Foreign and National Security Policy. Objectives Trace the events that helped to shape contemporary...

Foreign and National Security Policy

ObjectivesObjectives• Trace the events that helped to shape contemporary

U.S. foreign policy.• Examine the factors that favor presidents over

Congress in shaping U.S. foreign affairs.• Evaluate how and to what extend the media, think

tanks, and interest groups influence U.S. foreign policy.• Explain some of the twenty-first century challenges

forced by the United States.

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U.S. Foreign Policy in Historical Context

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• National security policy: centers on efforts to ensure a state’s political and economic safety.• Often responses to changes in the world and at home.

• Two enduring traditions:• Idealism: the view that American foreign policy should

reflect the universal truths contained in the Declaration of Independence.

• Realism: the view that U.S. foreign policy should serve the national’s self-interest regardless of the tactics used or the nature of the states enlisted as partners.• Realpolitik• Isolationism: policy of limited involvement in international

matters that prevailed in the U.S. throughout most of the 19 th century and between the two world wars.

• Monroe Doctrine of 1823

U.S. Entry onto the World Stage

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A Unipolar SystemA Unipolar System• When the Berlin Wall fell, the world

was left with one superpower – the United States.• Cold War was over although Korea

still divided between North and South, Communist and democratic states, respectively.• NATO still survives although

redefining purpose.• New stresses emerged: Iraq

invasion of Kuwait in 1990; coalition strategy to defeat the Iraqi Army and Saddam Hussein.

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Trade Policy and EnlargementTrade Policy and Enlargement

• After the conclusion of WWII, American factors met U.S. demand but also 40% of the world’s demand – many factories in Europe were destroyed.• After Europe recovered, its industries became

competitors.• 1970s, Germany and Japan became industrial

powers.

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Trade Policy and EnlargementTrade Policy and Enlargement• U.S. government encouraged free trade; lowered taxes

(tariffs) on imported goods.• Used bilateral agreements (nation-to-nation) to lower

tariffs.• Belief: Global economy was the key to national

prosperity and international peace.• Enlargement: Clinton-era policy encouraging nations

to adopt democracy and market economies as the way to overcome uncertainties in a post-Cold War world.

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Failed States and Multilateral InterventionFailed States and Multilateral Intervention• Ethnic violence emerged once the iron hand of

communist rule was relaxed over Eastern Europe.• No longer a bipolar world: suppressed animosities

based on ethnic and religious conflicts emerged.• America’s foreign policy strategy had to deal with

internal collapses of states world wide (failed states).• Fear that instability would spread to regions• Successful intervention efforts in Yugoslavia• No intervention in Rwanda; Somalia attempt but

withdrawal after American forces were massacred

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Controlling U.S. Foreign Policy• Constitution divides control of U.S. foreign policy between the

president and Congress.• Congress sometimes asserts itself, but presidents dominate.• Corwin: invitation to struggle for the privilege of directing

American foreign policy• Third force: foreign policy and national security

bureaucracies• Constitutional ambiguity surrounds the respective powers of the

president and Congress.• Bipartisan consensus: Truman and Republicans on Marshall

Plan• Sometimes agreement cannot be reached: particularly during

divided government

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Presidential Prominence• Constitutional ambiguity partially resolved in the executive’s

favor.• As the U.S. became more engaged in the world and war

became a constant possibility, presidential power grew.• Crisis situations that emerged (with U.S. forces stationed in

Europe and Asia) required rapid decisions in Washington.• Presidents enjoy institutional advantages in dealing with such

immediate problems. Quick decision-making ability.

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Presidential Prominence• Modern presidents claim the right to decide when the United

States should initiate the use of force.• Presidents have also sought to be the sole voice of American

foreign policy.• During war time, Congress and the Courts have deferred to

presidential leadership during wartime.• Rally around the flag

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Congress’s Foreign Policy Prerogatives• Declared wars: U.S. history, Congress, and the president have agreed to

wage war on 11 foreign nations.• There have also been undeclared wars: conflicts for which the government

did not formally declare war; often initiated by president’s directive and without explicit congressional approval.

• Following the withdrawal of U.S. combat forces from Vietnam, Congress sought to avoid repeating what war critics widely regarded as a “presidential war.”

• War Powers Resolution: legislation passed by Congress over President Richard Nixon’s veto in 1973 and intended to prevent a recurrence of a future war like Vietnam• Church committee: result was that Congress replaced the weak and informal

oversight that it had been exercising with new and permanent intelligence committees with oversight responsibilities

• Struggles between administrations and Congress in foreign policy continue

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The National Security ApparatusThe National Security Apparatus• Bureaucrats actively engage in determining foreign and

defense policy.• Two events have deeply shaped that government

apparatus: emergence of the Cold War and 9/11.• National Security Act of 1947• Established the Joint Chiefs of Staff: permanent structure to

coordinate military action and strategy among senior offices of the Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force.• Created CIA• Merged Departments of War and Navy into Department of

Defense• Created National Security Council

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The National Security ApparatusThe National Security Apparatus• President George W. Bush created the Homeland

Security Council, and Congress worked to create the Department of Homeland Security (2002).• Congress insisted on creating a Director of National

Intelligence (DNI) who has responsibility for coordinating the activities of the government’s 16 intelligence agencies (2005).

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Nongovernmental Influences in Foreign PolicyNongovernmental Influences in Foreign Policy• The media• Print and electronic: NYT, Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, and

CBS News often shape the agendas of policy makers.• Pentagon Papers: NYT published portions of a top-secret history of the

Vietnam War completed by the Department of Defense in 1971.• Today, newspapers have declining readership and are covering

foreign affairs less. Networks give less attention as well.• Generally the commitment to international news has declined.• Specialty magazines report on foreign affairs, but have limited

audiences.• May not need huge audience; but instead it may be important who

reads about it – opinion leaders.

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Nongovernmental Influences in Foreign PolicyNongovernmental Influences in Foreign Policy• Think tanks• Organizations whose specialists conduct research and

exchange their views with other experts from government and the media.

• Interest groups• Many actively seek to shape foreign policy.• Example: American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC)

• Public opinion• Important factor in shaping U.S. foreign policy.• But can it be manipulated?

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Challenges for U.S. Policy Makers Today• Concern that the U.S. influence in the world is declining.• More nations challenge U.S. dominance in aspects of “soft power” and non-

security issues have grown increasingly important during the post-Cold War era.

• U.S. remains world’s preeminent military power, but limits on its use.• Are we able to encourage the cooperation of other members of the

international community?• National Intelligence Council, a group of U.S. government officials that

provides strategic advice on long-term trends, has suggested that U.S. power is declining and anticipates a world with multiple powers• U.S., China, India, Russia, and others

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The Rise of Economic Rivals• U.S. confronts new economic powerhouses such as the European

Union and China. Russia, Brazil, and India have enormous potential.• Trade deficit with China• Balance of payments deficit: the deficit that arises when the total value of

goods and services sold by Americans to non-Americans is less than the total value of goods and services purchased by Americans from abroad.

• Running a chronic trade deficit can have both economic and political implications.• Loss of investment in U.S. government securities.• Impact actions of the Federal Reserve: raising interest rates to stimulate

foreign investment.

• Declining importance of the dollar• Fewer countries holding dollars causes U.S. borrowing to become more

expensive and hinders trade.

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Illegal Immigration• 11.1 million illegal immigrants may be living in U.S. • Enter U.S. to gain employment or escape political persecution

in their home country.• Heavy consumers of health, housing, and education services.• U.S. government has stepped up enforcement efforts, worked

toward some legalization policy, and border control.• State officials have lost confidence in federal policy making and

enforcement.• Arizona 2010 law that required police to check immigration

status• Challenged in federal court

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Global Warming• Energy is both a domestic and foreign policy issue.• Release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into the

atmosphere that creates a hole in the ozone layer. Global surface temperatures rise as a result.• Outcomes: melting of polar ice caps, rising sea

levels, changing global climate patterns• Heated political debate: environment versus economy• Most scientists believe that global warming will have a

pervasive and long-term effect on the world.

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Global Warming• Kyoto Protocol• U.S. less proactive on global warming; less likely to work

toward the reduction of carbon emissions.• Obama has not been able to gain support for cap and trade.• Obama had success in Copenhagen global summit in 2009

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Nuclear Proliferation• Nuclear weapons pose a special threat to the world.• Best estimate: nine nations have 20,000 nuclear warheads in their

arsenals.• Worries that this arsenal will grow.

• 189 nations have signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty that went into effect in 1970.

• Five of those nations with nuclear weapons pledged not to spread weapons to other nations, to limit their use, and to work toward disarmament: U.S., the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, France and China.

• Since the signing of the NPT, four additional states have acquired nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and probably Israel.• None are participatory in the treaty.

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Nuclear Proliferation• Currently 440 nuclear reactors in 29 nations.• International Atomic Energy Agency has estimated that all could

develop nuclear weapons in a fairly short time.• Iran is of foremost concern.

• Other concern: Could a non-state group, specifically terrorists, steal or purchase a nuclear weapon?• Collapse of the U.S.S.R. posed a proliferation nightmare, with

nuclear weapons and nuclear facilities scattered across Central Europe and much of Asia.

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Terrorism• U.S. arsenal of nuclear weapons has little utility in

confronting the threats posed by al Qaeda and other international terrorist groups.• Fear of another 9/11• Commission on the Prevention of Weapons of Mass

Destruction and Terrorism• Prediction of a biological terrorist attack

• War on Terror• U.S.A. PATRIOT Act: gave new power to the federal

government to pursue terrorists at home• Iraq and Afghanistan 34

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Superpower Fatigue• Both Congress and the public have grown weary of lingering conflicts.• Persian Gulf War stands out from the others because it did not trigger

a large increase in U.S. military forces.• Sustained military efforts take a toll.• Superpower fatigue: Graham E. Fuller, a former senior CIA official, wrote

an essay – focus on U.S. ambitious international agenda that included unilateral action to suppress international threats and to expand freedom in the world and the fact that foreign nations resisting our leadership and many voices at home were criticizing the administrations actions.

• Most countries viewed the invasion of Iraq as a violation of international law—worried about other nation’s doing the same.

• Also many countries viewed U.S. mission as not spreading democracy but replacing governments it did not like.

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