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FootballFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about sports known as football. For the ball used in these sports, seeFootball(ball).

Some of the many different games known as football. From top left to bottom right:Association footballor soccer,Australian rules football, International rules football, RugbyUnion, Rugby League, andAmerican Football.

The game of football is any of several similar team sports, of similar origins which involve,to varying degrees,kickinga ball with the foot in an attempt to score agoal. The mostpopular of these sports worldwide isassociation football, more commonly known as just"football" or "soccer". Unqualified, the wordfootball applies to whichever form of football isthe most popular in the regional context in which the word appears, includingAmericanfootball, Australian rules football, Canadian football, Gaelic football, rugby league, rugbyunionand other related games. These variations are known as "codes."[citation needed ]

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Common elements • 2 Etymology • 3 Early history

o 3.1 Ancient games o 3.2 Medieval and early modern Europe o 3.3 Calcio Fiorentino o 3.4 Official disapproval and attempts to ban football

• 4 Establishment of modern codes o 4.1 English public schools o 4.2 Firsts o 4.3 Cambridge rules o 4.4 Sheffield rules

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o 4.5 Australian rules o 4.6 Football Association o 4.7 Rugby football o 4.8 North American football codes o 4.9 Gaelic football o 4.10 Split in Rugby football o 4.11 Globalisation of association football o 4.12 Reform of American football o 4.13 Further divergence of the two rugby codes

• 5 Use of the word "football" • 6 Present day codes and families

o 6.1 Association football and descendants o 6.2 Rugby school football and descendants o 6.3 Irish and Australian varieties o 6.4 Surviving medieval ball games o

6.5 Surviving UK school games o 6.6 Recent inventions and hybrid games o 6.7 Tabletop games and other recreations

• 7 See also • 8 Notes • 9 References

• 10 External links

Common elements

The various codes of football share the following common elements:

• Two teams of usually between 11 and 18 players; some variations that have fewer players (five or more per team) are also popular.

• A clearly defined area in which to play the game.• Scoring goals or points , by moving the ball to an opposing team's end of the field and

either into a goal area, or over a line.• Goals or points resulting from players putting the ball between twogoalposts .• The goal or line beingdefended by the opposing team.• Players being required to move the ball depending on the code by kicking,

carrying, or hand-passing the ball.• Players using only their body to move the ball.

In most codes, there are rules restricting the movement of playersoffside , and players scoringa goal must put the ball either under or over a crossbar between the goalposts. Other featurescommon to several football codes include: points being mostly scored by players carrying theball across the goal line; and players receiving a free kick after theytake a mark or make afair catch .

Peoples from around the world have played games which involved kicking or carrying a ball,sinceancient times. However, most of the modern codes of football have their origins inEngland.[1]

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Etymology

Main article:Football (word)

While it is widely assumed that the word "football" (or "foot ball") references the action of the foot kicking a ball, there is a historical explanation, which is that football originallyreferred to a variety of games inmedieval Europe, which were playedon foot .[2] These gameswere usually played bypeasants, as opposed to the horse-riding sports (such aspolo) oftenplayed byaristocrats. There is no conclusive evidence for either explanation, and the wordfootball has always implied a variety of games played on foot, not just those that involvedkicking a ball. In some cases, the word football has even been applied to games which havespecifically outlawed kicking the ball.[citation needed ]

Early history

Ancient games

Ancient Greek football player balancing the ball. Depiction on an Attic Lekythos.

TheAncient GreeksandRomans are known to have played many ball games, some of whichinvolved the use of the feet. The Roman game harpastum is believed to have been adaptedfrom aGreek team game known as " πίσκυρος" (ἐ episkyros )[3][4] or "φαινίνδα" (phaininda ),[5]

which is mentioned by a Greek playwright, Antiphanes (388–311 BC) and later referred to bytheChristiantheologianClement of Alexandria (c.150-c.215 AD). These games appear tohave resembledrugby football.[6][7][8][9][10] The Roman politicianCicero(106–43 BC) describesthe case of a man who was killed whilst having a shave when a ball was kicked into a barber'sshop. Roman ball games already knew the air-filled ball, the follis.[11][12]

Documented evidence of an activity resembling football can be found in the Chinese military manualZhan Guo Cecompiled between the 3rd century and 1st century BC.[13] It describes apractice known ascuju ( , literally "kick ball"), which originally involved kicking aleather ball through a small hole in a piece of silk cloth which was fixed on bamboo canesand hung about 9 m above ground. During theHan Dynasty(206 BC–220 AD), cuju gameswere standardized and rules were established. Variations of this game later spread to Japanand Korea, known askemari andchuk-guk respectively. Later, another type of goal postsemerged, consisting of just one goal post in the middle of the field.

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A revived version of Kemari being played at theTanzan Shrine.

The Japanese version of cuju is kemari ( ), and was developed during theAsuka period. This is known to have been played within the Japanese imperial court in Kyotofrom about600 AD. Inkemari several people stand in a circle and kick a ball to each other, trying not tolet the ball drop to the ground (much likekeepie uppie). The game appears to have died outsometime before the mid-19th century. It was revived in 1903 and is now played at a number of festivals.

An illustration from the 1850s of Australian Aboriginal hunter gatherers. Children in thebackground are playing a football game, possiblyWoggabaliri .[14]

There are a number of references totraditional, ancient, or prehistoricball games, played byindigenous peoples in many different parts of the world. For example, in 1586, men from aship commanded by an English explorer named John Davis, went ashore to play a form of football withInuit (Eskimo) people inGreenland.[15] There are later accounts of an Inuit gameplayed on ice, calledAqsaqtuk . Each match began with two teams facing each other inparallel lines, before attempting to kick the ball through each other team's line and then at agoal. In 1610,William Stracheyof the Jamestown settlement, Virginia recorded a gameplayed byNative Americans, calledPahsaheman . On theAustralian continentseveral tribesof indigenous peopleplayed kicking and catching games with stuffed balls which have beengeneralised by historians asMarn Grook (Djab Wurrung for "game ball"). The earliesthistorical account is ananecdotefrom the 1878 book byRobert Brough-Smyth, TheAborigines of Victoria , in which a man called Richard Thomas is quoted as saying, in about1841 inVictoria, Australia, that he had witnessed Aboriginal people playing the game: "Mr Thomas describes how the foremost player will drop kick a ball made from the skin of apossumand how other players leap into the air in order to catch it." Some historians havetheorised thatMarn Grook was one of theorigins of Australian rules football.

TheMāoriin New Zealandplayed a game called Ki-o-rahi consisting of teams of sevenplayers play on a circular field divided into zones, and score points by touching the 'pou'(boundary markers) and hitting a central 'tupu' or target.

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Games played in Mesoamerica with rubber balls by indigenous peoplesare also well-documented as existing since before this time, but these had more similarities tobasketballor volleyball, and since their influence on modern football games is minimal, most do not classthem as football. Northeastern American Indians, especially the IroquoisConfederation,played a game which made use of net racquets to throw and catch a small ball; however,although a ball-goal foot game,lacrosse(as its modern descendant is called) is likewise notusually classed as a form of "football."

These games and others may well go far back into antiquity. However, the main sources of modern football codes appear to lie in western Europe, especiallyEngland.

Medieval and early modern Europe

Further information: Medieval football

TheMiddle Agessaw a huge rise in popularity of annualShrovetide footballmatchesthroughout Europe, particularly in England. The game played in England at this time mayhave arrived with theRoman occupation, but the only pre-Norman reference is to boysplaying "ball games" in the 9th centuryHistoria Brittonum. Reports of a game played inBrittany, Normandy, andPicardy, known as La Soule or Choule , suggest that some of thesefootball games could have arrived in England as a result of theNorman Conquest.

An illustration of so-called "mob football".

These forms of football, sometimes referred to as "mob football", would be played betweenneighbouring towns and villages, involving an unlimited number of players on opposingteams, who would clash in a heaving mass of people, struggling to move an item such as aninflated pig'sbladder , to particular geographical points, such as their opponents' church.Shrovetide games have survived into the modern era in a number of English towns (seebelow).

The first detailed description of what was almost certainly football in England was given byWilliam FitzStephen in about 1174–1183. He described the activities of London youthsduring the annual festival of Shrove Tuesday:

After lunch all the youth of the city go out into the fields to take part in a ball game.

The students of each school have their own ball; the workers from each city craft arealso carrying their balls. Older citizens, fathers, and wealthy citizens come on

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horseback to watch their juniors competing, and to relive their own youthvicariously: you can see their inner passions aroused as they watch the action and get caught up in the fun being had by the carefree adolescents .[16]

Most of the very early references to the game speak simply of "ball play" or "playing at ball".This reinforces the idea that the games played at the time did not necessarily involve a ballbeing kicked.

An early reference to a ball game that was probably football comes from 1280 atUlgham,Northumberland, England: "Henry... while playing at ball.. ran against David".[17] Footballwas played in Ireland in 1308, with a documented reference to John McCrocan, a spectator ata "football game" atNewcastle, County Downbeing charged with accidentally stabbing aplayer named William Bernard.[18] Another reference to a football game comes in 1321 atShouldham, Norfolk , England: "[d]uring the game at ball as he kicked the ball, a lay friend of his... ran against him and wounded himself".[17]

In 1314, Nicholas de Farndone,Lord Mayor of the City of London issued a decree banningfootball in the French used by the English upper classes at the time. A translation reads:"[f]orasmuch as there is great noise in the city caused by hustling over large foot balls[rageries de grosses pelotes de pee ] in the fields of the public from which many evils mightarise which God forbid: we command and forbid on behalf of the king, on pain of imprisonment, such game to be used in the city in the future." This is the earliest reference tofootball.

In 1363, KingEdward III of England issued a proclamation banning "...handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting, or other such idle games", showing that "football" whatever its exact form in this case was being differentiated from games involving other parts of the body, such as handball.

KingHenry IV of Englandalso presented one of the earliest documented uses of the Englishword "football", in 1409, when he issued a proclamation forbidding the levying of money for "foteball".[17][19]

There is also an account inLatinfrom the end of the 15th century of football being played atCawston, Nottinghamshire. This is the first description of a "kicking game" and the firstdescription of dribbling: "[t]he game at which they had met for common recreation is calledby some the foot-ball game. It is one in which young men, in country sport, propel a huge

ball not by throwing it into the air but by striking it and rolling it along the ground, and thatnot with their hands but with their feet... kicking in opposite directions" The chronicler givesthe earliest reference to a football pitch, stating that: "[t]he boundaries have been marked andthe game had started.[17]

Other firsts in the mediæval andearly moderneras:

• "a football", in the sense of a ball rather than a game, was first mentioned in 1486.[19]

This reference is in DameJuliana Berners' Book of St Albans . It states: "a certainrounde instrument to play with ...it is an instrument for the foote and then it is calde inLatyn 'pila pedalis', a fotebal."[17]

• a pair of football boots was ordered by King Henry VIII of England in 1526.[20]

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• women playing a form of football was in 1580, when Sir Philip Sidney described it inone of his poems: "[a] tyme there is for all, my mother often sayes, When she, withskirts tuckt very hy, with girles at football playes."[21]

• the first references togoals are in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1584 and1602 respectively,John NordenandRichard Carew referred to "goals" inCornishhurling. Carew described how goals were made: "they pitch two bushes in the ground,some eight or ten foote asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelue [twelve]score off, other twayne in like distance, which they terme their Goales".[22] He is alsothe first to describe goalkeepers and passing of the ball between players.

• the first direct reference toscoring a goal is inJohn Day's playThe Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (performed circa 1600; published 1659): "I'll play a gole atcamp-ball"(an extremely violent variety of football, which was popular inEast Anglia). Similarlyin a poem in 1613,Michael Drayton refers to "when the Ball to throw, And drive it tothe Gole, in squadrons forth they goe".

Calcio Fiorentino

An illustration of theCalcio Fiorentino field and starting positions, from a 1688 book byPietro di Lorenzo Bini.Main article:Calcio Fiorentino

In the 16th century, the city of Florencecelebrated the period betweenEpiphany and Lentbyplaying a game which today is known as "calcio storico " ("historic kickball") in thePiazzaSanta Croce. The young aristocrats of the city would dress up in fine silk costumes andembroil themselves in a violent form of football. For example,calcio players could punch,shoulder charge, and kick opponents. Blows below the belt were allowed. The game is said tohave originated as a military training exercise. In 1580, Count Giovanni de' Bardi di VerniowroteDiscorso sopra 'l giuoco del Calcio Fiorentino . This is sometimes said to be theearliest code of rules for any football game. The game was not played after January 1739(until it was revived in May 1930).

Official disapproval and attempts to ban football

Main article:Attempts to ban football games

Numerous attempts have been made to ban football games, particularly the most rowdy anddisruptive forms. This was especially the case in England and in other parts of Europe, duringtheMiddle Agesandearly modern period. Between 1324 and 1667, football was banned in

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England alone by more than 30 royal and local laws. The need to repeatedly proclaim suchlaws demonstrated the difficulty in enforcing bans on popular games. KingEdward IIwas sotroubled by the unruliness of football in London that on April 13, 1314 he issued aproclamation banning it: "Forasmuch as there is great noise in the city caused by hustlingover large balls from which many evils may arise which God forbid; we command andforbid, on behalf of the King, on pain of imprisonment, such game to be used in the city inthe future."

The reasons for the ban byEdward III, on June 12, 1349, were explicit: football and other recreations distracted the populace from practicing archery, which was necessary for war. In1424, theParliament of Scotlandpassed aFootball Act that statedit is statut and the king forbiddis that na man play at the fut ball under the payne of iiij d – in other words, playingfootball was made illegal, and punishable by a fine of four pence.

By 1608, the local authorities inManchester were complaining that: "With the ffotebale...[there] hath beene greate disorder in our towne of Manchester we are told, and glassewindowes broken yearlye and spoyled by a companie of lewd and disordered persons ..."[23]

That same year, the word "football" was used disapprovingly by William Shakespeare.Shakespeare's play King Lear contains the line: "Nor tripped neither, you base footballplayer" (Act I, Scene 4). Shakespeare also mentions the game inA Comedy of Errors (Act II,Scene 1):

Am I so round with you as you with me,That like a football you do spurn me thus?You spurn me hence, and he will spurn me hither:If I last in this service, you must case me in leather.

"Spurn" literally meansto kick away , thus implying that the game involved kicking a ballbetween players.

KingJames I of England's Book of Sports (1618) however, instructs Christians to play atfootball every Sunday afternoon after worship.[24] The book's aim appears to be an attempt tooffset the strictness of thePuritansregarding the keeping of theSabbath.[25]

Establishment of modern codes

English public schools

Main article:English public school football games

While football continued to be played in various forms throughout Britain, its "public"schools(known as private schools in other countries) are widely credited with four keyachievements in the creation of modern football codes. First of all, the evidence suggests thatthey were important in taking football away from its "mob" form and turning it into anorganised team sport. Second, many early descriptions of football and references to it wererecorded by people who had studied at these schools. Third, it was teachers, students andformer students from these schools who first codified football games, to enable matches to be

played between schools. Finally, it was at English public schools that the division between"kicking" and "running" (or "carrying") games first became clear.

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The earliest evidence that games resembling football were being played at English publicschools mainly attended by boys from the upper, upper-middle and professional classes comes from theVulgaria by William Herman in 1519. Herman had been headmaster at Eton and Winchester colleges and hisLatintextbook includes a translation exercise with thephrase "We wyll playe with a ball full of wynde".[26]

Richard Mulcaster , a student at Eton Collegein the early 16th century and later headmaster atother English schools, has been described as "the greatest sixteenth Century advocate of football".[27] Among his contributions are the earliest evidence of organised team football.Mulcaster's writings refer to teams ("sides" and "parties"), positions ("standings"), a referee("judge over the parties") and a coach "(trayning maister)". Mulcaster's "footeball" hadevolved from the disordered and violent forms of traditional football:

[s]ome smaller number with such overlooking, sorted into sides and standings, not meetingwith their bodies so boisterously to trie their strength: nor shouldring or shuffing one an other so barbarously ... may use footeball for as much good to the body, by the chiefe use of thelegges.[28]

In 1633,David Wedderburn, a teacher from Aberdeen, mentioned elements of modernfootball games in a shortLatintextbook calledVocabula. Wedderburn refers to what hasbeen translated into modern English as "keeping goal" and makes an allusion to passing theball ("strike it here"). There is a reference to "get hold of the ball", suggesting that somehandling was allowed. It is clear that the tackles allowed included the charging and holding of opposing players ("drive that man back").[citation needed ]

A more detailed description of football is given inFrancis Willughby's Book of Games ,written in about 1660.[29] Willughby, who had studied atBishop Vesey's Grammar School,Sutton Coldfield, is the first to describe goals and a distinct playing field: "a close that has agate at either end. The gates are called Goals." His book includes a diagram illustrating afootball field. He also mentions tactics ("leaving some of their best players to guard thegoal"); scoring ("they that can strike the ball through their opponents' goal first win") and theway teams were selected ("the players being equally divided according to their strength andnimbleness"). He is the first to describe a "law" of football: "they must not strike [anopponent's leg] higher than the ball".[citation needed ]

English public schools were the first to codify football games. In particular, they devised thefirstoffside rules, during the late 18th century.[30] In the earliest manifestations of these rules,

players were "off their side" if they simply stood between the ball and the goal which wastheir objective. Players were not allowed to pass the ball forward, either by foot or by hand.They could only dribble with their feet, or advance the ball in a scrum or similar formation .However, offside laws began to diverge and develop differently at the each school, as isshown by the rules of football from Winchester, Rugby, Harrow and Cheltenham, duringbetween 1810 and 1850.[30] The first known codes in the sense of a set of rules werethose of Eton in 1815[31] andAldenham in 1825.[31])

During the early 19th century, mostworking classpeople in Britain had to work six days aweek, often for over twelve hours a day. They had neither the time nor the inclination toengage in sport for recreation and, at the time, manychildren were part of the labour force.Feast dayfootball played on the streets was in decline. Public school boys, who enjoyed

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some freedom from work, became the inventors of organised football games with formalcodes of rules.

Football was adopted by a number of public schools as a way of encouraging competitivenessand keeping youths fit. Each school drafted its own rules, which varied widely betweendifferent schools and were changed over time with each new intake of pupils. Two schools of thought developed regarding rules. Some schools favoured a game in which the ball could becarried (as at Rugby,Marlborough and Cheltenham), while others preferred a game wherekicking and dribbling the ball was promoted (as at Eton, Harrow, Westminster andCharterhouse). The division into these two camps was partly the result of circumstances inwhich the games were played. For example, Charterhouse and Westminster at the time hadrestricted playing areas; the boys were confined to playing their ball game within the schoolcloisters, making it difficult for them to adopt rough and tumble running games.[citation needed ]

Rugby School

William Webb Ellis, a pupil at Rugby School, is said to have "with a fine disregard for therules of football,as played in his time [emphasis added], first took the ball in his arms and ranwith it, thus creating the distinctive feature of the rugby game." in 1823. This act is usuallysaid to be the beginning of Rugby football, but there is little evidence that it occurred, andmost sports historians believe the story to be apocryphal. The act of 'taking the ball in is arms'is often misinterpreted as 'picking the ball up' as it is widely believed that Webb Ellis' 'crime'was handling the ball, as in modern soccer, however handling the ball as the time was oftenpermitted and in some cases compulsory,[32] the rule for which Webb Ellis showed disregardwasrunning forward with it as the rules of his time only allowed a player to retreatbackwards or kick forwards.

The boom in rail transport in Britainduring the 1840s meant that people were able to travelfurther and with less inconvenience than they ever had before. Inter-school sportingcompetitions became possible. However, it was difficult for schools to play each other atfootball, as each school played by its own rules. The solution to this problem was usually thatthe match be divided into two halves, one half played by the rules of the host "home" school,and the other half by the visiting "away" school.

Themodern rules of many football codes were formulated during the mid- or late- 19thcentury. This also applies to other sports such as lawn bowls, lawn tennis, etc. The major impetus for this was the patenting of the world's firstlawnmower in 1830. This allowed for the preparation of modern ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc.[33]

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Apart from Rugby football, the public school codes have barely been played beyond theconfines of each school's playing fields. However, many of them are still played at theschools which created them (seeSurviving UK school gamesbelow).

Public schools' dominance of sports in the UK began to wane after the Factory Act of 1850 ,which significantly increased the recreation time available to working class children. Before1850, many British children had to work six days a week, for more than twelve hours a day.From 1850, they could not work before 6 a.m. (7 a.m. in winter) or after 6 p.m. on weekdays(7 p.m. in winter); on Saturdays they had to cease work at 2 p.m. These changes mean thatworking class children had more time for games, including various forms of football.

Firsts

Clubs

Main article:Oldest football clubs

Sports clubs dedicated to playing football began in the 18th century, for exampleLondon'sGymnastic Societywhich was founded in the mid-18th century and ceased playing matchesin 1796.[34][35] The first documented club to bear the title "football club" is one in Edinburgh, Scotland, during the period 1824–41.[36][37] The club forbade tripping but allowed pushing andholding and the picking up of the ball.[37]

Two clubs which claim to be the world's oldest existing football club, in the sense of a clubwhich is not part of a school or university, are strongholds of rugby football: theBarnes Club,said to have been founded in 1839, andGuy's Hospital Football Club, in 1843. Neither date

nor the variety of football played is well-documented, but such claims nevertheless allude tothe popularity of rugby before other modern codes emerged.

In 1845, three boys at Rugby school were tasked with codifying the rules then being used atthe school. These were the first set of written rules (or code) for any form of football.[38] Thisfurther assisted the spread of the Rugby game. For instance, Dublin University Football Club

founded at Trinity College, Dublinin 1854 and later famous as a bastion of the RugbySchool game is the world's oldest documented football club in any code.

Competitions

Main article:Oldest football competitionsOne of the longest running football fixture is the Cordner-Eggleston Cup, contested betweenMelbourne Grammar SchoolandScotch College, Melbourneevery year since 1858. It isbelieved by many to also be the first match of Australian rules football, although it wasplayed under experimental rules in its first year. The first football trophy tournament was theCaledonian Challenge Cup, donated by the Royal Caledonian Society of Melbourne, playedin 1861 under theMelbourne Rules.[39] The oldest football league is a rugby footballcompetition, theUnited Hospitals Challenge Cup(1874), while the oldest rugby trophy is theYorkshire Cup, contested since 1878. The South Australian Football Association (30 April1877) is the oldest surviving Australian rules football competition. The oldest survivingsoccer trophy is theYoudan Cup(1867) and the oldest national soccer competition is theEnglish FA Cup (1871).The Football League(1888) is recognised as the longest running

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1872 the Engineers were the first football team renowned for "play[ing] beautifullytogether"[53] A double pass is first reported from Derby school againstNottingham ForestinMarch 1872, the first of which is irrefutably ashort pass: "Mr Absey dribbling the ball half the length of the field delivered it to Wallis, who kicking it cleverly in front of the goal, sentit to the captain who drove it at once between the Nottingham posts"[54] The first side to haveperfected the modern formation wasCambridge University AFC [55] [56] [57] and introduced the2–3–5 "pyramid" formation.[58][59]

Cambridge rules

Main article:Cambridge rules

In 1848, atCambridge University, Mr. H. de Winton and Mr. J.C. Thring, who were bothformerly atShrewsbury School, called a meeting at Trinity College, Cambridgewith 12 other representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury. An eight-hour meeting produced what amounted to the first set of modern rules, known as theCambridgerules . No copy of these rules now exists, but a revised version from circa 1856 is held in thelibrary of Shrewsbury School. The rules clearly favour the kicking game. Handling was onlyallowed for a player to take aclean catch entitling them to a free kick and there was aprimitive offside rule, disallowing players from "loitering" around the opponents' goal. TheCambridge rules were not widely adopted outside English public schools and universities (butit was arguably the most significant influence on the Football Associationcommitteemembers responsible for formulating the rules of Association football).

Sheffield rules

Main article:Sheffield rulesBy the late 1850s, many football clubs had been formed throughout the English-speakingworld, to play various codes of football.Sheffield Football Club, founded in 1857 in theEnglish city of Sheffieldby Nathaniel Creswick and William Prest, was later recognised asthe world's oldest club playing association football.[60] However, the club initially played itsown code of football: theSheffield rules . The code was largely independent of the publicschool rules, the most significant difference being the lack of anoffside rule.

The code was responsible for many innovations that later spread to association football.These includedfree kicks[disambiguation needed ], corner kicks, handball, throw-insand the crossbar.[61] By the 1870s they became the dominant code in the north and midlands of England. Atthis time a series of rule changes by both the LondonandSheffield FAs gradually eroded thedifferences between the two games until the adoption of a common code in 1877.

Australian rules

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AnAustralian rules football match at theRichmond Paddock , Melbourne, in 1866. (Awoodengravingby Robert Bruce.)Main article:Australian rules footballSee also:Origins of Australian rules football

Various forms of football were played in Australia during theVictorian gold rush, fromwhich emerged a distinct and locally popular sport. While these origins are still the subject of much debate the popularisation of the code that is known today as Australian Rules Footballis currently attributed toTom Wills.

Wills wrote a letter toBell's Life in Victoria & Sporting Chronicle, on July 10, 1858, callingfor a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter .[62] This isconsidered by historians to be a defining moment in the creation of the new sport. Throughpublicity and personal contacts Wills was able to co-ordinate football matches in Melbourne that experimented with various rules,[63] the first recorded of which occurred on July 31, 1858.On 7 August 1858, Wills umpired a relatively well documented schoolboys match betweenMelbourne Grammar SchoolandScotch College. Following these matches, organisedfootball matches rapidly increased in popularity.

Wills and others involved in these early matches formed theMelbourne Football Club (theoldest surviving Australian football club) on May 14, 1859. The first members includedWills,William Hammersley, J.B. Thompson andThomas H. Smith. They met with theintention of forming a set of rules that would be widely adopted by other clubs.

The backgrounds of the original rule makers makes for interesting speculation as to theinfluences on the rules. Wills, an Australian of convict heritage was educated in England. He

was arugby footballer , a cricketer and had strong links toindigenous Australians. At first hedesired to introduce rugby school rules. Hammersley was a cricketer and journalist whoemigrated from England. Thomas Smith was a school teacher who emigrated from Ireland.The committee members debated several rules including those of English public schoolgames. Despite including aspects similar to other forms of football there is no conclusiveevidence to point to any single influence. Instead the committee decided on a game that wasmore suited to Australian conditions and Wills is documented to have made the declaration"No, we shall have a game of our own".[64] The code was distinctive in the prevalence of themark , free kick , tackling, lack of an offside rule and that players were specifically penalisedfor throwing the ball.

The Melbourne football rules were widely distributed and gradually adopted by the other Victorian clubs. They were redrafting several times during the 1860s to accommodate the

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rules of other influential Victorian football clubs. A significant re-write in 1866 byH C AHarrison's committee to accommodate rules from theGeelong Football Clubmade the game,which had become known as "Victorian Rules", increasingly distinct from other codes. Itused cricket fields, a rugby ball, specialised goal and behind posts, bouncing with the ballwhile running and later spectacular high marking. The form of football spread quickly toother other Australian colonies. Outside of its heartland in southern Australia the codeexperienced a significant period of decline followingWorld War I but has since grownother parts of the worldat an amateur level and theAustralian Football League emerged as thedominant professional competition.

Football Association

The firstfootballinternational,ScotlandversusEngland. Once kept by theRugby FootballUnionas an early example of rugby football.Main article:The Football Association#History

During the early 1860s, there were increasing attempts in England to unify and reconcile thevarious public school games. In 1862, J. C. Thring, who had been one of the driving forcesbehind the original Cambridge Rules, was a master atUppingham Schooland he issued hisown rules of what he called "The Simplest Game" (these are also known as the UppinghamRules). In early October 1863 another new revised version of the Cambridge Rules wasdrawn up by a seven member committee representing former pupils from Harrow,Shrewsbury, Eton, Rugby, Marlborough and Westminster.

At theFreemasons' Tavern, Great Queen Street, London on the evening of October 26, 1863,representatives of several football clubs in the London Metropolitan areamet for theinaugural meeting of The Football Association (FA). The aim of the Association was toestablish a single unifying code and regulate the playing of the game among its members.Following the first meeting, the public schools were invited to join the association. All of them declined, except Charterhouse and Uppingham. In total, six meetings of the FA were

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held between October and December 1863. After the third meeting, a draft set of rules werepublished. However, at the beginning of the fourth meeting, attention was drawn to therecently published Cambridge Rules of 1863. The Cambridge rules differed from the draft FArules in two significant areas; namely running with (carrying) the ball and hacking (kickingopposing players in the shins). The two contentious FA rules were as follows:

IX. A player shall be entitled to run with the ball towards his adversaries' goal if he makes afair catch, or catches the ball on the first bound; but in case of a fair catch, if he makes hismark he shall not run.

X. If any player shall run with the ball towards his adversaries' goal, any player on theopposite side shall be at liberty to charge, hold, trip or hack him, or to wrest the ball fromhim, but no player shall be held and hacked at the same time.

[65][66]

At the fifth meeting it was proposed that these two rules be removed. Most of the delegatessupported this, butF. M. Campbell, the representative fromBlackheath and the first FAtreasurer, objected. He said: "hacking is the true football". However, the motion to banrunning with the ball in hand and hacking was carried and Blackheath withdrew from the FA.After the final meeting on 8 December, the FA published the "Laws of Football", the firstcomprehensive set of rules for the game later known asAssociation Football(later known insome countries as soccer).

The first FA rules still contained elements that are no longer part of association football, butwhich are still recognisable in other games (such as Australian football and rugby football):for instance, a player could make a fair catch and claim amark , which entitled him to a freekick; and if a player touched the ball behind the opponents' goal line, his side was entitled toa free kick at goal, from 15 yards (13.5 metres) in front of the goal line.

Rugby football

Main article:Rugby football

A rugby scrum in 1871.

In Britain, by 1870, there were about 75 clubs playing variations of the Rugby school game.There were also "rugby" clubs in Ireland, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. However,there was no generally accepted set of rules for rugby until 1871, when 21 clubs from London

came together to form theRugby Football Union(RFU). The first official RFU rules wereadopted in June 1871. These rules allowed passing the ball. They also included thetry, where

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McGill and the two teams alternated between their respective sets of rules. Within a fewyears, however, Harvard had both adopted McGill's rugby rules and had persuaded other U.S.university teams to do the same. In 1876, at theMassasoit Convention, it was agreed by theseuniversities to adopt most of theRugby Football Union rules, with some variations.Princeton, Rutgers and others continued to compete using soccer-based rules for a few yearsbefore switching to the rugby-based rules of Harvard and its competitors. U.S. colleges didnot generally return to soccer until the early 20th century.

Rutgers College Football Team, 1882

In 1880,Yale coachWalter Camp, devised a number of major changes to the Americangame. Camp's two most important rule innovations in establishing American football asdistinct from the rugby football games on which it is based arescrimmage anddown-and-distance rules.

Scrimmagerefers to the practice of starting action by delivering the ball from the ground toanother player's hand. Camp's original rule allowed this delivery to be done only with thefeet; the rule was soon changed to allow the ball to be passed by hand. The rule alsoestablished a distinctline of scrimmagewhich separates the two teams from each other.When a player is tackled, he is ruled down and play stops, while the teams reset on either sideof the line of scrimmage. Play then resumes with the delivery of the ball. Teams are given alimited number of downs to achieve a certain distance (always measured inyards). InAmerican football, teams are given four downs to advance the ball ten yards, after whichpossession of the ball changes. In Canadian football, teams are allowed three downs toadvance ten yards. These rules created a fundamental distinction between the NorthAmerican codes and rugby codes. Rugby is still fundamentally a continuous-action game,while North American codes are organized around running discrete "plays", as defined asstarting with the delivery from "scrimmage" and ending with the "down".

American football, in its early years, was an excessively violent game, plagued with severaldeaths and life-changing injuries every year. The violence became so drastic thatPresident Theodore Rooseveltthreatened to shut down the game in 1905, should rules not be changedto minimize this violence. Several rule changes were put into place that year, but the mostenduring has been the introduction of the legal forward pass, which, like Camp's rule changesof the 1880s, fundamentally changed the nature of the sport. When it became legal to throwthe ball forward, an entire new method of advancing the ball emerged. As a result, playersbecame more specialized in their roles, as the different positions on the team requireddifferent skill sets. Thus, some players are primarily involved in running with the ball (therunning back ) while others specialize in throwing (the quarterback ), catching (the wide

receiver ), or blocking (theoffensive line). With the advent of free substitution rules in the

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1940s and 1950s, teams could deploy separate offensive and defensive "platoons" which ledto even greater specialization.

Over the years Canadian football absorbed some developments in American football, but alsoretained many unique characteristics. One of these was that Canadian football, for manyyears, did not officially distinguish itself from rugby. For example, theCanadian RugbyFootball Union , founded in 1884 was the forerunner of theCanadian Football League, rather than a rugby union body. (The Canadian Rugby Union, today known as Rugby Canada, wasnot formed until 1965.) American football was also frequently described as "rugby" in the1880s.

Gaelic football

Main article:History of Gaelic football

In the mid-19th century, various traditional football games, referred to collectively as caid , remained popular in Ireland, especially inCounty Kerry. One observer, Father W. Ferris,described two main forms of caid during this period: the "field game" in which the object wasto put the ball through arch-like goals, formed from the boughs of two trees; and the epic"cross-country game" which took up most of the daylight hours of a Sunday on which it wasplayed, and was won by one team taking the ball across aparishboundary. "Wrestling","holding" opposing players, and carrying the ball were all allowed.

By the 1870s, Rugby and Association football had started to become popular in Ireland.Trinity College, Dublinwas an early stronghold of Rugby (see theDevelopments in the1850ssection, above). The rules of the English FA were being distributed widely. Traditional

forms of caid had begun to give way to a "rough-and-tumble game" which allowed tripping.There was no serious attempt to unify and codify Irish varieties of football, until theestablishment of theGaelic Athletic Association (GAA) in 1884. The GAA sought topromote traditional Irish sports, such ashurlingand to reject imported games like Rugby andAssociation football. The first Gaelic football rules were drawn up byMaurice Davinandpublished in theUnited Ireland magazine on February 7, 1887. Davin's rules showed theinfluence of games such as hurling and a desire to formalise a distinctly Irish code of football.The prime example of this differentiation was the lack of an offside rule (an attribute which,for many years, was shared only by other Irish games like hurling, and by Australian rulesfootball).

Split in Rugby football

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Over time, the RFU form of rugby, played by clubs which remained members of nationalfederations affiliated to the IRFB, became known as rugby union.

Globalisation of association football

Main article:History of FIFA

The need for a single body to oversee association football had become apparent by thebeginning of the 20th century, with the increasing popularity of international fixtures. TheEnglish Football Association had chaired many discussions on setting up an internationalbody, but was perceived as making no progress. It fell to associations from seven other European countries: France, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, andSwitzerland, to form an international association. TheFédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in Paris on May 21, 1904. Its first president wasRobertGuérin. The French name and acronym has remained, even outside French-speakingcountries.

Reform of American football

Both forms of rugby and American football were noted at the time for serious injuries, aswell as the deaths of a significant number of players. By the early 20th century in the U.S.A.,this had resulted in national controversy and American football was banned by a number of colleges. Consequently, a series of meetings was held by 19 colleges in 1905–06. Thisoccurred reputedly at the behest of PresidentTheodore Roosevelt. He was considered afancier of the game, but he threatened to ban it unless the rules were modified to reduce thenumbers of deaths and disabilities. The meetings are now considered to be the origin of the

National Collegiate Athletic Association.One proposed change was a widening of the playing field. However,Harvard University hadjust builta concrete stadium and therefore objected to widening, instead proposinglegalisation of theforward pass . The report of the meetings introduced many restrictions ontackling and two more divergences from rugby: the forward pass and the banning of massformation plays . The changes did not immediately have the desired effect, and 33 Americanfootball players were killed during 1908 alone. However, the number of deaths and injuriesdid gradually decline.

Further divergence of the two rugby codes

Rugby league rules diverged significantly from rugby union in 1906, with the reduction of the team from 15 to 13 players. In 1907, a New Zealand professional rugby team touredAustralia and Britain, receiving an enthusiastic response, and professionalrugby leagueswere launched in Australiathe following year. However, the rules of professional gamesvaried from one country to another, and negotiations between various national bodies wererequired to fix the exact rules for each international match. This situation endured until 1948,when at the instigation of the French league, theRugby League International Federation (RLIF) was formed at a meeting inBordeaux.

During the second half of 20th century, the rules changed further. In 1966, rugby leagueofficials borrowed the American football concept of downs : a team could retain possession of

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the ball for no more than four tackles. The maximum number of tackles was later increased tosix (in 1971), and in rugby league this became known as the six tackle rule .

With the advent of full-time professionals in the early 1990s, and the consequent speeding upof the game, the five metre off-side distance between the two teams became 10 metres, andthe replacement rule was superseded by various interchange rules, among other changes.The laws of rugby union also changed significantly during the 20th century. In particular,goals frommarks were abolished, kicks directlyinto touch from outside the22 metre linewere penalised, new laws were put in place to determine who had possession following aninconclusiveruck or maul , and the lifting of players inline-outs was legalised.

In 1995, rugby union became an "open" game, that is one which allowed professionalplayers. Although the original dispute between the two codes has now disappeared anddespite the fact that officials from both forms of rugby football have sometimes mentionedthe possibility of re-unification the rules of both codes and their culture have diverged tosuch an extent that such an event is unlikely in the foreseeable future.

A player takes a free kick, while the opposition form a "wall", in Association football

Use of the word "football"

The word "football ", when used in reference to a specific game can mean any one of thosedescribed above. Because of this, much friendly controversy has occurred over the termfootball , primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the English-speaking world. Most often, the word "football" is used to refer to the code of football that isconsidered dominant within a particular region. So, effectively, what the word "football"means usually depends on where one says it.

Players assemble at the line of scrimmage in anAmerican footballgame.

Association footballhas generally been known as "soccer" in the U.S, Canada, Ireland,Australia and New Zealand where other codes of football are dominant, while infrancophone

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Quebec, where Canadian football is more popular, the sport of association football is knownas le soccer [68] and the Canadian code asfootball . Of the 45 nationalFIFAaffiliates in whichEnglish is an official or primary language, almost all now use "football" in their organizations' official names, althoughCanadaand theUnited Statesthe national footballorganizations continue to use the name "Soccer" in their titles, and several others have onlyrecently "normalized" to using "Football", including:

• Australia's association football governing body changed its name in 2007 from using"soccer" to "football"[69]

• New Zealand also changed in 2007, saying "the international game is called football".[70]

• Samoa changed from "Samoa Football (Soccer) Federation" to "Football FederationSamoa" in 2009[71][72]

Present day codes and families

Association football and descendants

Main article:Variants of association football

Anindoor soccer game at an open air venue in Mexico. Thereferee has just awarded the redteam a free kick.

• Association football , also known asfootball , soccer , footy andfootie• Indoor/basketball court varieties of Football:

o Five-a-side football played throughout the world under various rulesincluding:

Futsal the FIFA-approved five-a-side indoor gameMinivoetbal the five-a-side indoor game played in East and WestFlanderswhere it is hugely popular Papi fut the five-a-side game played in outdoor basketball courts (builtwith goals) in Central America.

o Indoor soccer the six-a-side indoor game, known inLatin America, whereit is often played in open air venues, asfútbol rápido ("fast football")

o Masters Football six-a-side played in Europe by mature professionals (35years and older)

• Paralympic football modified Football for athletes with a disability.[73] Includes:o Football 5-a-side for visually impaired athleteso Football 7-a-side for athletes withcerebral palsyo Amputee football for athletes withamputations

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o Deaf football for athletes with hearing impairmentso Electric wheelchair soccer

• Beach soccer football played on sand, also known as beach football and sandsoccer

• Street football encompasses a number of informal varieties of football• Rush goalie is a variation of football in which the role of the goalkeeper is moreflexible than normal• Headers and Volleys where the aim is to score goals against a goalkeeper using

only headers and volleys• Crab football players stand on their hands and feet and move around on their backs

whilst playing football as normal• Swamp soccer the game is played on a swampor bogfield

Rugby school football and descendants

• Rugby football o Rugby league often referred to simply as "league", and usually known

simply as "football" or "footy" in the Australian states of New South Walesand Queensland.

Rugby league nines (or sevens)Touch football (rugby league) a non-contact version of rugbyleague. Often called simply "touch", in South Africa it is known as "sixdown"

o Rugby union Rugby sevens

Rugby sevens; Fijiv Cook Islandsat the 2006 Commonwealth Gamesin Melbourne

o Beach rugby rugby played on sando Touch rugby generic name for forms of rugby football which do not feature

tacklesTag Rugby a non-contact version of rugby, in which avelcrotag isremoved to indicate a tackle

• Gridiron football o American football called "football" in the United States and Canada, and

"gridiron" in Australia and New Zealand. Sometimes called "tackle football"to distinguish it from the touch versions

o Indoor football , arena football an indoor version of American football

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o Nine-man football , eight-man football, six-man football versions of tacklefootball, played primarily by smaller high schools that lack enough players tofield full 11-man teams

o Touch football (American) non-tackle American footballFlag football non-tackle American football, like touch football, inwhich a flag that is held by velcro on a belt tied around the waist ispulled by defenders to indicate a tackle

o Street football (American) American football played in backyards withoutequipment and with simplified rules

o Canadian football called simply "football" in Canada; "football" in Canadacan mean either Canadian or American football depending on context

Canadian flag football non-tackle Canadian footballNine-man football similar to nine-man American football, but usingCanadian rules; played by smaller schools in Saskatchewanthat lack enough players to field full 12-man teams

See also:Comparison of American football and rugby league, Comparison of Americanfootball and rugby union, Comparison of Canadian and American football, andComparisonof rugby league and rugby union

Irish and Australian varieties

International rules footballtest match from the2005 International Rules SeriesbetweenAustralia and Ireland atTelstra Dome, Melbourne, Australia.

These codes have in common the absence of an offside rule, the requirement to bounce or solo (toe-kick) the ball while running, handpassing by punching or tapping the ball rather than throwing it, and other traditions.

• Australian rules football officially known as "Australian football", and informallyas "football", "footy" or "Aussie rules". In some areas (erroneously) referred to as"AFL", which is the name of the main organising body and competition

o Auskick a version of Australian rules designed by the AFL for youngchildren

o Metro footy (or Metro rules footy) a modified version invented by theUSAFL, for use ongridironfields in North American cities (which often lack grounds large enough for conventional Australian rules matches)

o Kick-to-kick – informal versions of the gameo 9-a-side footy a more open, running variety of Australian rules, requiring

18 players in total and a proportionally smaller playing area (includes contactand non-contact varieties)

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o Rec footy "Recreational Football", a modified non-contact touch variationof Australian rules, created by the AFL, which replaces tackles with tags

o Touch Aussie Rules a non-contact variation of Australian Rules playedonly in the United Kingdom

o Samoa rules localised version adapted to Samoan conditions, such as theuse of rugby footballfields

o Masters Australian football (a.k.a.Superules ) reduced contact versionintroduced for competitions limited to players over 30 years of age

o Women's Australian rules football played with a smaller ball and(sometimes) reduced contact version introduced for women's competition

• Gaelic football Played predominantly in Ireland. Sometimes referred to as"football" or "gah"[74][75][76]

o Ladies Gaelic football • International rules football a compromise code used for games between Gaelic and

Australian Rules players

See also:Comparison of Australian rules football and Gaelic football

Surviving medieval ball games

The ball is hit into the air at the 2006 Royal Shrovetide Football match. (Photographer: GaryAustin.)

Inside the UK

• TheHaxey Hood, played onEpiphanyin Haxey, Lincolnshire• Shrove Tuesday games

o Scoring the Hales in Alnwick , Northumberlando Royal Shrovetide Football in Ashbourne, Derbyshireo TheShrovetide Ball Game in Atherstone, Warwickshireo The Shrove Tuesday Football Ceremony of the Purbeck Marblers in Corfe

Castle, Dorseto Hurling the Silver Ball at St Columb Major in Cornwallo TheBall Game in Sedgefield, County Durham

• In Scotland theBa game("Ball Game") is still popular around Christmas andHogmanayat:

o Duns , Berwickshireo Scone, Perthshire o Kirkwall in theOrkneyIslands

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Outside the UK

• Calcio Fiorentino a modern revival of Renaissance football from 16th centuryFlorence.

Surviving UK school games

Harrow footballplayers after a game at Harrow School.

Games still played at UK public (independent) schools:

• Eton field game • Eton wall game • Harrow football • Winchester College football

Recent inventions and hybrid games

• Keepie uppie (keep up)

is the art of juggling with a football using feet, knees, chest, shoulders, and head.

o Footbag

is a small bean bag or sand bag used as a ball in a number of keepie uppie variations,including hacky sack (which is a trade mark).

• Freestyle football

a modern take on keepie uppie where freestylers are graded for their entertainmentvalue and expression of skill.

Based on FA rules

• Cubbies • Three sided football • Triskelion

Based on rugby

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• Force ’em backs a.k.a.forcing back , forcemanback

Hybrid games

• Austus

a compromise between Australian rules andAmerican football, invented inMelbourneduring World War II.

• Bossaball

mixes Association football andvolleyballandgymnastics; played on inflatables andtrampolines.

• Footvolley

mixes Association football and beach volleyball; played on sand

Note: altough similar with football and volleyball in some aspects,Sepak takraw has ancientorigins and cannot be considered an hybrid game.

• Football tennis

mixes Association football and tennis

• Kickball

a hybrid of Association football and baseball, invented in the United States in about1942.

• Speedball (American)

a combination of American football, soccer, andbasketball, devised in the UnitedStates in 1912.

• Universal football

A hybrid of Australian rules and rugby league, trialled in Sydney in 1933.[77]

• Volata

a game resembling Association football andEuropean handball, devised byItalianfascistleader,Augusto Turati, in the 1920s.

• Wheelchair rugby

also known asMurderball , invented in Canada in 1977. Based onice hockeyandbasketball rather than rugby.

Tabletop games and other recreations

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Based on Football (soccer)

• Subbuteo • Blow football • Table football also known asfoosball , table soccer , babyfoot , bar football or

gettone )• Fantasy football (soccer) • Button football also known asFutebol de Mesa , Jogo de Botões• Penny football • FIFA Video Games Series • Pro Evolution Soccer

Based on rugby

• Penny rugby

Based on American football

• Paper football • Blood Bowl • Fantasy football (American) • Madden NFL

Based on Australian football

• List of Australian rules football computer games o

AFL Premiership 2005 Based on Rugby League football

• Sidhe's Rugby League serieso Rugby League 3

• Australian Rugby League

See also• Names for association football • Players who have converted from one football code to another • Football field (unit of length) • Football in the 1300s

Notes

1. ̂ Marples, M (1954). A History of Football. Secker and Warburg, London2. ̂ Sports historian Bill Murray, quoted byThe Sports Factor , "Tie Me Kangaroo

Down, Sport" (Radio National, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, May 31, 2002)and Michael Scott Moore, "Naming the Beautiful Game: It's Called Soccer" (Der Spiegel , June 7, 2006). See also:ICONS Online (no date) "History of Football"; and

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Professional Football Researchers Association, (no date) "A Freendly Kinde of Fight:The Origins of Football to 1633". Access date for all references: February 11, 2007.

3. ̂ πίσκυροςἐ , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon , onPerseus Digital Library

4. ̂ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007 Edition: "In ancient Greece a game withelements of football, episkuros, or harpaston, was played, and it had migrated toRome as harpastum by the 2nd century BC".

5. ̂ φαινίνδα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon , onPerseus Digital Library

6. ̂ Nigel Wilson,Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece , Routledge, 2005, p. 3107. ̂ Nigel M. Kennell,The Gymnasium of Virtue: Education and Culture in Ancient

Sparta (Studies in the History of Greece and Rome) , The University of North CarolinaPress, 1995, on Google Books

8. ̂ Steve Craig,Sports and Games of the Ancients: (Sports and Games ThroughHistory) , Greenwood, 2002, onGoogle Books

9. ̂ Don Nardo,Greek and Roman Sport , Greenhaven Press, 1999, p. 8310. ̂ Sally E. D. Wilkins,Sports and games of medieval cultures , Greenwood, 2002, on

Google books11. ̂ E. Norman Gardiner: "Athletics in the Ancient World", Courier Dover Publications,

2002,ISBN 0-486-42486-3, p.22912. ̂ William Smith: "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities", 1857, p.77713. ̂ He, Jin (2001).An Analysis of Zhan Guo Ce . Beijing: Peking University Press.

ISBN 7-301-05101-8, p. 59-8214. ̂ From William Blandowski's Australien in 142 Photographischen Abbildungen,

1857, (Haddon Library, Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge)15. ̂ Richard Hakluyt,Voyages in Search of The North-West Passage, University of

Adelaide , December 29, 200316. ̂ Stephen Alsford,FitzStephen's Description of London, Florilegium Urbanum , April

5, 200617. ^ a b c d e Francis Peabody Magoun, 1929, "Football in Medieval England and Middle-

English literature" (The American Historical Review , v. 35, No. 1).18. ̂ Irish inventions: fact and fiction19. ^ a b "Online Etymology Dictionary (no date), "football"". Etymonline.com. Retrieved

2010-06-19.20. ̂ Vivek Chaudhary, “Who's the fat bloke in the number eight shirt?”(The Guardian ,

February 18, 2004.)21. ̂ Anniina Jokinen,Sir Philip Sidney. "A Dialogue Between Two Shepherds"

(Luminarium.org , July 2006)22. ̂ Richard Carew."EBook of The Survey of Cornwall". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved2007-10-03.

23. ̂ International Olympic Academy (I.O.A.) (no date), “Minutes 7th International PostGraduate Seminar on Olympic Studies”

24. ̂ John Lord Campbell, ''The Lives of the Lords Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England'', vol. 2, 1851, p. 412 . Books.google.co.uk. 1851. Retrieved 2010-06-19.

25. ̂ William Maxwell Hetherington, 1856, History of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, Ch.1 (Third Ed.)

26. ̂ A history of Winchester College. by Arthur F Leach. Duckworth, 1899ISBN 1-

4446-5884-027. ̂ "2003, “Richard Mulcaster”". Footballnetwork.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.

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28. ̂ Francis Peabody Magoun. (1938) History of football from the beginnings to 1871.p.27. Retrieved 2010-02-09.

29. ̂ Francis Willughby, 1660–72, ''Book of Games'' . Books.google.co.uk. 2003.ISBN 9781859284605. Retrieved 2010-06-19.

30. ^ a b Julian Carosi, 2006, "The History of Offside"[dead link ]

31. ^ a b Richard William Cox; Dave Russell and Wray Vamplew (2002).Encyclopedia of British Football . Routledge. p. 243.ISBN 9780714652498.

32. ̂ example of ball handling in early football from English writer William Hone, writing in 1825 or 1826, quotes the social commentator Sir Frederick Morton Eden,regarding "Foot-Ball", as played at Scone, Scotland:

The game was this: he who at any time got the ball into his hands, run [sic] with it till overtaken by one of the opposite part; and then, if he could shake himself loose fromthose on the opposite side who seized him, he run on; if not, he threw the ball fromhim, unless it was wrested from him by the other party, but no person was allowed tokick it. (William Hone, 1825–26, The Every-Day Book , "February 15." Access date:March 15, 2007.)

33. ̂ ABC Radio NationalOckham's Razor , first broadcast 6 June 2010.34. ̂ THE SURREY CLUB Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle (London,

England), Sunday, October 07, 1849; pg. 6.New Readerships35. ̂ Football: The First Hundred Years. The Untold Story. Adrian Harvey. 2005.

Routledge, London36. ̂ John Hope,Accounts and papers of the football club kept by John Hope, WS, and

some Hope Correspondence 1787–1886 (National Archives of Scotland, GD253/183)37. ^ a b "The Foot-Ball Club in Edinburgh, 1824–1841 – The National Archives of

Scotland". Nas.gov.uk. 2007-11-13. Retrieved 2010-06-19.38. ̂ "Rugby chronology". Museum of Rugby . Retrieved April 24, 2006.39. ̂ "History of the Royal Caledonian Society of Melbourne". Electricscotland.com.

Retrieved 2010-06-19.40. ̂ Soccer Ball World – Early History . Retrieved June 9, 2006.ArchivedJune 16,

2006 at theWayback Machine.41. ̂ The exact name of Mr Lindon is in dispute, as well as the exact timing of the

creation of the inflatable bladder. It is known that he created this for both associationand rugby footballs. However, sites devoted to football indicate he was known asHJLindon, who was actually Richards Lindon's son, and created the ball in 1862 (ref:Soccer Ball World), whereas rugby sites refer to him as Richard Lindon creating the

ball in 1870 (ref:Guardian article). Both agree that his wife died when inflating pig'sbladders. This information originated from web sites which may be unreliable, and theanswer may only be found in researching books in central libraries.

42. ̂ soccerballworld.com, (no date) "Charles Goodyear's Soccer Ball"Downloaded30/11/06.

43. ̂ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle (London, England), Sunday, January13, 1839.New Readerships

44. ̂ Blackwood's Magazine, Published by W. Blackwood, 1862, page 56345. ̂ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle (London, England), Saturday, January

07, 1865; Issue 2,229: "The Sheffield party, however, eventually took a lead, andthrough some scientific movements of Mr J Wild, scored a goal amid great cheering"

46. ̂ Bell's life in london, November 26th 1865, issue 2275: "We cannot help recordingthe really scientific play with which the Sheffield men backed each other up

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47. ̂ Wall, Sir Frederick (2005).50 Years of Football, 1884–1934 . Soccer BooksLimited.ISBN 1-8622-3116-8.

48. ̂ [Cox, Richard (2002) The encyclopaedia of British Football, Routledge, UnitedKingdom]

49. ̂ "History of Football". Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-06-19.50. ̂ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 18 December 186951. ̂ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 5 November 1870,issue 252. ̂ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 18 November 1871,issue 2, 68153. ̂ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 17 February 1872,issue 269454. ̂ The Derby Mercury (Derby, England), Wednesday, March 20, 1872; Issue 822655. ̂ Murphy, Brendan (2007).From Sheffield with Love . Sports Book Limited. p. 59.

ISBN 978-1-899807-56-7.56. ̂ Association Football, chapter by CW Alcock, The English Illustrated Magazine

1891, page 28757. ̂ Harvey, Adrian (2005).Football, the First Hundred Years . Routledge. pp. 273, ref

34–119.ISBN 0-415-35019-0.58. ̂ Csanadi Arpad, Hungerian coaching manual "Soccer", Corvina, Budapest 196559. ̂ Wilson Jonathon, Inverting the pyramid: a History of Football Tactics , Orion, 200860. ̂ Harvey, Adrian (2005).Football, the First Hundred Years . Routledge. pp. 95–99.

ISBN 0415350190.61. ̂ Murphy, Brendan (2007).From Sheffield with Love . Sports Book Limited. pp. 41–

43.ISBN 9781899807 56 7.62. ̂ "Letter from Tom Wills". MCG website . Archived fromthe originalon June 25,

2006. Retrieved 2006-07-14.63. ̂ "The Origins of Australian Rules Football". MCG website . Archived fromthe

originalon June 11, 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-22.64. ̂ Sport: Touchstone of Australian Life from the Australian Broadcasting

Commission. First broadcast on Thursday 17/05/0165. ̂ Peter Shortell.Hacking – a history, Cornwall Referees Society, 2 October 200666. ̂ John Simkin.Ebenezer Cobb Morley, Spartacus Educational. Accessed 22 May

200867. ̂ "Canadian Football Timelines (1860– present)". Football Canada. Archived from

the originalon February 28, 2007. Retrieved 2006-12-23.68. ̂ The governing body is the "Fédération de soccer du Québec"69. ̂ Stories Soccer to become football in Australia (SMH.com.au. December 17, 2004)

"ASA chairman Frank Lowy said the symbolic move would bring Australia into linewith the vast majority of other countries which call the sport football".

70. ̂ NZ Football – The Local Name Of The Global Game (NZFootball.co.nz. April 27,2006) "The international game is called football and were part of the internationalgame so the game in New Zealand should be called football"

71. ̂ "new name & logo for Samoan football"72. ̂ "Football progress in Samoa "73. ̂ Summers, Mark. "The Disability Football Directory".74. ̂ Study in Ireland, Facts, Information & Resources for Studying Abroad in Ireland –

IIEPassport.org75. ̂ "Plenty to give out about for the Dubs". Retrieved 2009-09-18.76. ̂ "The odd couple: Soccer and GAA remain bitter enemies". Retrieved 2009-09-18.77. ̂ Sean Fagan,Breaking The Codes, RL1908.com , 2006

References

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• Mandelbaum, Michael (2004);The Meaning of Sports ; Public Affairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1

• Green, Geoffrey (1953);The History of the Football Association ; Naldrett Press,London

• Williams, Graham (1994);The Code War ; Yore Publications, ISBN 1-874427-65-8

External links

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