FocusStylesReggae and Heavy Rock.pdf

8/10/2019 FocusStylesReggae and Heavy Rock.pdf

1/14Classroom MusicI spring term 1 I 2009/101

KS5

Chris Duffill

currently works

at Monmouth

Comprehensive

School, where he is

responsible for the

A-level Music Tech-

nology course. He

is also a member of

the senior examin-

ing team for that A

level.

Edexcel AS Music Tech focus styles 2009/10: reggae and rock

by Chris Duffill

INTRODUCTION

This article is primarily aimed at covering the knowledge and skills needed for section B of the Music Tech-

nology AS listening paper, but also covers other wider areas of relevance in Music Technology, either

for the Edexcel A level or any of the other boards . It will also have wider uses in the curriculumif these

styles are required as an area of study, and some of the technology aspects may provide useful at GCSE

and even KS3.

It includes:

Stylistic features ensembles, timbres, writing approaches, performance, recording, production and use of

technology

Context influences, significant artists, social and cultural background, development, popularity

How to deliver the Special Focus topics in the classroom; crossover with practical tasks and skills development

(a two-way process); other listening and analysis work Examination questions format, approaches to successful answers, common difficulties.

Although completely contrasting, both reggae and rock have followed a similar path in their growth and de-

velopment, often being part of a niche market while crossing over into the mainstream at times; falling in and

out of favour and courting controversy; enjoying revivals and influencing other newer styles along the way.

They are also both appreciated widely by musicians and studio types, even if they are not particularly liked

on a personal level, because both are pioneering in terms of sound and technology use as well as writing

and performance, and have produced influential artists such as Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, Bob Marley and Lee

Perry, who have inspired generations of musicians since. Hopefully this is a message students will be able

to take on board its unlikely that all your students will like both these styles, but they should be able to see

that personal preference needs to be put aside sometimes when they are looking to grow and develop their

skills and knowledge as musicians, and in their recording and production work.

REGGAE: BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT

SUMMARY LIST/KEY WORDS

Styles ska, rocksteady, reggae, roots, dub, reverb, echo, lovers rock, dancehall, digitalSound systems DJs, MCs, toasting, dub plates

Students should aim to have a good awareness of the different styles, with dates as well as the artists in-

volved. They can research the history and context of Jamaican music using online resources or video; some

useful links are given below.

http://niceup.com/history/bbc/intro.html a number of pages covering the history and styles withinJamaican music; makes some good links showing the influence of reggae on more recent music

http://www.jamaicans.com/music/articles_reggae/index.shtml a variety of articles on reggaethroughout the years, written by Jamaicans; lots of info on more recent aspects of the music

Reggae: the Story of Jamaican Music three-part BBC series, repeated periodically, covering theearly years up to modern dancehall; the accompanying book can be found on Amazon

Linton Kwesi Johnsons series of radio programmes for the BBC, covering the development of reggae

Bass Culture: When Reggae was Kingby Lloyd Bradley (Penguin 2001) covers the history ofreggae in Jamaica and the UK

The key listening

suggestions men-

tioned in this article

have been com-

piled in this iTunes

playlist, so that you

can find them all in

one place should

you want to buy

any of them.
http://www.amazon.com/Reggae-Story-Jamaican-Lloyd-Bradley/dp/0563488077http://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewIMix?id=336165219http://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewIMix?id=336165219http://www.amazon.com/Reggae-Story-Jamaican-Lloyd-Bradley/dp/0563488077


2/14Classroom MusicI spring term 1 I 2009/10 2

The Harder They Comefeaturing Jimmy Cliff; a film that provides a soundtrack of classics from therocksteady and reggae era, a story based in Kingston about a young man trying to succeed in the

reggae business

Rockers a later film showing studio life and Jamaican culture in the late 70s

Not many people will be ignorant of the fact that reggae comes from Jamaica, and there is hardly anywhere

in the world where you will not hear Bob Marleys music playing in bars, clubs and on the radio. What might

be less well known is the sheer amount of music produced in Jamaica: the number of artists and studios onone island must be one of the biggest concentrations in the history of recording. The way the industry works

is quite different from in the US and UK, with much of the output being aimed at the sound systems mobile

rigs with huge speaker stacks and powerful amplifiers that set up and play dances all over Jamaica, each

one aiming to have the heaviest bass and crispest top end, the most entertaining DJs, and live toastingand

singing from the best and most popular artists, as well as the latest music preferably original cuts that no

one has heard before.

Studio ownershave played a major part in shaping and developing reggae. Most produce music for their

own sound systems certainly in the early days. They use a pool of musicians and each studio has its own

sound, striving for originality though conversely, they re-record the same rhythm tracks time and again,

each with a signature bass line, chord pattern and horn or keyboard parts. Multiple art ists will record over the

same rhythm track, with the mix engineer using dub techniques to make each version sound fresh.

The early days of the Jamaican scene

The Jamaican recording industry began in the late 1950s, when the sound-system owners started to record

local musicians in order to have exclusive songs playing at their dances. Two men in particular Clement

Coxone Doddand Duke Reid saw the potential of Jamaicans to produce their own music instead of hav-

ing to rely on imports from America New Orleans R&B being the popular music on the island at the time.

The short clip on YouTubeexplains what happened when the Jamaican musicians were asked to write their

own songs, with Ernest Ranglin illustrating how the signature off-beat chop (percussive chord) common to

ska and reggae developed from the R&B style.

Ernest Ranglinwas one of the key musicians in the early Jamaican music scene, and was part of the group

called the Skatalites, who were the top ska band. They were the house band at Studio One the Motown of

reggae, owned by Clement Coxone Dodd; pretty much every reggae artist of the 60s, 70s and 80s started

their recording career here. The Skatalites were a broad pool of musicians who would also feature on their

own instrumentals Jackie Mittoo on keyboards, Ernest Ranglin on guitar, Don Drummond on trombone and

Roland Alphonso on sax are some of the regular soloists. The band later evolved during the reggae era,

becoming known as the Soul Vendors, Sound Dimension, Soul Brothers, Brentford Rockers, and Brentford

Road All Stars.

Often, the songs recorded were instrumentals with a horn section playing the melody and harmonies. The

music was lively, up-tempo and raw in its delivery. Vocalists were also featured, including Prince Buster,

Laurel Aitkin, Derrick Morgan, the Wailers and Jackie Wilson. Lyrics were often on standard pop themes of

love lost and found, going out and partying, with some also based on folk tales. There were often feuds that

would be played out on record and in the dancehall between rival artists and sound systems, each one trying

to provide the ultimate insult or put-down.

NOTE

You may prefer to incorporate listening work from the following section on reggae, looking at the musicalcharacteristics of the various styles, which will contextualise the background to Jamaican music. Shortsections of listening material can be used in any case from the suggestions given in that section.

Toasting involves

chanting rhymes,

usually concerned

with how great the

DJ and sound sys-

tem are compared

to everything else.

The majority were

originally written

at the legendary

Studio One moreabout this to follow.

A new approach to

lyrics that started

to deal with the

social and political

issues was sup-

posedly started by

the Wailers (Bob

Marley, Peter Tosh

and Bunny Wailer)

with their song Sim-

mer Down (1963),

which implored the

Kingston youths

or rude boys

to stop getting

involved in street

violence.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mr0fVJ0ZbIIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mr0fVJ0ZbII



Jamaican music in the UK

In the UK, the music was enjoyed by the rapidly growing Caribbean community, and found some favour

among the white working class by the mid 1960s particularly with mods and later with the skinheads. The

fashion choices of the Jamaican rude boys sharp suits or smart shirts and pork-pie hats were approved

of and adopted by the mods, and the music and dancing to go with it. A mainstream UK and US hit for Millie

Small My Boy Lollipop (1963) was probably the first time the wider public in the UK experienced ska. In

the UK, the Trojan label (set up by Chris Blackwell who later founded Island records) released many singles,

compilations and albums straight from Jamaica.

Rocksteady

In the mid 60s the style changed: more vocalists were being used and the frantic tempo of ska was not

always suitable; also, the studios were still constantly looking for innovation, so the beat slowed and rock-

steady was born. Lee Scratch Perry a crazy genius, originally an engineer at Studio One set up his own

Black Ark Studio and helped develop the new style. Tunes such as The Return of Djangowere massive hits

and are regularly heard today on TV, radio and in films. Duke Reids Treasure Isle studio also released many

rocksteady classics from Alton Ellis, Delroy Wilson and Ken Boothe.

The emergence of reggae

Rocksteady did not survive for long, and the reggae style emerged in its wake in the late 1960s. The origins

of the names of Jamaican music are the stuff of urban myth, but the Maytalsrecorded Do the Reggaein

1968, which at least documents the first use of the word on a recording. The style continued to enjoy some

international success in the UK and Europe, with Jimmy Cliff being based in England and working for Black-

well. He had hits with Wonderful World, Beautiful People, Many Rivers to Crossand the politically themed

protest song Vietnam.

NOTE

Political and social commentary, often based on Rastafarian religion and philosophy, are a big feature ofreggae lyrics. The history of Jamaica, the slave trade and independence from Britain form a background

to these themes.

The release of the film The Harder They Comein the UK in 1972, starring Cliff in the lead role and using his

songs as well as a selection of other reggae and rocksteady classics, helped to further increase reggaes

popularity. Blackwell was backing Cliff to go on and become the first major international reggae superstar,

but disagreements over contracts saw Cliff return to Jamaica.

The Wailers

This was the lucky break for the Wailers, who were in England trying to get a recording deal. They had been

recording successfully with Lee Perry for a number of years after leaving Studio One, with a string of hits

such as Soul Rebel, 400 Years, Keep On Moving, Kaya, Small Axe and Trenchtown Rock, and had per-suaded the members of Lee Perrys studio band the Upsetters to form their own permanent backing group.

Blackwell knew of them but had reservations about their reputation for being awkward, uncompromising

characters. He decided to take a chance and they were given funding to record an album for Island Records

back in Jamaica Catch A Fire, released in 1973. The original mixes were

deemed too raw for the UK rock audience Blackwell was trying to entice to

buy the music, so some additional keyboards and lead guitar were over-

dubbed in the UK and the songs remixed to take some of the edge off.

Though Catch A Fire is generally acknowledged as a classic album these

days, its initial success was not great. The Wailers were working hard, tour-

ing the UK to promote their act and recorded another album to be released

in the same year Burnin.

This was the last album to feature Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer, who both felt

marginalised by Bob Marleys dominance in the songwriting and lead vocals

(both were excellent writers and shared lead vocals with Marley in the early

Other international

hits from this era

include the instru-

mental Liquidator,

Desmond Dekkers

007and The Isra-

elites, which was

a UK number 1 in1969.

See an introduction

to mods on this

Wikipediapage,

and to skinheads

on this Wikipedia

page.

GettyImages

Bob Marley
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod_%28lifestyle%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinheadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinheadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod_%28lifestyle%29



years). The band changed their name to Bob Marley and the Wailers, and added the female backing vocal

trio and American guitarist Al Anderson for the album Natty Dreadreleased in 1974, but the big success was

still to come, as summarised in the following table:

BOB MARLEY AND THE WAILERS: THE GLORY YEARS

Album Key information

The Live album Recorded at the Lyceum, London and released in 1975,

soon to be found in most record collections. The songNo Woman, No Cryin particular became an instantclassic, one of the most popular live recordings evermade. The album featured some of the strongest songsfrom the first three albums Trenchtown Rock, Burninand Lootin, Them Belly Full (But We Hungry), Lively UpYourself, I Shot The Sheriffand Get Up, Stand Up.

Rastaman Vibration Continued Marleys output of a combination of reworkedolder material and newer songs, with themes nowfamiliar in all Jamaican music of protest, political andsocial commentary, love, entertainment and Rastafarianphilosophy and spirituality, often quoting or referring tothe Old Testament.

Exodus This next album from 1977 saw the group achieveworldwide success with several massive selling hits Jamming, Waiting in Vainand One Love/People GetReady.

Kaya Released in 1978, this saw a reworking of some oldmaterial, being generally less concerned with themessage music of earlier releases.

Babylon by Bus Double live album also released in 1978, showinga band at the peak of its powers with flawlessperformances of their best material up to that point.

Survival This 1979 album saw a return to political themes,

dealing with black consciousness and Rasta themesonce more. By now, Marley was a notable figure inthe political arena, and the song Zimbabwewas laterperformed at the celebrations to mark the independenceof Rhodesia.

Uprising This 1980 record produced two more massive worldwidehits Could You Be Lovedand the folky, anthemicRedemption Song.

Bob Marley died in 1981, but there were several posthumous releases: the album Confrontationon Island in

1983, again exploring Rasta and political themes; the single Buffalo Soldier; Iron Lion Zion, released in 1992

after being accidentally discovered on some Island tapes; and the Lee Perry-produced Rainbow Countryin

the late 1980s. The Legend compilation released in 1984 became his biggest-selling production.

Beyond Marley

While Bob Marley brought his brand of reggae to the world, the Jamaican recording industry continued to

grow with new studios and artists emerging all the time. The rootsstyle using political, social and Rasta

themes came to dominate in the 1970s with artists like Burning Spear, Culture, Israel Vibration, Bunny

Wailer and Black Uhuru gaining success in Jamaica and abroad.

At the same time as the roots sound emerged, dub mixingcame into being. Dub mixing involves stripping

the music down to the drums and bass, and dropping in short sections of other instruments bathed in effects

like echo, large amounts of reverb, phasers, flangers and filter sweeps. The engineer plays the studio like

an improvised performance, and a new piece of music evolves, although with familiar bass and drum parts.

These were used by sound systems for the DJs to toast on. Lee Perry and King Tubby are two of the pioneers

of dub mixing; others include Scientist and Prince Jammy. The techniques are still widely used today, and

have been influential on many styles since including jungle, drum n bass, hip hop and dub step.



The dancehallstyle, using drum machines and digital keyboards, was a new sound that emerged in the mid

1980s. Before this, the style of music in the sound system dances was always somewhat different from the

roots sounds: people wanted to dance and enjoy themselves and didnt want the serious lyrics that roots

brought. The music had always been full of lighter-themed lyrics, about going out and having a good time,

or love and its ups and downs. Some artists during the 70s and 80s were better known for their contributions

in this area Sugar Minott, Dennis Brown, Gregory Isaacs, Frankie Paul, Barrington Levy, and a host of DJs/

toasters like U Roy, Josie Wales, Dillinger and Eek-a-Mouse.

Something of a schism was created with dancehall and roots in the late 80s and 90s, as many roots artists

objected to the shallow nature of dancehall lyrics, the often graphic sexual references and gangster/gun

lyrics. During the 90s dancehall came to resemble R&B in many ways, with the traditional guitar and piano

off-beat chops disappearing from the music altogether. DJs (toasters) such as Shabba Ranks, Buju Ban-

ton and Capleton were well known in this style, but as pressure from other artists, and even the Jamaican

government and police, increased, these artists were forced to moderate their style. There was also a new

movement of conscious dancehall, from artists like Beenie Man and Luciano as well as Bob Marleys son

Damien, who were able to combine the feel and sound of dancehall with more roots elements, and included

lyrics with depth and meaning again.

The UKhas also produced a fair number of reggae and Jamaican-influenced bands notably, the 2-tone

ska revival around the same time as punk: bands such as the Specials, the Selecter, the Beat and Madnessadded an English punk edge to ska. There have also been a number of successful bands of first- or second-

generation Jamaicans based in the UK such as Steel Pulse, Aswad, Undivided Roots and Black Roots.

REGGAE: MUSICAL FEATURES

The most prominent features of reggae are:

The off-beat chop on guitar and piano

The deep, heavy bass sound, usually playing riff-like repeated patterns

Simple, repeated chord patterns, often with few or no changes throughout a song

A smattering of horn-section or keyboard parts, and percussion

Vocals that are often expressive and soulful, with improvisation or embellishment of lines and extensive use of

harmony vocals.

There are some other featuresthat are less easily identified through casual listening. Because the music is

so tight rhythmically, and due to the mix often blending parts and placing some of them fairly quietly, rather

than separating them, its easy to overlook or miss organ parts, the drum patterns used and the role of a

second guitar. The outline score below shows typical basic patterns played on guitar, piano, organ and drum

kit, explained on the next page.



PIANO AND GUITAR

These instruments play off-beat skank (or chop) staccato and punchy. Variations include double chop

(guitar), extra on-beat or syncopated chops to emphasise phrases, and short melodic patterns on piano.

ORGAN

This is known as shuffle or bubble: the left hand plays off-beat quavers between the guitar/piano chops. The

right hand plays chops on 2 and 4 but also snippets of melody, sustained chords and on-beat chops.

DRUM KIT

The pattern shown is known as one drop, and is unusual because most of the time the kick drum plays on

beat 3, not beat 1. Beat 1 is played at the start of phrases, but consequently the drum plays only on beat 3.

The snare or often sidestick is played on beat 3 with the kick, and often has added syncopated beats.

The snare will often add dramatic, clattering, timbale-like rolls at the end of sections. Hi-hats are shown

playing a closed-closed-open pattern, with the open falling on beats 2 and 4 with the piano and guitar.

Many other patterns are used: closed straight quavers, or crotchets; combinations of quavers and crotch-

ets; and patterns that miss out certain beats.

NOTE

The whole rhythm ensemble revolves around beat 3, a fact that is often missed by people unfamiliarwith the style, who will hear the second and fourth beats clearly emphasised. Looking at bass lines willhelp to illustrate this.

Listening example: Satta Massagana the Abyssinians

Students can use the score shown above to listen for the typical reggae parts in this track, and try to spot

variations in them. They can also try to identify additional parts not shown in the score above, including

identifying the rhythm played by the bass (the score below shows the first half of the verse pattern; the same

rhythmic pattern is used throughout).

LISTENING POINTS

1. Notice how the bass is tightly locked in with the emphasis on beat 3. The rhythm swings into and out of

this strong accent, which is why it referred to as the dropor one drop. The music centres on that point in

the rhythmic phrase, and this is true of all reggae, whatever the style. Bass lines always revolve around this

point in the music, and are usually based on a repeated pattern of two or four bars. If the harmonic structure

involves a longer chord pattern, the bass will often use the same rhythmic pattern throughout, and often uses

root5th combinations or broken chords. Bob Marley and the Wailers Natural Mysticfrom the album Exodus

has a very similar bass line.

2. The organ and guitar as described above can be identified clearly. The piano is harder to hear by just

listening to the right channel (which clears the organ out of the way as it is panned left) it is possible to hearthat it is mixed behind the guitar.

3. Another very common feature of reggae not mentioned so far is the second guitar, doubling up the bass

line with a picking, palm-muted style.

4. The horn section takes a typical role: three-part (sax, trumpet, trombone) harmony playing a riff that takes

the intro and punctuates the arrangement.

5. Satta Massaganais a good illustration of roots music. The song is more or less a hymn of praise the

Satta Massagana section is from a psalm written in the original biblical language Amheric (from Ethiopia).

The Rastafarians identify themselves as the lost tribes of Israel, whose homeland is Ethiopia, and these

themes are common in roots music.

6. Other examples of the one-drop rhythm and roots style include the Burning Spear: Reggae Greats Album

available on iTunes. The tracks Door Peep, Slavery Days, Man in the Hills, Marcus Garvey, Dry and Heavy

and Black Wa-da-daall feature various approaches to the same beat.

7. The one-drop rhythm was common on many early reggae tunes, and has always had regular use,

but other drum patterns are also used. The rockers style has kick drum on beats 1 and 3, plus occasional

Note that the

rhythm is slightlyswung in this

example.

As well as down-

loading this track via

the iTunes playlist

link on page 1 of

this article, you

can listen to it on

YouTube.
http://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewIMix?id=336165219http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3E2zP5CyLIQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3E2zP5CyLIQhttp://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewIMix?id=336165219



extra beats, and often uses lots of syncopated, percussion-like sidestick (listen to Black Disciples on the

Burning Spearalbum). The steppers style uses a four-to-the-floor kick drum and, again, lots of busy, synco-

pated sidestick (Social Living or The Sunfrom Burning Spear).

Listening example: Alipang Don Drummond/the Skatalites

LISTENING POINTS

1. To hear where the one-drop rhythm came from, and the pre-cursor of reggae, its worth listening to some

ska. In Alipang, the rhythm of the drums and piano/guitar found in reggae is effectively played at double

tempo, i.e. kick drum and snare on 2 and 4 with the piano and guitar chop on the quavers in between, often

with the horn section doubling up. Bass lines adopted more of a walking style, though some syncopated lines

were used.

2. The horns are prominent and play a leading role, with ensemble and solo sections much like dance bands

and jazz combos of the 40s and 50s. The jazz influence is also clear from the solo sections.

Students will benefit from trying to play some reggae and ska they may need to use techniques that are

unfamiliar to them and it will help in their understanding of the music. Satta Massaganais easy enough to

work out from the skeleton score given above to get the rhythmic patterns, and working out the chords is a

good exercise in listening and will benefit students practical work, when they need to use aural recognition

to work out chord patterns and harmonic lines. A table of the basic chords used in Alipang is shown below.

Intro/horn break: Am / E7/ Am / Am / x2

Verse: Am / Am / Dm / Dm / x3, Am / Am / E7/ Am / x2

Chorus: Dm / Dm / Am / Am / x3, Am / E7/ Am / Am / x2

Some chord extensions and variations are used, such as minor 7ths and even a few minor 6ths in places. It

will help students to keep it simple and concentrate on getting the rhythm crisp.

NOTE

Students could even consider recording a reggae song for AS or A2 multi-track coursework the latterbeing a better option as, if horns can be incorporated, it will easily meet the requirement for four acousticinstruments, even with, for example, two saxes plus drum kit and percussion. It also offers some goodopportunities for creative mixing using dub techniques.

REGGAE: RECORDING AND PRODUCTION

Listening example: Zion Gate Dub King Tubby

Dub mixing, as we saw on page4, is the art of taking multi-track recordings and creating a new version of

the song with mainly drums and bass, plus splashes of vocals and instruments that are dropped in and outwith plenty of effects. Apart from pioneering the creative use of the mixing desk and effects, dub also allows

us to study the individual performances and recordings in a song, as parts are heard in isolation.

Students can attempt to identify the techniques used in the example given, and could also spend some time

trying to recreate dub mixing techniques. Here is a summary of some of the effects used:

Adding a large amount of spring reverb to snare (sidestick)

Dropping instruments and vocals in and out with echo (tape echo)

Using large amounts of reverb to place instruments far in the distance

Allowing instruments to leak into the reverb send so there is no dry signal, only effected sound

Using EQ sweeps manually changing the frequency of a boosted EQ, similar to a filter sweep on a synth (it is

not phasing or flanging); used on the actual effects channels in a lot of cases

Adding triplet-quaver timed delay on the hi-hats.

Confuciusby the

Skatalites is one

example listen

on this YouTube

page.

Theres a good

video of Burn-

ing Spear in the

studio performing

Slavery Dayson

this YouTubepage.

Students can use

it to study guitar,

bass and drum

technique.

As well as down-

loading this track

via the iTunes

playlist link on page

1 of this article, you

can listen to it on

YouTube.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCN96gbvojwhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOhBOdxO6Hghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5iQxCG1c39I&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5iQxCG1c39I&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOhBOdxO6Hghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCN96gbvojw



Practical work: dub mixing in a sequencing program

Give your students the following step-by-step task. They will need a sequence of a reggae song with at least

drums, bass, piano, organ and guitar. Some percussion and horns would also be useful.

1. Each part, including individual drums, needs to be configured so the audio output is on its own channel.

Using VST instruments, this should be possible with a bit of thought. Each instrument has its own way of being

set up, and not all will have multiple audio outputs. It is vital to get kick drum, snare and hi-hats on separate

audio tracks, so if necessary split them onto separate MIDI tracks and open a new instance of the VST instru-

ment for each part.

NOTE

The technique of separating out sequenced tracks into individual channels like this is also useful for

mixing other sequenced songs, especially the integrated sequence practical work at A2. It replicates thecontrol over individual parts that an engineer has in a multi-track recording, and allows individual EQ,compression and effects to be applied to parts.

2. Set up a plug-in reverb on a send-and-return with a spring reverb setting the convolution-type reverbs

found in newer versions of software will have one.

3. Send a generous amount of snare to the reverb unit, insert and EQ on the reverb return and select themid-range frequency band. Boost a decent amount set at about 3 or 4 oclock on a dial-type control. Now

sweep the frequency setting anywhere between 1k and 5k while the snare reverb is playing.

4. When choosing an echo, try to find one that emulates tape delay. This will have a thickening of the sound as

the repeats fade away and high frequencies are lost. Try triplet-quaver, triplet-crotchet or dotted-quaver setting.

Practise dropping in guitar and piano and increasing the send level at the point at which it is dropped out.

5. Allow reverb to leak by setting it to pre-fader, and muting the channel.

It will soon be found that using a screen and a mouse is far from ideal for this kind of work. The touch of a

hardware mixing desk is really important to be able to quickly mute/unmute channels, change EQ and send

amounts, or even change the effects settings themselves. The advantage that a sequencing program has is

that it can record and edit the moves, so the mix can be built up a bit at a time. It lacks the interactivity of a

real-time mix though.

Other features of reggae production

Heavy bass with plenty of low frequency, heavily compressed and prominent in the mix

Drums recorded with lots of isolation and treated with gates and compression, to achieve a separated and

punchy sound

Piano and guitar chops EQd to sound very thin pianos often sound unnaturally so mixed so they blend to-

gether

Organ shuffle, usually mixed fairly quietly; sometimes the left-hand part is barely distinguishable

Sparseness of playing, which leaves lots of room for additional guitars and keyboards

Vocals and horns recorded and mixed with lots of clarity (usually) Plenty of reverb used to give a sense of space to dry, close-mic recordings.

VIDEO CLIPS

Lee Perry in the recording studiothe video shows an overview of a recording session, with anotherchance to study some of the playing techniques and the set-up in the studio. At the end, Perry can beseen using some phaser on the mix.

Prince Jammy at the controls Jammy is another renowned dub-mixer, and here he can be seen working

the desk, dropping parts in and out and adding effects.

Advice on the exam

can be found at the

end of this article.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eEio3UiquFs&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdpuJRpdheAhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdpuJRpdheAhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eEio3UiquFs&feature=related



HEAVY ROCK: BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT

SUMMARY LIST/KEY WORDS

Distortion, overdrive, tube/valve amp, speaker cabinet, guitar effects, amp modelling, power chords,pentatonic and blues scales

This style is probably harder to categorise than reggae, and does not share such a clearly defined origin

(although an argument could be made for the midlands being the geographical centre of the heavy-rock

universe). There are distinctions that need to made between this and newer styles such as metal and its sub-

genres; this will be looked at in more detail in the section on musical characteristics.

Students will no doubt be more familiar with this style than with reggae, and probably know more about the

songs, the bands and artists, and the equipment. There may well be some students who, as guitarists, are

adept at playing in this style this can be used as a valuable resource for teaching and learning.

The early days

The development of heavy rock owes much to theblues and R&B(50s and 60s, not modern), and is very

much about the development of the electric guitar as a centrepiece to the music both as a lead and rhythm

instrument. Guitar-playing bluesmen such as John Lee Hooker, Muddy Waters, Link Wray, Willie Johnson

and B.B. King, and of course Chuck Berry, who was more of a rock n roller, helped develop the sound and

popularity of the guitar. But it is also the distorted tone of the guitar that characterises heavy rock, and has

been influential on all guitarists since it first became used.

Jimi Hendrix

Jimi Hendrix was perhaps the most influential artist in, and certainly one of

the pioneers of, the heavy rock sound and style. Hendrix started playing R&B

in the early to mid 1960s in Nashville and New York, having various positions

as a session man, including playing with Little Richards band. In 1966 he

moved to London and formed the Jimi Hendrix Experience, getting rave re-

views from fellow musicians and fans for his extravagant gigs, which included

playing the guitar behind his head and with his teeth, and on occasion setting

light to one of his guitars. Singles Hey Joeand Purple Hazeclimbed high in

the charts, and the album Are You Experiencedstayed in the charts until the

summer of 1969. Tours in the States and the release of the Axis: Bold as Love

album followed in 1967.

1968 saw the recording and release of Electric Ladyland(with Hendrix now based in the States), featuring

longer songs, more of Hendrixs own compositions and guest musicians such as members of Traffic. VoodooChileand All Along the Watchtowerare two classic songs from the album.

The Jimi Hendrix Experience split in 1969, but he continued performing with new musicians and called the

band Gypsy Sun and Rainbows by the time they played the legendary Woodstock festival, which included

the iconic performance of Star-spangled Banner. Tours in Europe and the States continued, with a confused

series of arrangements of band line-ups (now called the Band of Gypsies).

Hendrix died in 1970, apparently of alcohol-related choking (though many suspect foul play), just after he

had become one of the first artists to open his own studio. His was an extravagant character who indulged

in lots of drugs, including heroin and LSD, and had a loud fashion sense, with colourful clothes and lots of

jewellery and scarves. Although Hendrixs music was never straight heavy rock fusing diverse elements

Ge

ttyImages

Jimi Hendrix



of funk, soul, psychedelia and jazz with his heavily blues-fuelled playing his attitude and style certainly

contributed massively to the sound of heavy rock as it developed in the early 1970s.

The 1970s

Other guitarists from the 1960s who were taking the blues style and making it harder and heavier included

Eric Clapton(Cream) and Pete Townshend (The Who), but the next crop of bands to really develop the

style included Led Zeppelinand Deep Purplein the early 1970s, when the style started to develop a follow-

ing and an identity in the UK. The image of fans and bands was about leather and denim, long hair and

motorbikes. Bikers are synonymous with heavy rock, and the dancing (if it can be called such) consisted

of headbanging rocking back and forwards with lots of up-and-down head movement, and of course the

employment of air guitars. Stage acts were extravagant, long and loud. The image was about rebellion, the

freedom to be individual and the motto Live hard, die young.

Bands such as Kiss, Queen, Thin Lizzy, Alice Cooperand Aerosmithwere all successful in the UK and US

in the first half of the 70s, and many others adopted the influence of the sound while staying in a slightly more

pop-oriented, polite vein Suzi Quatro, Nazareth, and glam bands such as the Sweet and Slade. By the mid

70s, Deep Purple had ceased to be, and though Zeppelins tours were outselling the Rolling Stones, heavy

rock was becoming unfashionable although the fanbase was always large, it was becoming something of

a spent force and the butt of many musicians jokes.

The 1980s and beyond

The decline in popularity wasnt enough to make heavy rock go away though. Two major acts emerged at

the end of the 1980s Van Halenin the States and AC/DCfrom Australia. Both enjoyed massive worldwide

success, with Eddie Van Halen guesting on guitar for Michael Jacksons Thriller, and his own single Jump

reaching number 1 in 1984, while AC/DC released the massively successful Highway to Hell in 1979 and

followed it with Back in Black.

The influence of heavy rock has continued through the decades since the 1980s, though only a few of the

original bands still remain active including Aerosmith, Bon Jovi and Van Halen. Newer styles such as

grunge and the many sub-species of metal are direct descendants of the heavy rock of the 1970s and 80s.

HEAVY ROCK: MUSICAL FEATURES

Most conspicuous in heavy rock is the role of the guitar: the use of distortion and other effectscreate a

massive sound central to the whole music, driving the insistent rhythms as well as taking the form of virtuoso

soloing. Many bands use two guitarists, and drums, bass and vocals complete the line-up (keyboards are

fairly common, though not often in a prominent role). Vocals are high-powered, sometimes very high in the

register, and almost delivered at screaming levels (listen to Robert Plant of Led Zeppelin), though they can

also be rough and lower-pitched. Drums and bass are thick and heavy; drum parts feature lots of cymbals

and toms and can be very technical. It is loud music, and the quest for the most powerful sound is part of

each bands approach to the music.

The main features of the role of the guitar are riff-based patterns, the use of power chords (root and 5th only),

and soloing that includes fast, technically difficult work.

HEAVY ROCK VS. HEAVY METAL

We have to make a distinction between heavy rock and heavy metal. Newer bands emerging in the late

70s and early 80s had less of a blues influence, and for the purposes of the AS exam, some metal sub-styles

such as thrash metal, death metal, black metal etc. should be considered as a separate style from heavy

rock. Examples of heavy metal at this time include Motrhead a faster, punk-influenced version of heavy

rock; and the new wave of British bands that followed at the end of the 70s, led by Iron Maiden, Saxon and

Def Leppard, and in the US by Metallica and Megadeth. The relationship with heavy rock is close, and many

bands interchange between the two.



Listening example: Purple Haze the Jimmy Hendrix Experience

Identified as one of Hendrixs classic tracks (along with Hey Joe, All Along the Watchtower and Voodoo

Child), Purple Hazewas a successful single in the UK but was only released on the US version of the album

Are You Experienced, although more recent album pressings in the UK do include it.

LISTENING POINTS

1. The psychedelic influence is clear, with the heavily effected spoken and whispered vocals, and the squeal-

ing guitar towards the end as well as the meandering guitar solo. The blues influence shows in other parts

of the lead guitar work, with bent notes, wailing tone, vibrato, and quick, slick fills between vocal lines on the

bridge (help me) section; the stop at the end of the verses is also typical blues. The heavy, distorted chords

under the verse (purple haze) section are typical heavy rock, though the use of the Hendrix chord (see

below) is not typical nor are the riffing sections and the pick-up after the stop at the end of the verses, all of

which are cleverly constructed to stay just this side of being obvious and bland.2. Vocals are high-energy and intense, again with plenty of blues influence in the vocal tone and delivery,

with frequent slides and bends. The lyrical theme is psychedelic, based on a dream according to Hendrix.

3. The drums sound thick and busy, with lots of ride and other cymbals work. There is a syncopated kick

drum on the intro, and backbeat snare with busy kick drum and lots of fills on the verse, closely syncopated

with the pick-up after the verse-stops.

4. The bass plays an R&B or soul-type figure, following the chords on the verse, and plays unison with the

guitar on the pick-up. Again, this is embellished with slides and runs, though not as often as the drums, so as

to leave space for fills.

5. Rhythmically, there is a lot of looseness in the performance, especially by todays standards, particularly

in the introduction. However, the groove is solid and the song does not suffer from uncomfortable tempo shifts.

6. Students could also study the structure of this piece, identifying the lengths of sections and the different

parts of the song. Notice how the sections are put together with slight variations to keep interest and develop-

ment in the arrangement.

The Hendrix chord

The Hendrix chord, as heard here after the intro riff and during the verses,

is a dominant 7th plus a sharpened 9th. It wasnt invented by Hendrix its

a well-known extension in jazz to add extra tension to a dominant 7th. The

sharpened 9th is actually the minor 3rd an octave above, so there is quite dramatic tension with the major

3rd playing lower again, typically bluesy. The full chord pattern moves from this chord on E, to a plain G

major chord, then a plain A major chord, before repeating.

It uses (major) chords with root notes of the minor pentatonic scale. This is common in heavy rock and dem-

onstrates its blues roots.

Students could learn this chord pattern if they dont know it already and see how it fits with the intro riff

(note the variations in each statement of the riff). They could research how to voice the chord correctly on

the guitar, either by studying video material of the song or by searching for tutorials on the correct fingering.

KEY POINT

One of the main distinctions between heavy rock and heavy metal is that, while heavy metal uses modal

scales and chromaticism in the construction of riffs and solos/lead lines, heavy rock is blues-based, using

pentatonic scales and blue notes.

VOODOO CHILD

Another Hendrix song worth looking at is Voodoo Child this YouTubevideo is a live performance.

Here, the blues influence is much clearer, and apart from the funky intro, the piece is archetypal of the

heavy rock sound. Students can list the similarities to blues as an exercise the lead guitar work has plenty

of examples, as do the vocals. The structure has elements of 12-bar blues. Look also for the differences

heavier, thicker drum and guitar sounds, a funkier intro, and less of a swing rhythm.

This track is in-

cluded in the iTunesplaylist for this ar-

ticle (link provided

on page 1) and you

can also listen to it

on YouTube.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=85zp1zVVDAQ&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aLeIdH2gTSchttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aLeIdH2gTSchttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=85zp1zVVDAQ&feature=related



Listening example: Black Night Deep Purple

LISTENING/DISCUSSION POINTS

1. The signature rock-guitar sound, and the intro riff that also acts as a link between sections.

2. The chugging, swung rhythm, and plenty of extravagant rolls and cymbals on the drums.

3. The use of Hammond organ including a solo section (although it is often in unison with the bass and guitar).

4. The live version gives a chance to see the techniques used in the live solo in particular, the whammy

bar for short, fast bends, close to the speaker stack to create extra harmonics through feedback; and the di-

vebomb at the end in the final guitar solo.

Deep Purple are of course responsible for other great rock classics such as My Woman from Tokyoand

Smoke on the Water. Child in Timeis an example of a heavy rock ballad slower, anthemic songs with quiet

and heavy passages that crop up regularly in the style. The Machine Headalbum from 1972 is considered

to be perhaps their best studio album.

Listening example: Runnin with the Devil Van Halen

An example of the second generation of artists, Van Halen uses many of the typical features of heavy rock

though he has developed his own guitar sound. Here the chordal riff drives the song, and the soloing is

kept short, though it still has dramatic impact. The vocals are screamed, vibrato-heavy and the song features

massed backing vocals. Performances are rhythmically tighter than older material and the sound, while still

heavy, is a lot more focused and clean.

OTHER RECOMMENDED LISTENING

Born to be Wild Steppenwolf

Whole Lotta Rosieand Highway to Hellfrom Let There Be Rock AC/DC

Dont Fear the Reaper Blue yster Cult

HEAVY ROCK: RECORDING AND PRODUCTION

In many ways, heavy rock is the story of the electric guitar and amplifier as an instrument and as pioneeringtechnology. The development of the overdriven, distorted valve amp sound, the use of effects such as

wah wahand phaser, and original performance techniques such as feedbackand finger-tappingall come

from exponents of the style.

LED ZEPPELIN

Led Zeppelin were responsible for quite a few slower ballads such as Dazed and Confused, Since Ive

Been Loving You and Stairway to Heaven. Zeppelin songs that are straight heavy rock include Black Dog,Whole Lotta Loveand Rock and Roll all worth studying for great examples of riffing, guitar soloing and,

of course, Robert Plants vocal style.

This track is

included in the

iTunes playlist for

this article, and you

can also listen to it

on YouTube.

This track is

included in the

iTunes playlist for

this article, and you

can also listen to a

live version on

YouTube. Again,

there is a strong

blues influence

in Deep Purples

biggest hit, whichreached number 2

in the UK in 1970.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVGwi_AxOy8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pkg0xJj2A4whttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pkg0xJj2A4whttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVGwi_AxOy8



NOTE

While Kramer used an expensive Neumann microphone to close-mic the guitar amp, and a sensitive ribbon

mic for the room sound, this approach should be avoided with students. Engineers who use condensermics to record loud sources do so because they have extensive experience of how to handle expensiveequipment, and know what it can and cant handle. A safer approach at this level is to use a dynamic

close-mic (typically a Shure SM57) and a large diaphragm condenser room mic.

Trying to create a big sound

This is what heavy-rock production is about; it starts with the guitaristgetting the right sound. A favoured

combination is Marshall valve amps, and a large speaker cabinet such as a 4 x 12. Distortion is created by

driving the pre-amp stage really hard. Technically, what occurs is that the amplification (or gain) is provided

by valves, and if the input signal goes above a certain level that the valve is capable of handling, it clips

the peaks of the waveform, changing its shape. If students have studied synthesis they will know that dif-

ferently shaped waveforms create different sounds. With the initial stages of clipping, extra even harmonics

are added to the sound. When the input is driven harder, odd harmonics are created giving a dirty, distorted

sound. The sound produced when using valves to achieve this has many pleasing qualities and is the basis

for the heavy-rock guitar sound. All other effects units, transistor amps, and amp-modelling hardware and

software emulate this process.

It is a good exercise to compare valve and transistor amps if available, by doing various recordings, as well

as experimenting with close-mic and room-mic positions. This can also be compared with pod-type guitar-

modelling units, effects pedals and software plug-in effects. It will also be valuable to record a complete

performance with vocals, drums and bass so students can practise mixing a complete song in this style.

Production of other instruments will also aim to achieve a big sound. Drums often have plenty of room sound

which can also be created by using suitable reverbs if the kit is recorded dry. John Bonhams drums (Led

Zeppelin) were reputedly recorded in some cases at the bottom of a stairwell, with ambient mics in placehigh up to capture the sound as it reverberated. Compression and EQ to create powerful sounds with impact

is also important. Bassis often fairly deep in tone, without much presence in the mid range. Vocalsusually

sit in with lead guitar parts, and are not extremely prominent. Fairly large, obvious reverbs are typical. Back-

ing vocals featuring several performers double-tracked are sometimes used, which can be very effective,

though it requires discipline in the performance and capture.

These experiments will be of benefit to techniques needed elsewhere in the course, mainly the multi-track

recording, but also in the wider experience of music production.

FOR THE EXAM

Exam questions usually focus on recording techniques and students would not be expected to know great

amounts of detail (which can get very technical) on how the distorted guitar sound is created. They will

need to know what distortion is, however, be able to recognise it aurally and describe the basics of how it

is created; this will include knowledge of guitar amps, particularly valve types.

It is, nevertheless, a valuable subject for students to study, and many students will be keen to explore it.

They can be encouraged to research recording methods of heavy-rock guitarists, and find out about how

they get their sound type of guitar, amplifiers, speaker cabs and settings using articles and videos.

The article about engineer Eddie Kramer foundhereis a good starting point, describing Hendrixs recording

sessions at Olympic Studios in London for the Electric Ladyland project. It will be valuable for students to

practise guitar recording techniques and try to recreate a convincing heavy-rock sound.
http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/nov05/articles/classictracks.htmhttp://www.soundonsound.com/sos/nov05/articles/classictracks.htm


14/14

BOTH STYLES: EXAM QUESTIONS

The format of the questions is going to be similar to last year and the published SAMs. There will be several

shorter questions worth a few marks each, and longer questions where students will need to use prose to

construct more detailed answers. There will be one 20-mark question with a listening example for each style.

Questions will not be exclusively on the listening example: students will need to show knowledge of the

background and development of the styles, identify typical musical and production features, and discuss

contributions of particular artists.

Useful preparation work can include study of previous exam papersif you have access to them. The style

of questions has not changed much from the old spec to the new, even though the format has changed for

these longer special focus questions. There have been questions in the past that feature AC/DC, Led Zep-

pelin, UB40, and also general approaches to guitar recording.

All work with practice questions will be valuable, and can be approached in a variety of ways. It is always

good to do some in the exact conditions students will face in the exam, working individually with the same

headphones they will use in the exam, but there is also much value in getting them to practise in groups so

they can discuss their work, and using the studio monitors to listen in detail to material. All practical work

feeds into the knowledge needed for the written exam and vice versa; it is important students are encour-aged to make this connection and not see them as completely separate. Both aspects of the qualification

depend on close, detailed listening; study of commercial work will help students understand how processes

are used by professionals, and they can attempt to recreate this in their practical work.

Summary of knowledge needed for the exam

Musical characteristics of each style

Performance approaches and techniques

Types of instruments, band line-ups, typical sounds and how they are created; includes recording and production

guitars, distortion and amps (heavy rock) and dub mixing and effects use (reggae)

Other techniques used in the recording studio to produce the sound

Social and historical context, development of the styles

Significant artists, including producers and engineers (especially reggae).

General skills in answering exam questions

Students will need to be able to:

Use musical and technical language accuratelyto describe what they hear, and where necessary be able to

write prose succinctlyto make several related points.

Identify musical features aurally melodic movement/intervals; rhythm notation including writing and reading;

harmony, including types of chords and recognition of chord patterns; timbre and texture; and form, including

typical stylistic use.

Be familiar with recording and production techniques mic usage for any scenario found in rock, popor jazz; other methods of capture; historical development of recording, including early techniques and limita-

tions; mixing techniques including use of reverb, delay/echo, phaser/flanger/chorus, EQ, compression and other

dynamics-processing.

Be aware of the development of popular music styles since 1910 main styles; historical and social context;

influences.

FocusStylesReggae and Heavy Rock.pdf

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