Forces between Surfaces - uni-sofia.bg€¦ · vw 0 vw 0 =∫Π = = ∞ h A f h h h h If h 0 is the...
Transcript of Forces between Surfaces - uni-sofia.bg€¦ · vw 0 vw 0 =∫Π = = ∞ h A f h h h h If h 0 is the...
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Forces between Surfaces
Sofia University
Peter A. Kralchevsky
Laboratory of Chemical Physics and Engineering, Faculty of Chemistry Sofia University, Sofia, Bulgaria
Lecture at COST D43 School Interfacial engineering in nanotechnologyLeibniz Institute of Polymer Research, Dresden, Germany
31 March – 3 April, 2009
Example:foam film stabilized by surface forces
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The Surface Forces Determine the Stability and Properties of Colloidal Dispersions (Examples)
20 μm
Stability of foams(gas-in-liquid dispersions)
Flocculation in emulsions(oil-in-water dispersions)
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Scenarios for the behavior of colliding emulsion droplets in connection with the droplet-droplet interaction, which is influenced by the properties of the surfactant adsorption monolayers.
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Particle coagulation in suspensions
(solid-in-liquid dispersions)
Strongly dependent on the electrolyte concentrationand counterion valence
Emulsion drop covered by particles
The particles provide steric stabilization of the drops in
Pickering emulsions
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Interactions between the aggregates (micelles) in surfactant solutions, and of the micelles with interfaces during the process of washing.
In summary: The surface forces determine the stability and properties of various colloidal dispersions: foams, emulsions, suspensions, micellar and protein
solutions, biological systems, etc.
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Surface Force & Disjoining Pressure
Surface force = Force of interaction between two
bodies (two phases) when the distance h between their surfaces is relatively small.
Typically, h < 100 nm.
Disjoining pressure, Π(h) = Surface force per unit area
of a plane-parallel film [1-3].
Capillary (Laplace) pressure: Pc = Pin – Pl = 2σ/R (σ – surface tension)
Force balance per unit area of the film surface: Pl + Π = Pin
Hence: Π = Pin – Pl = Pc (disjoining pressure = capillary pressure) [4].
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DLVO Theory: Equilibrium states of a free liquid film
DLVO = Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, Overbeek [5,6]:
Born repulsion Electrostatic component of disjoining pressure:
)(repulsion)exp()(el hBh κ−=Π
)()()( vwel hhh Π+Π=Π
Van der Waals component of disjoining pressure:
n)(attractio6
)( 3H
vw hAhπ
−=Π
(2) Secondary film
(1) Primary film
h – film thickness; AH – Hamaker constant;
κ – Debye screening parameter
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Surface Forces and Contact Angles of Liquid films
ασσ cos:tensionsurfacefilm =f
]9[sin:tensionltransversa αστ =Π−=
∂∂
h
fσ :micsthermodyna
∫∞
Π−=−h
f hh d)(σσ ]10[d)(11cos ∫∞
Π+=⇒h
hhσ
α
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Derjaguin’s Approximation (1934): The energy of interaction, U, between two bodies across a film of uneven thickness, h(x,y), is [11]:
dydxyxhfU ∫∫= )),((
where f(h) is the interaction free energy per unit area of a plane-parallel film:
hhhfh
~d)~()( ∫∞
Π=This approximation is valid if the range of action of the surface force is much smaller than the surface curvature radius.
For two spheres of radii R1 and R2, this yields:
( ) ( )dhhfRRRRhU
h∫∞
+=
021
210
2π
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( ) ( )∫∞
=0
d2 c0h
hhfRhU π
Derjaguin’s approximation for other geometries [1-3,12]:
Sphere – PlateTruncated Sphere
– Plate
( ) ( ) )(d2 02
c0
0
hfRhhfRhUh
ππ += ∫∞
Two Truncated Spheres
( ) ( ) )(d 02
c0
0
hfRhhfRhUh
ππ += ∫∞
Two CrossedCylinders
( ) ( ) hhfrr
hUh
dsin
2
0
210 ∫
∞
=ω
π
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Molecular Theory of Surface Forces
DLVO Forces:
(1) Van der Waals force
(2) Electrostatic (double layer) force
Non-DLVO Forces:
(1) Hydration repulsion
(2) Steric interaction due to adsorbed polymer chains
(3) Oscillatory structural force and Depletion attraction
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Van der Waals forces between molecules [13]: 6)(r
ru ijij
α−=
Dipole – dipole interaction: The electric field of each dipole induces preferential antiparallel orientation of the other dipole. Sum of three contributions:
(1) Orientation interaction between two permanent dipoles (Keesom, 1912) [14]
(electrostatic effect)
(2) Induction interaction between one permanent dipole and one induced dipole (Debye, 1920) [15]
(electrostatic effect)
(3) Dispersion interaction between two induced dipoles (London, 1930) [13]
(quantum electrodynamic effect)
Two permanent dipoles:
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Van der Waals surface forces:3
Hvw 6
)(h
Ahπ
−=Π
AH – Hamaker constant
Hamaker’s approach [16]
The interaction energy is pair-wise additive: Summation over all couples of molecules.
Result [16,17]:
6)(r
ru ijij
α−= 33312312H AAAAA +−−=
2/12 )(; jjiiijijjiij AAAA ≈= αρρπ
Symmetric film: phase 2 = phase 1
For symmetric films: always attraction!
( ) 0222/1
332/1
11331311H >−≈+−= AAAAAA
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Van der Waals repulsion: 33312312H AAAAA +−−=
ijjiijA αρρπ 2=
Consider the case: 223311 AAA >>
For simplicity, let is set ρ2 = 0 (gas); then:
0)( 2/133
2/111
2/1333331H <−−=+−= AAAAAA
2/1)( jjiiij AAA ≈
Negative AH ⇒ repulsive van der Waals surface forceHelium vapor
Liquid Helium
H
hClassical example: Liquid Helium climbs up the walls of the container [1].
Explanation: the repulsive van der Waals disjoining pressureacross the adsorbed film balances the gravitational hydrostatic pressure:
gHh
Aρ
π=3
H
6
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Van der Waals interaction in the presence of adsorption layers
Example: Foam film stabilized by surfactant
hc – thickness of the water core;
ht – thickness of layer of surfactant tails.
The integration over all couples ofmolecules belonging to the three layersyields [18]:
])2()(
)(22[
121
2tc
tt2
tc
ttct2c
ttctccvw hh
Ahh
AAh
AAAf
++
+−
++−
−=π
tc 2hhh +=tc
vwvwvw
hhf
hf
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛∂∂
−=∂∂
−=Π
Free energy per unit area:
Disjoining pressure:
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Van der Waals interaction in a multilayered system
Case of two multilayered
bodies interacting across a
medium 0;
the layers are counted from
the central film 0 outward to
the left (L) and right (R) [18].
1,1,11,,),( −−−− +−−= jijijiji AAAAjiA
∑∑= =
−=L RN
i
N
j ijhjiAf
1 12vw 12),(
π
In the special case NL = NR = 1, we obtain the expression for symmetric film from phase “0” sandwiched between two phases “1”:
0,00,11,1 2)1,1( AAAA +−= 211
vw 12)1,1(
hAfπ
−=
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Lifshitz approach to the calculation of Hamaker constant
E. M. Lifshitz (1915 – 1985) [19] took into account the collective effects in condensed phases (solids, liquids). (The total energy is not pair-wise additive over al pairs of molecules.)
Lifshitz used the quantum field theory to derive accurate expressions in terms of:
(i) Dielectric constants of the phases: ε1, ε2 and ε3 ;
(ii) Refractive indexes of the phases: n1, n2 and n3:
( )( )( ) ( ) 4/32
322
4/323
21
23
22
23
21eP
32
32
31
31132H
216
343
nnnn
nnnnhkTAA++
−−+⎟⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛+−
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛+−
≈≡ν
εεεε
εεεε
Zero-frequency term:
orientation & inductioninteractions;
kT – thermal energy.
)0(132
=νA Dispersion interaction term:
νe = 3.0 x 1015 Hz – main electronic absorption frequency;hP = 6.6 x 10– 34 J.s – Planck’s const.
)0(132
>νA
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Hamaker constant for symmetric films
1
( )( ) 232
321
223
21eP
2
31
31
)0(131
)0(131131H
216
343
nn
nnhkT
AAAA
+
−+⎟⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛+−
=
+=≡ >=
νεεεε
νν
J103431 21)0(
131
2
31
31 −= ×≈<⇒<⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛+− kTA ν
εεεε
(i) For two bodies interacting across vacuum (or gas):(ii) For a free-standing liquid or solid film (e.g. foam film):
J1010 2019H
−− −=A
Hence, for such configurations the dispersion interaction is predominant: H
)0(131
)0(131 AAA ≈<< >= νν
The zero-frequency term becomes comparable to the dispersion term when n1 is close to n3 (e.g. emulsion systems):
)0(131
)0(131
>= ≈ νν AA
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Determination of the Hamaker constant from the surface tension
h0 h
γπ
212
~d)~()( 20
Hvw0vw
0
==Π= ∫∞
hAhhhf
h
If h0 is the center-to-center distance
between two molecules, then
is the work of adhesion, which for liquids
equals 2γ (where γ is the surface tension):
)( 0vw hf
20
H
24 hAπ
γ =
With h0 = 0.165 nm – good comparison
theory-experiment for nonpolar liquids [1]:
Material Theoretical AH (10–20 J) γ = AH/(24πh02) (mN/m) γ experimental (mN/m)
n-Octane 4.5 21.9 21.6
Cyclohexane 5.2 25.3 25.5
Water 3.7 18.0 73.0 (20 oC)
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Electromagnetic Retardation Effect on Dispersion Force [20]
Suppression of Orientation & Induction Interactions by Electrolyte [22]
C = 3 x 108 m/s; νe = 3 x 1015 s–1 ⇒ L = C/νe = 100 nm
For L ≥ 50 nm the dipole – dipole correlation is suppressed
7)(r
ru ijij
α−→⇒
kTIehAeAhhA h
0
2)0(2)0(
0H2;2for2)(εε
κκκ νκν =>+= >−=
( )( )
[ ] 3/22/3d2/32
321
223
21eP)0(
131 )32/(1216
3)(−> +
+
−= h
nn
nnhhA v πν
( )c
hnnnh e2/12
3213d
2πν+=)(1)0(
131 ∞→∝⇒ > hh
A v
Dimensionless
← thickness
I is the ionic strength of solution
Russel et al. [21]
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Electrostatic (Double Layer) Surface Force
( )0m2m1el 2nnnTk −+=Πn1m, n2m
n0
Πel = excess osmotic pressure ofthe ions in the midplane of asymmetric film (Langmuir, 1938) [23]:
n1m, n2m – concentrations of (1) counterionsand (2) coions in the midplane.
n0 – concentration of the ions in the bulksolution; ψm potential in the midplane.
For solution of a symmetric electrolyte: Z1 = −Z2 = Z; Z is the valence of the coions.Boltzmann equation; Φm – dimensionless potential in the midplane (Φm << 1).
kTZennnn m
mm0m2m0m1 );exp();exp( ψ=ΦΦ−=Φ=
( ) )(2
1cosh 4m
2m
m Φ+Φ
+=Φ O( ) 01cosh2 2m0m0el >Φ≈⎥
⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡Φ=Π kTnkTn
Πel > 0 ⇒ repulsion!
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More general definition of Πel
In each plane z = const., not necessarily the midplane, we have [2]:
20
021el 2]2)()([ ⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛−−+=Π
dzdnznznkT ψεε
const.)2( 0m2m1 =−+= nnnkT
In the midplane z = 0, the potential has a minimumand we have:
2m02
1m01
2
0
:additioninand
0
nn
nn
dzd
z
z
z
=
=
=⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛
=
=
=
ψ
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Verwey – Overbeek Formula (1948)
Superposition approximation in the midplane: ψm = 2ψ1 [6]:
Near single interface, the electric potential of the double layer is [6]:
( )w1 exp
4tanh
4tanh z
kTZe
kTZe s κψψ
−⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛
( ) )(tanh 3xOxx +=
14
midplanetheIn 1 <<kT
Zeψ
)exp(64)( 20
2m0el hkTnkTnh κγ −≈Φ≈Π ⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛≡
kTZe4
tanh sψγ
⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛−⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛==Φ
2exp
4tanh82 1m
hkT
ZekTZe s κψψ
Π(h) = ?
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tanh(x) ≈ 1 for x ≥ 1.5
)exp(64)( 0el hkTnh κ−≈Π
mV150for
14
tanh
s
s
≥
≈⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛≡⇒
ψ
ψγ
ZkT
Ze
mV1004≈
ekT
Debye screening length, κ–1: strength)(ionic21;2 2
0
22 ∑==
iii cZI
kTIe
εεκ
ionththeofionconcentratandvalenceand i- - cZ ii
nm]MgSO[
152.0
nm]CaCl[
176.0
nm]NaCl[
304.0
4
1
2
1
1
=
=
=
−
−
−
κ
κ
κ
0.969.696960κ–1
(nm)
10–110–310–510–7
pure waterI for 1:1 el.
(M)
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Πel(h) in the case of asymmetric electrolytes 2:1 or 1:2
2:1 electrolyte = divalent counterion and monovalent coion;
1:2 electrolyte = monovalent counterion and divalent coion.
( ) )exp(4
tanh432)(2
:2el h
vTknh ji κ−⎟⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛=Π
n(2) is concentration of the divalent ions;
the subscript "i:j" takes value "2:1" or "1:2"
⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛+⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=⎥
⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛−+= 3/1exp2ln,exp21/3ln 2:11:2 kT
evkT
ev ss ψψ
derived in refs. [24,12]
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Πel(h) in the case of nonidentically charged planes [12]
Asymptotic expression for not-too-small h [6]: (Z:Z – electrolyte)
Constant surface potentials Constant surface charge densities
)cosh(ar1
1
2min
s
shσσ
κ−=)cosh(ar1
1
2max
s
shψψ
κ=
12 ss ψψ >
( ) 2,1,)4
tanh(,e64 210el =≡=Π − kTk
eZTknh skk
h ψγγγ κ
21, ss σσ
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Derjaguin – Landau – Verwey – Overbeek (DLVO) Theory [5,6]
Disjoining pressure: 3H
vwel 6e
hAB h
πκ −=Π+Π=Π −
Free energy per unit area
of a plane-parallel film: 2H
21e~d)~()(
hABhhhf h
h πκκ −=Π= −
∞
∫
Energy of interaction between
two identical spherical particles
(Derjaguin approximation):⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−=≈ −
∞
∫ hABRhhfRhU h
h πκππ κ
21e~d)~()( H
2
,64 20 γkTnB = ⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛≡
kTZe4
tanh sψγ
)2.71828... e;chargeelectronic( =−e
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DLVO Theory: The electrostatic barrier
The secondary minimum could cause
coagulation only for big (1 μm) particles.
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−≈ −
hABRhU h
πκπ κ
21e)( H
2
The primary minimum is the reason for
coagulation in most cases.
Condition for coagulation: Umax = 0(zero height of the barrier to coagulation)
0dd;0)(
max
max ===hhh
UhU
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The Critical Coagulation Concentration (ccc) [5,6]
max
H2max 21
e0)( max
hABhU h
πκκ =⇒= −
1max =⇒ hκ
2max
H
21e0
dd
max
max hAB
hU h
hh πκκ =⇒= −
=
κ1
×
πκ 21e H1
3AB
=⇒ −
2H
6
2
21e⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=⇒
πκAB 2
H
30
3
0
22
20
2
21e
2
)64(⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛⇒
π
εε
γ A
nkTeZ
nkT
62H
530
44
62H
530
4
23
2
0 )()()(1085.9
)()()(
e2)1264(
ZeAkT
ZeAkTnccc εεγεεγπ
×≈×
=≡⇒
[26] (1900)Hardyand]25[(1882)Schulze
ofRule16Z
ccc∝
)64( 20 γkTnB =
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Non-DLVO Surface Forces: Hydration Repulsion
At Cel < 10−4 M (NaCl, KNO3, KCl, etc.),
a typical DLVO maximum is observed.
At Cel ≥ 10−3 M, a strong short-range
repulsion is detected by the surface
force apparatus – the hydration
repulsion [1, 27].
Empirical expression [1] for the
interaction free energy per unit area:
)/exp( 00hydr λhff −=
20
0
mJ/m303
nm1.16.0
−=
−=
f
λImportant: fel decreases, whereas fhydr increases
with the rise of electrolyte concentration!
Explanation: The hydration repulsion is due mostly
to the finite size of the hydrated counterions [28].
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Steric interaction due to adsorbed polymer chains
l – the length of a segment;
N – number of segments in a chain;
In a good solvent L > L0, whereas
in a poor solvent L < L0.
L depends on adsorption of chains, Γ
[1,21].
← Alexander – de Gennes theory
for the case of good solvent [29,30]:
solvent)(ideal2/10 NlLL ≡≈
( )
( ) 3/15gg
4/3
g
4/9g2/3
st
;2for
22
lNLLh
Lh
hL
Tkh
Γ=<
⎥⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢⎢
⎣
⎡
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−⎟⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛Γ=Π
The positive and the negative terms in the brackets in the above expression
correspond to osmotic repulsion and elastic attraction.
The validity of the Alexander − de Gennes theory was experimentally confirmed;
see e.g. Ref. [1].
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Steric interaction – poor solvent
Plot of experimental data for
measured forces, F/R ≡ 2πf vs. h,
between two surfaces covered by
adsorption monolayers of the
nonionic surfactant C12E5 for
various temperatures.
The appearance of minima in the
curves indicate that the water
becomes a poor solvent for the
polyoxyethylene chains with the
increase of temperature; from
Claesson et al. [31].
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Oscillatory–Structural Surface Force
For details – see the book by Israelachvili [1]
A planar phase
boundary (wall) induces
ordering in the adjacent
layer of a hard-sphere
fluid.
The overlap of the
ordered zones near two
walls enhances the
ordering in the gap
between the two walls
and gives rise to the
oscillatory-structural
force.
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The maxima of the oscillatory force could stabilize
colloidal dispersions.
The metastable states of the film correspond to the
intersection points of the oscillatory curve with the
horizontal line Π = Pc.
The stable branches of the oscillatory curve are those with
∂Π/∂h < 0.Depletion minimum
Oscillatory structural forces were observed in liquid films containing colloidal particles, e.g. latex & surfactant micelles; Nikolov et al. [32,33].
Oscillatory-structuraldisjoiningpressure
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Measured short-range force between
two cylindrical mica surfaces of radii
R = 1 cm in 10–3 M KCl solution.
The dashed line shows the expected
DLVO interaction.
The oscillatory force has a period of
0.22 – 0.26 nm, about the diameter of
the water molecule (oscillatory
hydration force)
Theoretical computations are shown
in the inset.
(Experimental results from
Israelachvili and Pashley, 1983 [34].
Oscillatory–Structural Surface Force Due to Solvent Molecules
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Oscillatory–Structural Surface Force Due to Colloid Particles
Ordering of
micelles of the
nonionic surfactant
Tween 20 [36].
Methods:
Mysels’ porous
plate cell and
Scheludko
capillary cell [7,8]
Theoretical curve – by means of the Trokhimchuk formulas [35].
The micelle aggregation number, Nagg = 70, is determined [36].
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Air
Foam Film Stratification by the Scheludko Capillary Cell
Stepwise thickness transitions: 0.1 M Brij 35 + 0.1 M NaCl
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Decaying OscillationsSemiempirical expression [37]:
The above expression for Πosc(h) works well at all distances, except in the region of the first (the highest) maximum. For all h, use the Trokhimchuk formulas [35].
(Phs – osmotic pressure of a hard-sphere fluid: Carnahan–Starling formula)
dhP
dhdh
ddd
dhP
<<−=Π
>⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−⎟⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛=Π
0for,
for,exp2cos
hsocs
2221
3
1hsocs
π
φΔ+=
−−
023732
:lengthdecayperiod;
1
21
dd
dd
420.0487.02 −Δ
=φd
d
φφ −=Δ 74.0φ – particle volume fraction,
d – particle diameter; (hard spheres)
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Depletion Attraction
At low particle volume fractions, the
oscillations disappear and only the
first “depletion” minimum remains.
The oscillatory force degenerates
into the “depletion attraction”.
It leads to coagulation in colloidal
dispersions by smaller particles, e.g.
polymer coils [38].
Depletion minimum
The depletion attraction is due to the osmotic
pressure of the smaller particles, which
cannot penetrate in a certain “depletion zone”
between the two bigger particles. Depth of the
depletion minimum (0 ≤ h0 ≤ d) [1]:
( ) ( )
( ) kTUdD
hddDkThU
5.70;10.0;50/23/
dep
2030dep
===
−−≈
φ
φ
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The total energy of interaction between two particles , U(h),
includes contributions from all surface forces:
U(h) = Uvw(h) + Uel(h) + Uhydr(h) + Ust(h) + Uosc(h) + …DLVO forces Non-DLVO forces
(The depletion force is included in the expression for the oscillatory-structural force, Uosc)
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Basic References
1. J.N. Israelachvili, Intermolecular and Surface Forces, Academic Press, London, 1992.
2. P.A. Kralchevsky, K. Nagayama, Particles at Fluid Interfaces and Membranes,Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2001; Chapter 5.
3. P.A. Kralchevsky, K.D. Danov, N.D. Denkov. Chemical physics of colloid systems andInterfaces, Chapter 7 in Handbook of Surface and Colloid Chemistry", (Third Edition; K. S. Birdi, Ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2008; pp. 197-377.
Additional References
4. B.V. Derjaguin, M.M. Kussakov, Acta Physicochim. USSR 10 (1939) 153.
5. B.V. Derjaguin, L.D. Landau, Theory of Stability of Highly Charged Lyophobic Sols andAdhesion of Highly Charged Particles in Solutions of Electrolytes, Acta Physicochim. USSR 14 (1941) 633-652.
6. E.J.W. Verwey, J.Th.G. Overbeek, Theory of Stability of Lyophobic Colloids, Elsevier,Amsterdam, 1948.
7. A. Scheludko, Über das Ausfließen der Lösung aus Schaumfilmen. Colloid PolymerSci., 1957, 155, 39-44.
![Page 42: Forces between Surfaces - uni-sofia.bg€¦ · vw 0 vw 0 =∫Π = = ∞ h A f h h h h If h 0 is the center-to-center distance between two molecules, then is the work of adhesion,](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081410/6091559b0151313908642be0/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
8. A. Scheludko, Thin Liquid Films, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 1 (1967) 391-464.
9. P.A. Kralchevsky, I.B. Ivanov, On the Mechanical Equilibrium between a Film of FiniteThickness and the External Meniscus, Chem. Phys. Lett. 121 (1985) 111-115 & 116-121.
10. I.B. Ivanov, B.V. Toshev, Thermodynamics of Thin Liquid Films. II. Film Thickness and its Relations to the Surface Tension and the Contact Angle, Colloid Polym. Sci.,253 (1975) 593-599.
11. B.V. Derjaguin, Friction and Adhesion. IV. The Theory of Adhesion of Small Particles,Kolloid Zeits. 69 (1934) 155-164.
12. B.V. Derjaguin, N.V. Churaev, V.M. Muller, Surface Forces, Plenum Press: ConsultantsBureau, New York, 1987.
13. F. London, Zur Theorie und Systematik der Molekularkräfte, Z. Phys. 63 (1930) 245-279.
14. W.H. Keesom, On the Deduction from Boltzmann’s Entropy Principle of the Second Virial-coefficient for Material Particles (in the Limit Rigid Spheres of Central Symmetry) which Exert Central Forces Upon Each Other and For Rigid Spheres of Central Symmetry Containing an Electric Doublet at Their Centers, Communications Physical Laboratory University of Leiden Supplement, Ed. By H. Kamerlingh Onnes, Eduard Ijdo Printer, Leiden, Supplement 24b to No. 121-132, pp. 23-41 (1912).
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15. P. Debye, Van der Waals Cohesive Forces, Physikalische Zeitschrift 21 (1920) 178-187.
16. H.C. Hamaker, The London – Van der Waals Attraction Between Spherical ParticlesPhysica 4(10) (1937) 1058-1072.
17. B.V. Derjaguin, Theory of Stability of Colloids and Thin Liquid Films, Plenum Press:Consultants Bureau, New York, 1989.
18. S. Nir, C.S. Vassilieff, Van der Waals Interactions in Thin Films" in: Thin Liquid Films,I.B. Ivanov (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988; p.207.
19. E.M. Lifshitz, The Theory of Molecular Attractive Forces between Solids, Soviet Phys.JETP (English Translation) 2 (1956) 73-83.
20. H.R. Casimir, D. Polder, The Influence of Retardation on the London – van der WaalsForces, Phys. Rev. 73 (1948) 360-372.
21. W.B. Russel, D.A. Saville, W.R. Schowalter, Colloidal Dispersions, Cambridge Univ.Press, Cambridge, 1989.
22. J. Mahanty, B.W. Ninham, Dispersion Forces, Academic Press, New York, 1976.
23. I. Langmuir, The Role of Attractive and Repulsive Forces in the Formation of Tactoids,Thixotropic Gels, Protein Crystals and Coacervates. J. Chem. Phys. 6 (1938) 873-896.
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24. V.M. Muller, Kolloidn. Zh. 38 (1976) 704-709.
25. H. Schulze, Schwefelarsen im wässeriger Losung, J. Prakt. Chem. 25 (1882) 431-452.
26. W.B. Hardy, A Preliminary Investigation of the Conditions, Which Determine theStability of Irreversible Hydrosols, Proc. Roy. Soc. London 66 (1900) 110-125.
27. R.M. Pashley, Hydration Forces between Mica Surfaces in Electrolyte Solutions, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 16 (1982) 57-62.
28. V.N. Paunov, R.I. Dimova, P.A. Kralchevsky, G. Broze and A. Mehreteab. The Hydration Repulsion between Charged Surfaces as Interplay of Volume Exclusionand Dielectric Saturation Effects, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 182 (1996) 239-248.
29. S.J. Alexander, Adsorption of Chain Molecules with a Polar Head: a ScalingDescription, J. Phys. (Paris) 38 (1977) 983-987.
30. P.G. de Gennes, Polymers at an Interface: a Simplified View, Adv. Colloid InterfaceSci. 27 (1987) 189-209.
31. P.M. Claesson, R. Kjellander, P. Stenius, H.K. Christenson, Direct Measurement ofTemperature-Dependent Interactions between Non-ionic Surfactant Layers, J. Chem.Soc., Faraday Trans. 1, 82 (1986), 2735-2746.
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32. A.D. Nikolov, D.T. Wasan, P.A. Kralchevsky, I.B. Ivanov. Ordered Structures inThinning Micellar and Latex Foam Films. In: Ordering and Organisation in IonicSolutions (N. Ise & I. Sogami, Eds.), World Scientific, Singapore, 1988, pp. 302-314.
33. A. D. Nikolov, D. T. Wasan, et. al. Ordered Micelle Structuring in Thin Films Formedfrom Anionic Surfactant Solutions, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 133 (1989) 1-12 & 13-22.
34. J.N. Israelachvili, R.M. Pashley, Molecular Layering of Water at Surfaces and Originof Repulsive Hydration Forces, Nature 306 (1983) 249-250.
35. A. Trokhymchuk, D. Henderson, A. Nikolov, D.T. Wasan, A Simple Calculation ofStructural and Depletion Forces for Fluids/Suspensions Confined in a Film, Langmuir 17 (2001) 4940-4947.
36. E.S. Basheva, P.A. Kralchevsky, K.D. Danov, K.P. Ananthapadmanabhan, A. Lips, The Colloid Structural Forces as a Tool for Particle Characterization and Control ofDispersion Stability, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 9 (2007) 5183-5198.
37. P.A. Kralchevsky, N.D. Denkov, Analytical Expression for the Oscillatory StructuralSurface Force, Chem. Phys. Lett. 240 (1995) 385-392.
38. S. Asakura, F. Oosawa, On Interaction between Two Bodies Immersed in a Solutionof Macromolecules, J. Chem. Phys. 22 (1954) 1255-1256.