FOOD MANUFACTURE

PRODUCTION & PROCESSING OF FOOD:

Quality & quantity control in the selection of raw materials for food processing! Food manufacturing organisations aim: add value or transform a product to sell for consumption

Company must source sufficient quantity of good quality raw materials

Then process product using suitable equipment to ensure safe, viable product for consumers

Raw materials: Raw materials: any product used in the manufacture or production of a processed good

Raw materials entering food manufacturing places undergo certain processing:

Herbs could be dried, ground, packaged

Flour ground from wheat

Fruits & veggies washed & sorted

Quality control of raw material entering manufacturing plant is essential due to prior

processing – undergo mandatory testing

4 categories of raw material:

Quality control of raw materials:

Quality reassurance: PROCESS oriented & focuses on defect PREVENTION

Quality control: PRODUCT oriented & focuses on defect IDENTIFICATION

Suppliers are investigated to ensure they can provide correct quantity of quality raw

materials – meet standards of the organisation

Raw materials supplied must be free of impurities, pollutants & contaminations

By law, all raw materials must be bought from reputable suppliers

Quality control carried out by specialised technicians

Goal: establish quality of raw materials & detect any problems & prevent contamination

Contaminated materials will result in an inferior end product – may result in discarding, resulting financial losses

Raw material specifications:

Packaging Material:

Plastic, paper, card,

metal, glass

Food Additives:

Colours, flavours,

antioxidants,

preservatives

Ingredients:

Milk, flour, sugar,

fruit, veggies, meat

Processing material:

Water

Physical Characteristic

s: Shape, size

Sensory Characteristics

: Colour, taste,

aroma

Biological Characteristics

: Microbial limits

Chemical Characteristics:

Moisture content, PH

levels

QR = PP

QC = PI

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CREATING RAW MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS:

Comprehensive team of experts is required to source & set up raw material specification

Due to increased access to unique & complex materials, international sourcing, geographic locations

& strict regulations

Team responsible for selecting & setting up specifications for raw materials include specialist from:

R&D, quality assurance & production (receiving to shipping & sales)

Once team is assembled they discuss & agree upon key characteristics from the raw materials

Complexity of raw material specification sheets will differ depending upon size of the organisation & types of

products being made

All specifications must be able to be tested. As a minimum following should be included:

- Name & description of the product

- Presence of food allergen

- Organoleptic information

- Relevant physical, chemical &

microbiological information

- Shipping & storage information

- Shelf life

- Handling directions

Once results have been obtained from tests, manufacturers may:

1. Accept raw material if complies with set standards

2. Reject raw material if doesn’t comply with set standards

3. Start procedures to control problem if raw material isn’t outside specifications

but may deteriorate

Role of food additives in the manufacturing process!

Food Additives: FOOD ADDITIVES: substances added to food that are not normally consumed alone

- Ensure food is nutritious, safe to eat, convenient and meet needs of consumers

Could include: Food colouring: E.G. tartrazine (yellow), cochineal (red)

Flavour enhancers: E.G. monosodium glutamate 621

Preservatives: E.G. humectants, antioxidants

Not all processed foods have additives

Long life milk, frozen fruits are process but don’t contain additives

Some ingredients in product contain food additives without being mentioned

on the label

E.G. “margarine” is listed as an ingredient and that contains food additives

ADDITIVES: Raising agents Natural flavours Probiotics Acidity regulators Juice concentrate

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ADDITIVE FUNCTION E.G. FOUND IN

Acids/regulator/alkali Maintains acid level in food

Important for taste

Influences how other substances in food

function

E.G. acid can retard growth of some micro-

organism

Tartaric acid 334 Fruit juice, pasta sauce

Anti-caking agents Reduce tendency food particles sticking

together

Improve flowing characteristics

E.G. seasoning with anti-caking agent flows

freely - no clumps

Calcium

Carbonate 170

Salt

Flour

Antioxidants Prevent oxidation of food

^ food deteriorates

E.G. fat develops when exposed to oxygen.

A.O prevents this

BHA – butylated

hydroxynsole 320

Margarine

Spreads

Walnuts

Salad dressings

Artificial sweeteners Replace sweetness provided by sugars in

foods without contributing majorly to their

available energy

Saccharines 954 Diet soft drinks

Diet yogurt

Bulking agents Increase volume of food

E.G. sugar bulks volume of lollies

Some low-joule foods need bulking agents to

replace bulk of sugar

Sorbitol 420 Chewing gum

Colours Add or restore Colour to foods

E.G. icing

Tartrazine 102 Jellies, jams

Confectionary

Emulsifiers Stop oil & water from separating into

layers

E.G. margarine (prevent oil on top)

Lecithin 322 Ice-cream

Margarine

Firming agents Maintain even dispersion of substances in

solid & semi-solid foods

Calcium chloride 509 Tofu

Cheesemaking

Flavour enhancers Enhance existing taste &/or odour of food Monosodium

glutamate 621

Stock powder

Instant noodles

Humectants Reduce moisture loss in food

E.G. glycerine added to icing to prevent

drying

Sorbitol 420 Pastries

Dried fruit

Preservatives Prevent deterioration of food by

microorganisms thus preventing food

spoilage

Sulfur dioxide 220 Wine

Dry cereal with semi-

moist raisons

Thickeners Increase viscosity of food

E.G. sauce

Dextrins 1400 Packet sauces

Gravy mix

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Domestic use of food additives: Some common food additives purchased in store is:

Food flavouring

Flavour essence

Food acids

Artificial sweeteners

Allergies & Intolerances: Usually additives don’t prose problem in the short term but some additives in Australia are linked to adverse reactions in

some consumers E.G:

Digestive disorders – diarrhoea

Nervous disorders – hyperactivity, insomnia

Respiratory problems – asthma, sinusitis

Skin problems – hives, rashes, swelling

Regulating food additives: FSANZ controls & regulates use of additives of processed foods in Australia

Website provides list of additives that have been approved for usage in

foods

Manufacturer choosing to use additive need to 1st apply to FSANZ for approval – process ensures consumer

safety

Code numbering system used in replacement of long names of additives

Made in 1986

Food identified by their class name and code number

Makes it easier for consumers who are intolerant or allergic to identify them

E.G. flavour enhancer 621 = monosodium glutamate

Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production & factors influencing their selection: Efficient, durable & sturdy: industrial equipment may run for 24/7. Energy efficiency is essential. Processing equipment

produces large quantities of food

Safe and hygienic: Cleaning manufacturing equipment carried out by a clean in place process (CIP)

Uses mix of chemicals, heat & water to clean & sanitise machinery, fittings, pipes without taking apart

equipment

Equipment must be fitted with safety guards to prevent staff being injured

Equipment must be constructed from non-reactive & non-corrosive materials (stainless steel)

Production systems: Can differ from manual labour to highly automated & computerised production systems

Types of production system used will depend on:

Type of product being made

Amount of product being produced

Cost and time involved

Role of food additives in

food:

1. Maintain quality

2. Extend shelf-life

3. Special dietary needs

4. Restore or improve foods

Specific food additives causing problems for

consumers:

Flavour enhancers (monosodium

glutamates MSG)

Food colourings

Artificial sweeteners (aspartame)

Preservatives (benzoates & sulphites)

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Production systems used in the manufacture of food:

5 categories of production systems:

Production system Description + features Food example

Small scale

Limited, domestic machinery

Less complex operated machinery

Piping bag for éclair

Kitchen aid mixer for

dough

Food processor

Manual

Employee physically adding ingredients or performing

certain operations by hand

Involves a lot of steps

Relies on skills & judgement of staff

High cost & efficiency – consistency reduced

Labour intensive

Hand dipping truffles

BBQ pork place

Pizza making

Pastry - fancy

Large scale

Used in large production operation

Can include production line

Produces large volumes of food over short period of time

Arnott’s biscuits

Tofu making factory

Automated

Machines handle & control processing of food from

receipt raw materials through final products

Systems have pre-set, predetermined specifications for

operation, mixing times, speed, temp control, cooking,

cooling times, cleaning, sterilisation

Process of fresh milk

Computerised

Automated equipment & machinery operated by

computerised sensors that can keep complex operations

running 24/7

Systems have ability to store complex data, keep record

of batch number, PH levels, production conditions, dates

& times

Cheese making

UNIT OPERATIONS: Process Description Equipment Domestic

Separation

Isolates, remove sections of a food

Skin from potatoes

Filtration: passes juice through filter

removing pulp & other fibrous parts

Centrifuging – using force to separate

particles from a solution

Potato rumbler – skin

from potato

Juice filtration system

Spinning salad to

remove water

Peeler, knife

Orange squeezer

Centrifuge

Size

reduction

Cutting

Slicing

Grating

Dicing

Pasta cutting system

^ Cuts pasta into desired

length using blade

Spice grinders

Salt + pepper mill

Knife to cut veggies

Mixing

Incorporate food ingredients into each

other

Bread kneading

machine

High pressure, mixers

Industrial mixers

Kitchen aid dough

hook mixer

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Heating

Destroys pathogenic microorganisms

High temp short time (HTST)

Canning + bottling: preserve food in

metal or glass containers & extend shelf

life

Baking: cook food & remove moisture

Blanching: low intensity heat-transfer –

destroy enzymes that cause food

spoilage

Plate heat exchangers

used to pasteurise milk

Tubular heat

exchangers – make

sauces

Saucepan/stove

Oven

Microwave

Cooling

Reduces temp of food

Slows activity of micro-organisms that can

cause food spoilage

Industrial refrigerator Refrigerator

Freezing Changes liquid into solid so it becomes

inaccessible to micro-organisms

Air blast freezer Freezer

Evaporation

Concentrates flavour of food by

evaporating portion of water content

Fruit juice evaporated

system

Reduction process on

stove top – boiling

Dehydration Removing moisture from food affecting

volume of food

Dried by heat or atmosphere

Sun drying: large mesh trays placed

outside in direct sunlight to dry tomatoes

Tunnel drying: food moves through

heated tunnel removing moisture content

from food

Cabinet drying: food placed on trays in

enclosed place where hot air circulates

Spray drying: liquidised food forced

through spray nozzle into hot air – liquid

instantly dries into powder

Large mesh trays in

direct sunlight

Tunnel drying conveyor

belt

Laying food in the sun

Domestic food

dehydrator

Flow Process Charts Graphic representation of a production process relating to production &

manufacture of a specific product

Represents all steps raw material go through to become a finished

product

Closely linked to quality assurance and HACCP

New staff become quickly aware of each step of production

process

Steps: receiving raw materials, storing ingredients, preparing,

cooking, cooling, packaging, labelling, storing, distribution

Run vertically down page

Joined by vertical lines

Demonstrates entire production process

Can be used to identify critical control points that could pose

risk to public health

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Name Symbol Description

Operation

Raw material purposely changed in any way, shape, form

Microbial or chemical change – item put together or separated

from other materials

Requires labour with use of equipment

Relate to process of preparing R.M to undergo another

operation, inspection, transportation, storage, distribution

Inspection

R.M or final product examined, tested, sampled, manufactured

Requires form of labour with sophisticated equipments

machines designed to determine if product meets

specification determined by process

ensure process is being performed correctly & … quality &

quantity of foods produced

E.G. recording temp

Transportation

Human labour & equipment used to transport product from one

place make to another

Production line to warehouse or other production plant

for another operation

Must occur without altering product or packaging material

E.G. pumping tomato paste from tank to production line

Delay

Momentary halt in production & processing of product

Occurs when internal systems don’t allow next process step to

take place

Rarely occurs as they’re costly for organisation – time + money

Storage

Raw material or finished product held in controlled environment

Temporary storage where finished product is held in

warehouse or other materials & ingredients are stored

prior to use

E.G. perishable items in refrigeration, foods in freezer

2 procedures at

once

2 procedures occur at the same time – Opera + Inspec, etc

Corresponding symbols used together

Represented with one shape within another

E.G. adding R.M into mixing bowl that’s mixed into other ingredients

Decision

Decide which path the raw material should go in

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Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe foods for public

consumption:

Quality Management Considerations & Systems:

Quality management systems: set of policies, processes & procedures required to plan & execute safe and reliable food

supply for consumer

Enables easier identification & control of potential quality issues

Essential for improves business performance & “better” end products

Quality assurance = managing high-quality standards & systems

4 main quality assurance systems:

1. GMP: Good Manufacturing Processes – used in factories for staff

2. HACCP: Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points – international standards

3. ISO: International Organisation for Standardisation – international standards

4. WHS: Workplace Health & Safety – used in the workplace

Procedures for quality assurance programs:

1. Creation of final product specification

2. Establishing procedures for assessing & evaluating quality against the specifications

3. Establishing specifications for the manufacturing plant

4. Food sampling + testing

HACCP- Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point: Quality assurance & food safety system identifying potential food hazards & their control points at all stages in

production of food

Basis for ensuring all food is prepared, manufactured & handled safely

Employees trained in 7 steps + responsible for its implementation & monitoring when working in production lines

7 steps in HACCP system:

1. Conduct a hazard analysis:

Personal, environmental hygiene & food production hazards are identified

E.G. eggs, cooking for food, chemical cleaning agents in production process

2. Identification of CCP during manufacturing stage:

Stages which problems may arise

Prevent, eliminate, reduce hazard/s – reduce risk of food-borne illnesses

Could be related to temp control, cross-contamination, safety/sanitation issues, etc

3. Establish ‘critical limits’ for each CCP:

C.L very depending on nature of business

Max or min value to which a food safety hazard must be controlled to prevent, eliminate, reduce

hazard – E.G. acceptable temp in which foods should be cooked or chilled

4. Monitoring systems:

Identify steps that will be taken to prevent hazardous food entering food chain + steps needed to

correct the process

C.A used immediately to avoid injury or illness to humans from hazard

5. Corrective actions:

Organisation must identify actions to be taken if a problem occurs – actions intended as a precaution

& may require more than 1 corrective task

E.G. discarding food, staff being restrained

6. Establish verification procedures:

Quality assurance = everyone’s

responsibilities – important all

staff trained and aware of its

importance

Staff must be able to identify &

react quickly to problems that

arise during production

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HACCP system must be reviewed regularly and amended and updated if required

Activities that determine the validity of the HACCP plan & that the system is operating to the plan

7. Record system:

Detailed records of results must be kept for inspecting purposes and ideas for improvements

Include info on HACCP team, product description, flow diagrams, hazard analysis, etc

WHS: Work Health & Safety:

Involves management of risks to the health & safety of staff in the workplace

WHS committee is formed when there is 20+ employees to: (4 main principles of WHS)

Secure the health, safety & welfare of employees and other workers

Protect public from health & safety risks of business activities

Eliminate workplace risks at the source

Involve employers, employees and organisations that represent them in the formulation &

implementation of health, safety & welfare standards.

Responsibilities that WHS rules specify for employees:

Use PPE

Undertake training and correct equipment use

Report WHS issues

Committee & management must consult when:

Identifying hazards and assessing risks

Making decisions about ways to eliminate or control risks

Proposing changes that may affect the health & safety of workers

Making decisions about consulting procedures, resolving safety issues, monitoring workers’ health & conditions,

& providing information for training

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PERSERVATION:

Food preservation: processing of food to reduce conditions of factors that may cause food to spoil

Preservation techniques help maintain nutritive value of food & reduce waste

Reasons for preserving food - safety, acceptability, nutritive value, availability &

economical viability

Consumers demand seasonal food to be available all year round

But high density living in cities, = little space available to harvest own produce – led to need to preserve &

process food, allowing for earlier distribution and transport

Reasons for preserving food:

Prevent food from spoiling

Prevent loss of quality

Retain nutritional quality

Imparts flavour & unique characteristics to food +

beverages

Provide longer shelf-life for food

Prevent wastage

Ensures safe transportation

Make foods easy to prepare & more convenient

Causes of food deterioration and spoilage

Cause Explanation Example

Chemical

Caused by chemical breakdown of food

When food chemically contaminated by other substance

Cheese going rancid

Residual pesticides on fruit

Microbial

Yeast, moulds, bacteria, viruses

When conditions are favourable, micro-organisms multiply

very quickly

Mould on bread

Slimy milk

Sour milk

Physical

Caused by exposure to oxygen/light/water can alter

structure of food

Surface damage = bruising

Colour change = freezer

burn

Infestation

Rodents, cockroaches, mealworms can cause spoilage

through infestation

Rats knowing at packaging

Fruit flies

Pantry moths that infest dry

cereal

Enzymatic

Chemical substances that act as catalyst to speed up

chemical reactions to food

After fruit is harvested, it

continues to ripen

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Difference between food poisoning & food spoilage:

Food spoilage occurs when the quality of a food deteriorates:

Generally due to activity of yeast, moulds, enzymes

Results in a change in physical appearance

Can see and taste it

Spiled food may not necessarily make you sick

How microorganisms grow:

When conditions are favourable – they multiply very quickly& divide every 20 minutes

By process of binary fusion (splitting into 2)

Make lag phase as long as possible when preserving food – maintain hygienic work practices, equipment, tools,

utensils

4 phases bacteria go through: 1. Lag phase: adjustment period, micro-organisms are adjusting to their new environment

2. Exponential phase: rapid growth and multiplication

3. Stationery phase: bacteria remains relatively constant

4. death phase: lack of nutrients, build up of toxic waste products leads to rapid death of microbes

Food poisoning is an illness caused by consuming contaminated foods:

Affected by bacteria, chemicals, biological contaminants

Often can’t see, taste or smell it Some micro-organisms are pathogenic

Growth of bacteria

Oxygen

Nutrients

Warm temps Sufficient time

Moisture

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Preserving food safely: Outer layers of food need to be removed before preserving as these harbours most of the bacteria

Skin, fat on meat, apple + potato peel

When protective layer is damaged, bacteria can spread internally

Therefore, essential to work quickly to protect the tissue from bacteria & enzymatic browning when

preserving food

Hygienic handling, appropriate storage & sterilised packaging essential to minimise spoilage

Washing, preparing & trimming can remove soil, spores, insects that may cause damage

Removing bruises, spots or blemishes can extend shelf-life of food

Principles behinds food preservation techniques, including temperature control &

restriction of moisture, exclusion of air & PH

Principles of Preservation:

1. Temperature control:

Pathogens grow best at 5*C-60*C (danger zone) – enzymes & microbes are damaged when temps exceed

60*C

Cooking/heating – most common way to preserve food

Enzymatic reaction rates increase then reduce when food is warmed – optimum temp for growth &

reproduction is exceeded

Reaction will stop when enzyme (protein) has denatured

Holding food at 100*C for few minutes is enough to kill all enzymes and most bacteria

High acidity food requires less time and lower temps to destroy bacteria present

All food parts must receive sufficient & even exposure to heat to prevent food spoilage

2. Restricting moisture:

Bacteria need more moisture than yeast or mould to grow

Microbes grow best in clean, pure water Microbes slow/cease growth in ice BUT enzymes still active when frozen

Decreasing water levels in food = reduced ability to multiply & grow Foods with high moisture content likely to be perishable

When substances such as:

- Salt (brine solutions for cured meats & some cheeses)

- Sugar (sugar syrups for canned fruit or sugar in jam)

- Acid (vinegar & lemon juice for preserved vegetables)

4 main principles: Temperature

control Restricting moisture Exclusion of air Control of PH levels

Controlling: Moisture levels Nutrients Oxygen Time Temperature PH levels

Helps ensure safe & reliable food supply that will remain shelf stable for a long time

Conditions that support/encourage microbial growth

Dehydration & evaporation are

effective ways to prevent enzyme & microbial activity

Are added to water, they chemically change the way water acts & makes it

unsuitable for microbes to grow & reproduce

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3. Exclusion of air: Aerobes: microbes that require oxygen to grow

Grow on exposed surfaces of foods + liquids

Aerobes become inactive when air exposure is restricted

Anaerobes: microbes that can survive WITHOUT air

Most common is clostridia – can grow inside meats, gravies, etc if food is not processed

properly

Facultative microbes: able to grow with & without air

E.G. salmonella & staphylococcus aureus can grow on surface of foods & deep in cuts &

crevices

Methods used to exclude air from food and packaging include:

- Canning (soups, fruits, vegetables)

- Bottling (hot air fill containers which acts as vacuum when product cools)

- Vacuum packaging/cryovacing (popular for meats – stored in fridge to prevent anerobes from growing)

- Gas flushing (inserting gases other than oxygen into packaging)

4. Control of PH levels: Scale ranges from 0-14

Below 7 = acidic, above 7 = alkaline

Low PH means food is safer from microbial growth

Foods with PH higher than 4.6 = more prone to microbial growth

Other additives like food acids & smoke can be used (e.g. smoked salmon)

Adding acids to food can:

- Denature enzymes & destroy micro-organisms

- Decrease time & temp required for preservation

Preservation processes! Food can be preserved by removing 1+ factors that bacteria/fungi need to survive e.g. moisture & oxygen

Preservation methods prevent, delay, reduce food spoilage while maintaining nutritional value, texture &

flavour of food

Preservation

Processes

Pasteurisation

Canning

Chilling Freezing

Drying

Fermentation

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Pasteurisation: Pasteurisation: method of heat-treating foods to significantly reduce number of micro-organisms in food item

Does not completely sterilise food

Method of pasteurisation:

Holder process method

Product quickly heated to 65*C & held there for 30min before cooling quickly

HTST (high temp, short time)

Most common method used to pasteurise

Uses plate or tubular heat exchangers

Product quickly heated to 72*C & held there for 15sec then cooled quickly

below 5*C

UHT (ultra-heat treated)

Almost sterilises liquid food by heating it above 135*C

Held there for few seconds as a means of sterilising milk

It changes flavour of milk – long life milk tastes “cooked”

Can be stored at room temp until opened

Canning: Canning – food sealed in a tin can then heated to a temperature that destroys harmful micro-organisms that can grow

in the can

How food was preserved before canning:

- Bottling: fruits and veggies were cooked in brine, vinegar, brandy or oil then sealed in bottles (pasteurisation)

Vinegar was used for pickles, chutney, pickled onions + eggs

- Salt: was essential for drawing all moisture from meat & fish before drying and/or smoking

After salting meat & fish, they were dried in the sun, air or oven

Salt slows growth of bacteria & aids in dehydration process

- Potting: method to preserve meat

“coffyn” of pastry in pie that kept filling of cooked meats fresh for several days

Canning method combines of cooking (heat treatment) & vacuum packaging (exclusion of air) as micro-

organisms & enzymes are destroyed by heat of V.P

Aseptic canning: involves heating food to the correct temperature THEN placing it into a sterile can

Advantages:

Kills specific

pathogenic micro-

organisms like listeria

& salmonella

Suitable foods:

Milk, cream

Grapefruit

Cheese, yogurt

Disadvantages:

Flavour change

Enzymes with desirable

characteristics may be

destroyed

Steps to canning:

1. Can filled with food and liquid – filled to top forcing the air

out

2. Excess air removed with vacuum chamber

3. Lid placed on can & sealed

4. Filled cans heated in retorts (pressure cookers) to kill micro-

organisms for specific time

5. Can quickly cooled & labelled

Reasons for can bulging:

Chemical swelling: food reacts with can & corrodes

Cans used for high acid foods should have lacquer

Poor can-choosing procedures: bacteria can enter can after

processing which creates gases – causing it to bulge

Over filling can: if occurs at low temp, then it can cause

permanent bulging after heating ‘ “physically induced bulging”

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Chilling: Lowering temp to 0*C-5*C which slows microbial growth & enzyme activity

Important for storage of perishable foods on short-term basis

Lower the temp = slower microbial growth

Some moulds can withstand cold conditions – chilling doesn’t destroy all microbes

Therefore, once returned to room temp, microbes become active again

E.G. low storage temps of F+V slow down ripening process – fruits & veggies still living

Freezing: Retards activity of micro-organisms & enzymes as food is stored in temps of -18*C

Low temps turn moisture & liquids into solids - prevents microbial growth

Micro-organisms that survive freezing process will recover rapidly after thawing & begin multiplying when

conditions are favourable

Foods should be thawed SLOWLY in fridge or microwave rather than danger zone on bench for long periods

Drying: Dehydration is removal of moisture

Sun drying foods

Advantages:

Long life storage

Easy to store & transport

Products available all year

Disadvantages:

Heavy

Expensive equipment used in

production

Unable to view contents

Some nutrients destroyed

Suitable foods:

Fruits

Vegetables

Meat, poultry

Fish

Commercial freezing steps:

1. Use high quality raw materials

2. Pre-treat raw ingredients (peel, wash, blanch, etc)

3. Can occur in blast tunnel (ultra-cooled air freezes food) or loaded onto belt (brings them into contact with metal plates cooled

by chilled ammonia below

4. Food packaged (with suitable packaging to prevent drying or freezer burn)

5. Store at -18*C to -25*C

Advantages:

Keeps food longer

Help reduce waste

Products available all year round

Disadvantages:

Texture of food altered when

defrosted

Doesn’t destroy all micro-organisms

Slow freezing can damage cell

structure

Suitable foods:

Fruits + veggies

Meats, poultry

Seafood, dairy

Cooked foods

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Dried foods still contain some moisture which allows for enzymatic action, leading to potential food spoilage

Salt & sugar can be used to preserve dry foods

How does SALT act as preservative?

1. Dries food

2. Draws water out of food & dehydrates it through process of osmosis

Osmosis: a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less

concentrated solution into a more concentrated one

How does sugar act as a preservative?

High sugar concentration cause bacterium to lose water by osmosis (sugar attracts & hold water)

Without enough water, the bacteria can’t grow or divide

Mould is more tolerant & can grow on some jams

Reconstituted food: process of rehydrating dried foods in a liquid or water to bring them back to their original form –

resemble the appearance, texture, size

Moulds & bacteria will continue in grow foods with moisture levels as low as 13-20%

Manufacturers aim to dry foods until they contain 5-6% moisture to combat potential growth

Methods of drying:

Method Explanation

Airdrying

Temps between 10*C-100*C

Water inside food evaporates, increasing the solute concentration of food item

Can cause physical damage, loss of structure & proteins denatures

Reconstituted foods will not regain their original shape

Drum drying

Made from stainless steel 1-2m

Drums heated with steam – food is thinly spread onto surface of

drum

Drum rotates

Once food is dried, its scraped off the surface & may be ground into powder

Kiln drying

Thin layers of food placed on narrow stats & then hot air rises from below, drying food above

Spray drying

Used to dry liquid products

Food sprayed in very small droplets from a height & is hanged by hot air rising from below

As droplets settle, they dry

Packaged as a powder

Tunnel drying

Mainly used for fruits & veggies

Food moves slowly through a 10-15m long tunnel as hot air is blasted down to dry food

Some sun-dried foods “finished off” in tunnel driers

Freeze drying

Mainly used for instant coffee

Complex process

Food Is frozen then THEN moisture is removed from food by allowing ice-crystals to sublime

under vacuum.

Advantage: food avoids heat damage, retain volume, become highly porous (can be

rehydrated easily)

Disadvantage: food can still be damaged during freezing process

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Sublime: change directly into vapour when heated – solid to gas – direct conversion of ice crystals to vapour without

going through the liquid stage

Fermentation: Fermentation of foods caused by activities of micro-organisms

Process involves biochemical breakdown of particular food components

Changes the food’s chemical composition & altering physical nature

Occurs when carbs are converted to acids & alcohol through action of

micro-organisms

CO2 created during fermentation which aids in bread rising

All alcohol produced during process od bread making is killed when baked

Sourdough breads use lactic acid-producing bacteria

Fermentation can take hours (yogurt) or months (salami)

Alcoholic beverages are

created when yeasts act

upon the sugars in honey

grapes, grains or fruits

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PACAKGING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION:

Food packaging: provides correct environmental conditions for food while it is stored to be distributed to consumer

Designed to enhance product’s appeal by promoting & informing consumers of its contents whilst being

convenient & user friendly

Can be made from glass, cardboard, metal, plastic, etc

Functions of packaging and types of material available:

Functions of packaging: 1. Contain

2. Convenience

3. Preserve

4. Protect

5. Inform

Protection: Packaging needs to protect food from physical, mechanical, environmental (sunlight, moisture, heat),

microbial damage

Packaging must withstand damage from storage – stacked on top one another

Must be able to withstand vibrations from transportations & heavy loads against vertical impact (weight from

stacking)

Tamper evidence devices: designed to show consumers that product is in original form, unopened, & safe to consume

E.G.

Containment: Purpose of packaging – to hold food products to allow for easy distribution & storage E.G.

- Rice contained in larger plastic bags

- Juice contained in bottles

- Cereal contained in plastic bag THEN cardboard box

Preservation: Packaging prevents contamination, food spoilage, food poisoning cause by micro-organisms

Type of packaging can lengthen shelf life:

Fruits + veggies better preserved with breathable packaging material to allow them to breathe

Dry products better preserved with packaging that prevents moisture from entering

Sometimes necessary for packaging material to prevent moisture loss

High fat products need to be protected from light + oxygen to prevent rancidity

Rancid: oxidation of fats + oils when exposed to air, light, moisture resulting in unpleasant taste + odour

Convenience: Allowing consumers to eat straight from packaging

Yogurt, baby

Baby food in squeezable pouches

Food packaging can be incorporated into the food’s preparation:

Microwavable meal

Packaging may have built in handles:

Juice bottles, milk

- Plastic shrink wraps around lid

- Jars that have pop-tops

- Plastic lids that have collar

- Cellophane around products – chewing gum

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Information: Conveys and advertise information between & from manufacturer to consumer

Important for manufacturer’s “image” & branding – identified through trademark & logo

Must display (by law)

1. Ingredients list

2. Storage information

3. Quantity

4. Country of origin

5. Nutrition information

6. Use by data

7. Declaration of allergens

8. Name & address of manufacturer

9. Brief description of product

Food labelling: provide range of information to help consumers make food choices & protect their health

Any products not weighed & packaged in front of consumer must include all relevant information

Must be written in English

Barcodes aren’t compulsory

Serving suggestions not mandatory although common

No misleading or false information like:

- Picture of fresh banana when flavouring is used

- No claims to cure illness or disease

- No claims like vitamin enriched

Types of packaging:

Primary packaging:

Layer of packaging that comes into direct contact with food product

Main aim: protect food from handling damage during storage & ensure product isn’t exposed to outside air

E.G. paper wrapping on chewing gum, wrapper on muesli bar, jar for jam

Secondary packaging: Layer surrounding primary packaged food product

It’s EXTERNAL, visible face of product

Designed to protect primary packaging by keeping it safe & ease for handling

Helps primary packaging retain its shape & structure for transportation

E.G. cardboard box holding 12 pieces of gum

Tertiary packaging: Secure multiples of secondary packaging for bulk handling & distribution

Can add another layer of protection to maintain freshness of product

E.G. plastic wrap around cardboard box of chewing gum

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Current developments in packaging:

MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING:

Extends shelf life of fresh produce

Substitutes air/gas with protective gas mix inside packaging

Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide used to ensure food reaches consumers in optimum conditions

Packaging MUST NOT allow gases to pass through once sealed – effective MAP

Barrier specific packaging:

Purpose: allow SOME gases in at different rates & exclude others

Moisture from respiration (breathe)of fresh produce can cause changes to gases

inside packaging

Packaging material must be transparent & have anti-fogging properties (prevent

condensation inside)

E.G. fresh pre-cut fruits + veggies – salad mix

Vacuum packaging: Known as cryovacing

Removes air from inside packaging to create vacuum – seals food

Cost effective – no additional gases need to be sourced

E.G. cheeses, ham, fresh noodles, coffee, olives

Gas packaging: gases specifically formulated to extend shelf life of product

Replace air/’headspace’ in packaging with gases before it’s sealed

Packaging mustn’t be porous or permeable (material allowing gases or liquid to pass through)

E.G. fresh pasta, snack foods (chips, etc) – nitrogen replaces oxygen to keep inflated and

protected

Active packaging: Purpose: modify environment within package as it changes during storage

A.P films are used to hold food & provide a barrier to outside influences

Small reactive pouches placed inside to control internal environment

Pouches known as ‘scavengers’ – removes/add gases or remove odours

produced by food

E.G. fresh meat in trays w/absorbent pad, pouches in naan, seaweed, tortilla wraps

Gas helps retard

growth of microbes

& enzymes that may

cause food spoilage

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SOUS VIDE: Cook-chill process

Extensively used in hospitals, nursing homes, restaurants chains as it allows food to be cooked ahead of

time & reheated when needed

Foods can be cooked, frozen then reheated in polyester film

Vacuum packed in film & blast chilled to 3*C – enables product to be shelf stable for 6wks

Advantages:

MICROWAVE PACKAGING: Used for cooking/heating food in microwave oven

Thermal conductivity of package can affect heat transfer between food and oven

Package alters heating pattern of contained food (releases or tapping water vapours inside

package, thereby cooking product under controlled pressure and temp)

2 types of microwave packaging:

Microwave transparent materials: allows microwaves to pass through the material (e.g. glass)

Microwave active package: use of packaging material that directly affects cooking of product inside pack

(frozen veggies “steam” pouches, Uncle Ben’s microwavable rice pouches)

Innovations in package design:

Edible

packaging

Purpose: reduce amount of non-recyclable & non-biodegradable waste

New inventions: film package made of seaweed, milk proteins, potatoes, kombucha, etc

Milk protein-based films are powerful oxygen blockers that can prevent food spoilage

500x better than plastic at keeping oxygen away from food

Coating can be sprayed onto food – cereal keeping them crunchy when milk is

added

Also to coat pizza box to prevent grease stains

Intelligent &

smart

packaging

Informs consumer about some aspects of the packaged food - quality, nature, production,

history

Can indicate whether a product is:

Warm or cold enough to maximise flavour

Still safe to eat

Ripe enough

Provide info to traceability, tracking & record keeping from paddock to plate

Innovative barrier materials (polymer & coatings) help impede harmful elements like light &

moisture in food

E.G. aqueous barrier (waterproof) coatings ideal for cardboard food containers

Device indicators: provide product info about conditions – freshness, humidity, leakage,

temperature

Moulded fibre: hold delicate items – eggs. New printing tech allows for high quality printing

straight onto the packaging, increasing sustainability & reducing need for secondary

packaging

E.G. RIPESENSE: world’s first intelligent sensor label that changes Colour to indicate ripeness of fruit

- Lightweight

- Colour, flavour, texture retained during cooking

- Inexpensive

- Easy to use

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QR code

readers:

Quick read codes

20 computer generated images that can be scanned by smartphones or tablets to

generate info or perform an action

Popular method of communication from manufacturers to consumers

Aim camera at code – software deciphers the code – connects you to a webpage

Provides extra info to consumer without taking up label space

Enables consumers to enter competitions, provide feedback, follow them on socials, etc

Biodegradable

& plant-based

packaging:

Scientists have been developing bioplastic trays and films from corn and wheat starch.

E.G.

Plant technologies

Bio-pac

Plant-sterol PET bottles

Micro – fibrillated cellulose (MFC)

Storage conditions and distribution systems at various stages of food manufacture.

Storage: known as the delay stage

Perishable + non-perishable R.M need to be stored in when they initially arrive at processing point

Require controlled-atmosphere storage – refrigerators, freezers, dry storage - to ensure they’re optimal condition

when required

E.G. not holding product prior to canning, dough needing to rise before being baked into bread

JIT production (just in time production) doesn’t require products to spend much time in warehouse storage

E.G. gourmet cupcakes, strawberry dipped in chocolate

Distribution: Method used to take raw materials from farm or processing plant to the food service, catering industry, food

retailer, or consumer

Involve transporting food once or several stages – E.G. farm to farmer’s market (once)

Manufacturer must consider suitable packaging to distribution method

Size, shape of finished product’s important

Secondary & tertiary packaging important to prevent damage to a product’s primary package or contents

Quality management procedures are important because contamination & loss of quality can occur

Refrigerated food left on loading dock for extended period in warm weather = contamination or loss of quality

Fresh produce may become contaminated if it is loaded into a truck that was not cleaned after transporting

animal or animal products

Transport and distribution: often referred to as logistics

Transportation can occur by road, rail, air or sea

Food can travel interstate of overseas, requiring specialised logistic

companies to be used

Manufacturing plants use laser guided vehicles & RORO (roll on roll off)

machines to quickly & efficiently load food items onto trucks to be

transported

Cold storage: 0*C – 5*C

Freezer: -18*C to -30*C

Dry storage areas must be well ventilated, have controlled humidity levels & temperature shouldn’t exceed 24*C –

avoid exposure to sunlight

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Automated systems reduce need for human labour & are easy to use – eliminates need for forklifts and double

handling of products

Efficient loading & unloading can be completed with fat turnaround vehicles

Packaging must be durable to withstand handling & movement while still being lightweight – reduce damage

during transit

Cartons removed from their pallets & arranged into large aisles or sections – products then stored ready for

orders to be transported into individual stores

Once delivered retail items removed from transport, checked off then placed onto shelves ready for purchase

Selling directly to consumers:

Manufacturer ----------------------> consumer

Selling through retailers:

Manufacturer -----------> Retailer -----------> Consumer

Selling through wholesalers

Manufacturer -----------> Wholesaler -----------> Retailer -----------> Consumer