www.ramsar.org/features/features_sids1.htm

6





Map analysis. Mangrove data were taken from the 1:50 000 scale map Saint Lucia - Land Use and Vegetation produced by OAS (1984), prepared by the Department of Regional Development, of the Organisation of American States (OAS), with the collaboration of the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries, Co-operatives and Labour, of the Government of Saint Lucia.

1988 179 CCA/IRF. 1988. St Lucia Country Environmental Profile. Caribbean Conservation Association, St Michael Barbados/Islands - Resources Foundation, St Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands (draft)

Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. The "Year" is the publication year. The primary source of this figure is Portecop, J. and E. Benito-Espinal. 1985 (see below) and it represents the extent of the two largest areas on the island and few other smaller sites. This figure is however slightly on the lower side.

1992 352 Government of St. Lucia-Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, fisheries and Cooperatives and CIDA. 1992. The 10 year Forest Management Plan (1992-2000)

The "Year" is the publication year. The methodology is not provided. The figure could represent the entire swamps.

1998 315 Geoghegan, T. and A.H. Smith. 1998. Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods: Collaborative Management of the Mankòtè Mangrove, St. Lucia. Community Participation in Forest Management. A series by the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute

The authors consulted CANARI's files and all major documents about this case, as well as the reports and papers of several outside researchers. For comparative purposes, they also reviewed documents relevant to mangrove management in St. Lucia.

7


2002 200 Smith, A. H. 2002. Personal communication.

X Rough estimate based on Portecop, J. and E. Benito-Espinal. 1985 with further adjustments based on geo-referenced aerial photos. According to Allan H. Smith (Caribbean Natural Resources Institute) accurate national level estimate do not currently exist for Saint Lucia Portecop, J. and E. Benito-Espinal. 1985. The Mangroves of St. Lucia; a preliminary survey. CANARI technical Report no. 45. 56 pp


0

200

200

200

200

0

100

200

300

400

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


The estimates for 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2005 are based on the qualitative information currently available. Important losses occurred between 1760 and 1941 when mangroves were commercially harvested for fuel wood; further losses also occurred between 1960 and 1980s; no significant changes seem to have occurred over the last twenty years.



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Saint Lucia 200 2002 200 200 200 200

10

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Vegetation description, uses and threats These islands have scattered mangrove communities throughout the islands, mostly small and scrubby, mainly found on Union and Mustique islands. The most common mangrove species are Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. A number of areas are threatened by solid waste disposal and land reclamation, while some minor threat is caused by the cut of wood for charcoal production on Union Island. Reference: Bacon, P. R. 1991. The Status of Mangrove Conservation in the Caricom Islands of the Eastern Caribbean. Report to the Commission of the European Communities as part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan for the Caribbean Region. University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. 211 pp.

Forestry Division. 1994. National Forestry Inventory Report, Annex 1 of the National Forest Resource Conservation Plan. San Vincent, Government of St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Labour.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

True mangrove species checklist Following Tomlinson 1987 classification, mangroves may be divided into three groups according to their features: major elements (strict or true mangroves), minor elements and mangrove associates. Tomlinson list of true mangrove species have been here modified by adding some species commonly found as exclusive mangrove species (Saenger et al. 1983) In the context of this assessment, only true mangrove species found in the present country will be reported: Acrostichum aureum Avicennia germinans Avicennia schaueriana Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle

11






X Ground survey


5051 50

55

51

0

50

100

150

200

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


The estimates for 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2005 are expert estimates based on the qualitative information currently available.

13



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha St Vincent and the Grenadines

51 1991 55 51 50 50


14

Trinidad and Tobago Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangroves are found in all coasts of the island of Trinidad, particularly the Atlantic and Gulf of Paria sides, where well developed mangals occur in association with complex wetland systems and perennial rivers. They are predominantly estuarine, reaching 23 m in height, even if they could be also associated with lagoons, coastal fringe areas, basins and salt ponds. The largest single stand is the Caroni Swamp, on the west coast, which include approximately 60 percent of the Trinidad mangroves. This ecosystem includes Rhizophora mangle, Rhizophora harrisonii, Rhizophora racemosa, Avicennia germinans, Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. The most widespread is Rhizophora mangle, followed by R. harrisonii and R. racemosa which are also very common. Mangrove forests in Tobago are found in the southwest, including the Bon Accord Lagoon/ Buccoo Bay, Kilgwyn and Petit-Trou Lagoon. Coastal wetlands have been recognised by the national authorities as environmental sensitive systems, which have important ecological and economical functions and values. These ecosystems are very important to the local population, as they provide timber, charcoal, medicine, fish, oyster, mussels, conch, crabs and shrimps, among other things. Their role in the coastal protection, floodwater retention and in groundwater aquifer recharge is also very much recognized. Despite the increasing awareness of mangrove and other coastal wetlands importance, these ecosystems are facing serious threats, and have been declining during the last decades. More than 50 percent of the original wetlands have disappeared because of the over-exploitation of the resources. Human alteration of wetlands in Trinidad dates back to 1787, when the St Ann’s River was diverted, and wetlands were reclaimed to expand the city of Port of Spain. An estimated 494 ha of mangroves were lost from the northern and southern sections of Caroni Swamp between 1922-1985 for the construction of roads, WASA (The Water and Sewerage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago) sewage ponds, landfill, and as a results of dredging to widen the river. During the 1970’s mangrove swamps at the mouth of the Diego Martin and Maraval Rivers were reclaimed to provide land for high-density housing, recreational and port facilities, and highways. In 1979, approximately 500 ha forest from Couva to north of Claxton Bay were reclaimed for the construction of the Point Lisas Industrial Park and Deep-water Port. The Caroni swamp, which is the largest mangrove swamp in Trinidad and Tobago and an important tourist attraction, is home of the national bird, the scarlet ibis Eudocimus ruber. Despite the protection of the site, industrial and agricultural pollution are still threatening the ecosystem. The original drainage pattern in the Swamp has been modified by attempted reclamation, under the Cipriani Reclamation Scheme 1921-1922, which was initiated to facilitate rice cultivation. Further flood protection works, which began in the 1950’s, have resulted in an overall reduction of freshwater inflow into the swamp. This loss of freshwater inflow has further reduced freshwater storage in the Swamp and caused salinity levels to increase. In addition to saltwater penetration, the Swamp receives water polluted with sewage, wastewater from industry and agriculture run-off. Through a 2001 Landsat imagery interpretation undertaken by the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) around 170 ha of mangrove dieback were identified in the Caroni Swamp Forest Reserve. Previous die-off phenomenon occurred in the areas during the 1970s, not only in the ‘Red Swamp’ but also near the Blue River, and between the Guaymare and Madame Espagnol River. While those along the Blue River resulted from reclamation work, die off in the areas between the Guaymare and Madame Espagnol River was natural. More recently, private

15

landowners have cleared wetland areas in Guayamare and San Juan, and there is squatting on the eastern boundary of the swamp. Mangroves were loss on Point Galeora between 1969 and 2001; along the eastern bank of the Cuesa River in 1998; in Mucurapo from 2002 and 2005 and at the mouth of the Lizard River, Guayaguayare and in Fullerton. All of the seven national mangrove species are found in the Caroni Swamp, the most widespread being Rhizophora mangle, followed by Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa. This swamp has been recently (8th July 2005) declared a Ramsar site. In Tobago, part of the Kilgwyn Swamp was reclaimed between 1988 and 1990 for the extension of the Crown Point Airport Runway, and for an access road to the beach. Sand-mining later occurred in this area and the Kilgwyn lagoon was used as a garbage dump. In 2003, the non-governmental organisation Environmental Tobago, attempted to rehabilitate this wetland by removing the solid waste and opening blocked channels. This group is lobbying for Kilgwyn Swamp to be declared a scientific reserve, as initially proposed in 1980 in the development of a system of national parks and other protected areas. The Bon Accord mangroves are under pressure from proposed hotel development in lands adjoining it. While there has been reported die-back of mangroves in the Buccoo Bay in 1988 due to pollution, these mangroves have recovered and have extended into marshy areas. Wetlands have been and continue to be under severe pressure as a result of population growth, increasing urbanization, industrialization and tourism in coastal area and the associated catchments. In response to this decline, the government of Trinidad and Tobago, in an attempt to conserve the remaining wetlands, became party to a number of conventions, including the Ramsar Convention, which calls for the wise use of wetland resources. Nariva Swamp was designated a RAMSAR site in 1993 and there are currently proposals to have both Caroni Swamp and Bon Accord/Buccoo Reef declared RAMSAR sites. A National Environmental Policy (1998) and a National Wetland Policy (2001) were also established, which likewise signalled the Government’s intention to protect, manage and restore wetlands to enhance their ecological and socio-economic values and functions for current and future generations. However, the existing laws and institutional arrangements seem inadequate for carrying out this intention, and even where legislation may be of value, the successful implementation is lacking. Reference: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports vol.2 ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90. p. 155 210 Beard, J.S. 1946. The natural vegetation of Trinidad. Clarendon Press. Oxford, Great Britain, 152 pp.

Gerald, L. 1985 The Changing Caroni Swamp. Naturalist 6, 14-17

National Wetlands Committee, 2002. Cited in: Institute of Marine Affairs. 2005. Information provided for the Revised World Atlas of Mangroves. Prepared by Juman, R.A, Research Officer at the Environmental Research Programme. Unpublished.

Institute of Marine Affairs. 2005. Information provided for the Revised World Atlas of Mangroves. Prepared by Juman, R.A, Research Officer at the Environmental Research Programme. Unpublished.

Phelps, H. O., 1997. Caroni Swamp Rehabilitation Study- Hydrology and Engineering. Report to the Inter American Development Bank; 61pp.

Ramcharan, E.K., De Souza, G. & Ffrench, R. 1982. Inventory of the living resources of coastal wetlands of Trinidad. Draft technical report, Institute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad and Tobago, July 1982. 91 pp.

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp. Thelen, K. D and Faizool, S. 1980. Plan for a system of National Parks and other Protected Areas in Trinidad and Tobago. Technical Report Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries, 106pp

WWF. 2001. Trinidad mangroves http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt1436_full.html

16

True mangrove species checklist Avicennia germinans Avicennia schaueriana Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora harrisonii Rhizophora mangle Rhizophora racemosa




Map analysis. Data are for Trinidad only; no data were found for Tobago and was taken from Institutional Consultants (International) Ltd., 1980. Institutional Consultants (International) Ltd. 1980. Inventory of the Indigenous Forest of Trinidad - Forest Resource Inventory and Management Section. Prepared for the Government by Institutional Consultants (International) Ltd. in cooperation with the Forestry Division Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Fisheries and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).

1980 4 000 FAO, UNEP. 1981. Los Recursos Forestales de la America Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales (en el marco de SINUVIMA). FAO, UNEP, 343 + 86 pp.

Estimation and updating based on: Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Fisheries, nd. Progress Report 1966-1972. Prepared for the 10th Commonwealth Forestry Conference- Port of Spain; Giacottino, J.C. 1975. Trinidad and Tobago, étude géographique. Thèse de doctorat d'Etat - Université de Bordeaux III. Talence France.


Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. The “Year” is the year of the communication.

1991 7 150 Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports vol.2 ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90. p. 155 210

X Ground survey. This estimate may be slightly on the lower side


500

7 1

70

7 0

00

7 0

00

7 1

50

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

7 000

8 000

9 000

10 000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha

Figures not used for trends Figures used for trends Calculated estimates Trend



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Trinidad and Tobago

7 150 1991 7 500 7 170 7 000 7 000

Formulas used for the trend analysis The estimate for the 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2005 have been calculated by applying the 1990-2000 and 2000-2005 forest cover annual change (-0.30 percent and -0.18 percent respectively; FAO. 2005). It should be noted that the most recent reliable estimate (i.e. 7 150 ha for 1991) is not representing the whole of the mangrove forests present in Trinidad and Tobago, and that substantial changes have occurred previous to this date and to 1980.

19

Turks and Caicos Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangroves grow in fringes along the inland margins of the Caicos Islands, with some sites being found also on the Turks Islands. A total of ninety sites were recognised on these islands. Caicos has a very large mangrove area, especially in the southern portion of North Caicos and in Middle and East Caicos, where they form a virtually continuous stand. The most common species found in this country are Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpus erectus, and C. erectus var. sericeus (common on salina margins on the North Caicos). A. germinans is widespread on the margins of salts ponds and lagoons, as in the interior of West Caicos, but is largely a dwarf mangal about 2 – 3 m high, while C. erectus is mainly found on the drier landward margins of wetland. Fringe Rhizophora mangle is developed in patches along sheltered coastal areas and margins of channels. In this zone trees are generally between 3 and 4.5 m high. The tallest R. mangle trees are present on Parrot Cay (in Caicos Cays), where some trees reach to 10 m in height. The generally low, scrubby development of mangroves in these Islands is probably a response of the high ambient salinity, which has been measured as 38 per thousand in the sea and up to 84 per thousand in the salinas. Historically mangroves have been used for poles, charcoal and salt manufacture. These activities have decreased and mangroves are now actively re-colonising many abandoned salinas. Despite the clearings of some areas for resort and urban development, the general level of threat is not very high. A large proportion of the mangroves on North, Middle and East Caicos Islands have been protected as wetlands of international significance. Reference: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports vol.2 ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90. p. 155 210 Procter, D., & Fleming, L.V., eds. 1999. Biodiversity: the UK Overseas Territories. Peterborough, Joint Nature Conservation Committee.


True mangrove species checklist Avicennia germinans Avicennia schaueriana Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle




Map analysis. Mangrove data were taken from the Department of Overseas Surveys (D.O.S) 1:200 000 map Turks and Caicos Islands. D.O.S 1984. Turks and Caicos Islands. 1:200 000. Series: Department of Overseas Surveys 609 Ed.2.

20


1988 23 600 Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions, Part I - Latin America Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports vol.2 ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90. p. 155 210

X Largely based on a comprehensive mangrove site inventory conducted in 1991. Inventory based on Wager, J., Bisset, R., Bacon, P., & McLoughlin, J. 1988. Turks and Caicos Islands: Ecological survey and environmental policies for the National Physical Development Plan. Report to the United Nations Center for Human Settlements UNCHS (Habitat), by Cobham Resource Consultants, UK. 240 pp.

1997 54 400 Bacon, P.R. 1997. The role of Ramsar Convention in Mangrove Management. Intercoast Network, International Newsletter of Coastal Management- Special Mangrove Edition. Narragansett, Rhode Island, U.S.A. Special Edition #1

The "Year" is the publication year. The figure represents the extent of the entire wetland.


3 60

0

23

600

23

600

23

600

23

600

10 000

20 000

30 000

40 000

50 000

60 000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


No significant changes appear to have occurred in this country over the last two decades.



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha Turks and Caicos

23 600 1988 23 600 23 600 23 600 23 600


23

United States of America Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangroves are distributed in seven states, Alabama, California, Florida, Hawaii, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas. They are however largely concentrated in the southern parts of Florida where they form a major vegetation type in the southern three counties. Mangrove greatest structural development is found in the southwest region where there are wide areas of low-lying sediments and there is considerable freshwater input from the Florida Everglades, delivering nutrients and moderating coastal salinity. Although mangroves occur further north, their distribution is restricted by cold winter temperatures. One of the main threats to mangrove and coastal vegetation is the high frequency of hurricanes and cyclones which impact the United States of America, with special reference to the southern Florida. These natural hazards may have devastating effects on mangrove communities, limiting the development of mangroves in most areas. The Hurricane Andrew in 1992 caused severe damage to the Everglades, in Florida, where several trees were uprooted. No scientific information is available yet on the possible damages caused to this ecosystem by the recent passage of the Hurricane Katrina, which devastated the coasts of Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama in August 2005 and was recorded as the most destructive and costliest natural disaster in the history of the United States. Human induced stresses have been significant in southern Florida, including on the area of the actual Everglades National Park, caused by drainage for agriculture, reclamation for urban development, canalisation, and alterations to the salinity regime, most notably caused by the development of a railway along the Florida Keys (now dismantled). Estimated area losses range from 44 percent in Tampa Bay to 82 percent in Biscayne Bay, south of Miami, with a consequent decline of about 20 percent in commercial fisheries. Large mangrove areas now fall within the system of the protected areas which form much of the land and sea area of southern Florida, notably the Florida Everglades National Park, and strict laws are enacted for the protection of mangroves; on the other hand complex mitigation procedures (e.g. funding for major restoration or rehabilitation projects in other areas) exist for the sites where exploitation is still allowed. The Everglades National Park was declared Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar) in 1987 for the extremely diverse and unique ecosystem supported. Reference: Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D. eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2005. The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance – United States of America. http://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_usa.htm


24



1983 205 000 Hamilton, L.S. and Snedaker, S.C., eds. Handbook for Mangrove Area Management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. UNESCO Paris & East-West Center, Hawaii; 123 pp

Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year. The figure should be considered as an under-estimate of the resource.

1985 256 250 Ibid X Combined National Level Mangrove Area estimate based on: Alabama (1 100 ha), Louisiana (4 100 ha), Mississippi (400 ha), Texas (1 100 ha), Florida (248 400 ha): Johnston, J.B., Watzin, M. C., Barras, J.A., Handley, L.R. 1995. Gulf of Mexico Coastal Wetlands: Case Studies of Loss Trends. In: Our living resources. A report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance and health of US plants, animals and ecosystems. US Department of the interior National Biological Center. Washington DC. http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/m4143.htm. Data calculated based on Fish and Wildlife Service’s National Wetlands Inventory Maps. (NOAA, 1991. Coastal wetlands of the United States: an accounting of a national resource base. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Rep. 91-3. 59 pp.) California (150 ha): Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. (see above) Hawaii (1 000 ha): Allen, J. A. 1998. Mangrove as alien species: the case of Hawaii. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 7:61-71. Florida (189 794 ha): Department of Environmental Protection Florida Marine Research Institute. 2002. Florida's Mangroves “Walking trees”. Pamphlet by the Department of Environmental Protection Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Petersburg, FL.


Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Center, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. It provides the breakdown of the countries (Alabama, California, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas). The “Year” is the publication year

25


2001 197 648 Ibid X Combined National Level Mangrove Estimate. The "Year" is the weighted average year. Alabama (1 100 ha), Louisiana (4 100 ha), Mississippi (400 ha), Texas (1 100 ha): Johnston, J.B. et al. 1995. (see above). California (150 ha): Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. (see above) Hawaii (1 000 ha): Allen, J. A. 1998. Mangrove as alien species: the case of Hawaii. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 7:61-71. Florida (189 794 ha): Department of Environmental Protection Florida Marine Research Institute. 2002. Florida's Mangroves “Walking trees”. Pamphlet by the Department of Environmental Protection Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Petersburg, FL. The “Year” (i.e. 2002) is the year of web first finding.


75 0

00

240

000

200

000

195

000

197

648

50 000

100 000

150 000

200 000

250 000

300 000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


The estimate for 2005 is an expert estimate based on the qualitative information available; however, information on the possible damages caused to mangroves by the Hurricane Katrina (which devastated the coasts of Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama in August 2005) was not available during the preparation of this trend analysis.

27



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha United States of America 197 648 2001 275 000 240 000 200 000 195 000


28

United States Virgin Islands Vegetation description, uses and threats Mangroves are scattered in about twenty-one sites throughout Saint Thomas, Saint John and Saint Croix, where the largest stand is found. These sites are largely saline ponds with a scrubby mangrove fringe. A percentage of the national mangroves is protected within the Virgin Islands National Park. In this country mangroves have been degraded mainly due to tourism expansion, urban development, dumping and landfill. Further damages were also caused by the combination of the hurricanes and the severe drought occurred in 1994-1995. Reference: Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.


USGS. 2002. Status and trends of the Nation’s biological resources – Coral Reefs of the US Virgin Islands. http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/cr134.htm


29



1990 125 FAO. 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report – United States Virgin Islands. By Brandeis, T.J. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 080. Unpublished.

The data was estimated using linear interpolation of the forest statistics from 1976 and 2000. Mangrove data were not available in the 1976 study. Padda, D. S. 1976. Virgin Islands Forestry Research: A Problem Analysis. Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station Report No. 9. College of the Virgin Islands, Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Croix, USVI In this analysis the authors mention using aerial photographs from 1971, although they do not explicitly state what methodology was used for estimating forest cover, or whether their forest cover estimate is for 1971, or if the estimates are for 1976 and some form of extrapolation was used.

1991 310 Snedaker, S.C. 1991. Personal communication.

X Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60 pp. This figure may be slightly on the higher side.

1991 978 Bacon P.R. 1993. Mangroves in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. In: Lacerda, L.D. 1993. Conservation and sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa regions. Vol. 2 Part I- Latin America. p. 155 210. Mangrove Ecosystems technical reports ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F). Okinawa, Japan. 272 pp.

Ground survey. The estimate refers to saline ponds with a scrubby mangrove fringe.


Map analysis. Mangrove data were taken from a 1:80 000 scale map. Berndtson and Berndtson. n.d. Virgin Islands: US and British. Berndtson and Berndtson Publications, Furstenfeldbruck, Germany.

30


1999 216 World Atlas of Mangroves initiative www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove-atlas

X Ortorectified aerial photography (scale 1: 48 000) incorporated in GIS layers by UNEP-WCMC. Data source: Kendall, M.S., M.E. Monaco, K.R. Buja, J.D. Christensen, C.R. Kruer, and M. Finkbeiner, R.A. Warner. 2001. (On-line). Methods Used to Map the Benthic Habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands http://biogeo.nos.noaa.gov/projects/mapping/caribbean/startup.htm.

2000 107 Conservation Data Center, UVI-ECC. 2001. Virgin Islands Rapid Ecological Assessment. Published by the University of the Virgin Islands, No. 2 John Brewers Bay St. Thomas, VI 00802

Forest coverage estimates were extracted from a GIS vegetation map. The estimate of forest cover for 2000 comes from a vegetation map produced as part of a Rapid Ecological Assessment by the Virgin Islands Conservation Data Center. This map was derived from aerial photographs that spanned the years 1994 to 2000. The data is in the form of GIS coverage which is currently available for purchase from the Virgin Islands Conservation Data Center. Cited in: FAO. 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report - United States Virgin Islands. By Brandeis, T.J. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 080. Unpublished.

2005 98 FAO. 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005 country report – United States Virgin Islands. By Brandeis, T.J. FRA 2005 Working Paper No. 080. Unpublished.

The data was forecasted using linear interpolation of the forest statistics from 1976 and 2000.


50

150 2

16

200

320

500

1 000

1 500

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

ha


The estimate for 1980 is an expert estimate based on the qualitative information currently available.

32



Mangrove area

estimate 1980

Mangrove area

estimate 1990

Mangrove area

estimate 2000

Mangrove area

estimate 2005

ha year ha ha ha ha United States Virgin Islands 216 1999 350 320 200 150


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Bibliography FAO. 1995. Forest Resources assessment 1990: Global synthesis. FAO Forestry Paper

No. 124. Rome, 46pp. FAO. 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000: main report. FAO Forestry

Paper No. 140. Rome. www.fao.org/forestry/fo/fra/main/index.jsp FAO. 2003. Status and trends in mangrove area extent worldwide. By Wilkie, M.L. and

Fortuna, S. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 63. Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome. (Unpublished) http://www.fao.org/documents/

FAO. 2006. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 – progress towards sustainable forest management. FAO Forestry Paper 147. Rome (also available at www.fao.org/forestrysite/fra2005).

FAO. 2007. The world's mangroves 1980-2005. FAO Forestry Paper No. 153. Rome. Saenger, P., Hegerl, E.J. & Davie, J.D.S. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems.

Commission on ecology papers No. 3. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN. Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The botany of mangroves. Cambridge Tropical Biology Series,

Cambridge, 419 pp. Country specific references used for the preparation of the assessment are reported in the specific country profiles.

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Annex 1. The world's mangroves 1980-2005: Regional working papers

FAO. 2007a. Mangroves of Africa 1980–2005: country reports. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 135, Rome. www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove/statistics.

Countries included: Angola, Benin, British Indian Ocean Territory, Cameroon, Comoros, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Togo, United Republic of Tanzania

FAO. 2007b. Mangroves of Asia 1980–2005: country reports. Forest Resources Assessment Working

Paper No. 136. Rome www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove/statistics. Countries included: Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Iran

(Islamic Republic of), Japan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor-Leste, United Arab Emirates, Viet Nam, Yemen

FAO. 2007c. Mangroves of North and Central America 1980–2005: country reports. Forest Resources

Assessment Working Paper No. 137. Rome. www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove/statistics. Countries included: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda,

British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States, United States Virgin Islands

FAO. 2007d. Mangroves of Oceania 1980–2005: country reports. Forest Resources Assessment

Working Paper No. 138. Rome. www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove/statistics. Countries included: American Samoa, Australia, Christmas Island, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam,

Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of), Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna Islands

FAO. 2007e. Mangroves of South America 1980–2005: country reports. Forest Resources Assessment

Working Paper No. 139. Rome. www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangrove/statistics. Countries included: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela

(Bolivarian Republic of).

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