FM 5-104 General Engineering

Field ManualNo. 5-104 *FM 5-104

HEADQUARTERSDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

Washington, DC, 12 November 1986

GENERALENGINEERING

F ield Manual 5-104 provides a doctrinal basis for the planning andexecution of general engineering in the Theater of Operations. General

engineering sustains military forces in the theater through the performanceof facility construction and repair, and through acquisition, maintenance,and disposal of real property. The Theater of Operations is defined as “Thatportion of an area of conflict necessary for military operations, eitheroffensive or defensive... , and for the administration incident to suchmilitary operations.”

This manual will be primarily concerned with support to those noncom-mitted forces within the corps and communications zone areas. It willdescribe responsibilities, relationships, procedures, capabilities, con-straints, and planning considerations in the conduct of general engineeringtasks. The manual was designed to highlight doctrinal procedures and togive an overview of the general engineering functional area.

Field Manual 5-104 was developed for commanders and planning staffs atall levels who require engineer assistance, or are required to give engineerassistance in tasks falling under the general engineering purview.

The proponent agency of this publication is the US Army Engineer School.Users are invited to send comments and suggest improvements on DA Form2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) to—Commandant, US Army Engineer School, ATTN: ATZA-TD-P, Ft. Belvoir,VA, 22060-5291.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release, distrlbution is unlimlted

*This publication supersedes FM 5-1, 27 July 1971 and FM 5-162, 30 March 1973.

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STANAG IMPLEMENTATION

The provisions of this publication are the subject of InternationalStandardization Agreement (STANAG) 2885, Procedure for the Provisionof Potable Water in the Field.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both menand women are included.

This publication contains copyrighted material.

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Chapter 1GENERAL ENGINEERING

G eneral engineering encompasses those engineer tasks whichincrease the mobility, survivability, and sustainability of

tactical and logistical units to the rear of the forward line oftroops (FLOT). Such tasks include construction and repair oflines of communication (LOC), main supply routes (MSR), air-fields, and logistica] facilities. While these tasks may be per-formed as far forward as the brigade rear area of the combat zone,most general engineer tasks are performed behind the divisionrear boundaries. Repair tasks dominate in well-developedtheaters. Construction tasks prevail in less-developed theaters.

General engineer missions are usually performed by EngineerCombat Heavy Battalions, Port Construction Companies, Con-struction Support Companies, Combat Support EquipmentCompanies, Dump Truck Companies, and Pipeline ConstructionSupport Companies. Divisional and corps combat battalions mayalso be required to perform limited general engineer tasks.General engineer tasks in a mid-to high-intensity conflict focusprimarily on direct support of military forces. In such circum-stances, little consideration can be given to nation-buildingmissions. In a low-intensity conflict, nation-building tasks maydominate.

THE GENERAL ENGINEERING PLANNING PROCESS 2

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS 2

PRINCIPLES OF THEATER OF OPERATIONS CONSTRUCTION 3

GENERAL ENGINEERING 1

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THE GENERAL ENGINEERING PLANNING PROCESS

General engineer requirements in a Theaterof Operations are based on an analysis of theterrain, the availability of support infra-structure, the logistical and combat forcestructure to be supported, and the extent ofdamage to existing facilities: The senior staffengineer makes the detailed analysis andestablishes a prioritized list of requirements.Prioritization is coordinated with the senioroperations and logistics staff officers (G3 andG4 at division and corps and Deputy Chief ofStaff, Operations and Deputy Chief of Staff,Logistics at Echelons Above Corps).

A detailed terrain analysis is conducted todetermine the availability of suitable localconstruction materials and to estimate theengineer effort required to accomplish thegeneral engineer missions. Preliminary ClassIV construction material requirements mustbe forecast for the logisticians as early aspossible in the planning process. This ensuresthat material is available when it is needed.

The availability of host nation assets must bedetermined. Those missions that can be per-formed by host nation units should be pro-

cessed through the staff officer responsiblefor host nation coordination.

General engineer missions may be allocatedto available engineer units on an area basisor a task basis. That is, engineer units maybegiven an area of responsibility or may betasked with a specific mission, such as repairor upgrade of a specific LOC. Tasks areperformed in accordance with the priority listthat has been developed in conjunction withthe supported commands. Priorities may shiftas damage occurs due to enemy combataction. Logistical constraints may alsogovern the sequence in which general engi-neer tasks are performed.

General engineer missions may be performedin support of joint or combined operations.Liaison must be established with supportedallied forces or other US services to make suretheir requirements are included in the plan-ning process. Construction missions in therear combat zone and communications zone(COMMZ) will be coordinated by the desig-nated regional wartime constructionmanager.

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

HOST NATION SUPPORT planning process, so that engineers can learnWhere possible, host nation capabilities local expedient construction methods.should be identified in peacetime. Civil affairspersonnel play a key role in host nation CONTRACT LABORinterface. They also assist in establishing Contract labor may be available for use in theprocedures for obtaining host nation support. COMMZ. If so, contracting officers must beIn many parts of the world, host nation appointed, and a contract managementcapabilities may be limited to providing structure established. Use of contract laborconstruction materials. It is important to tap frees engineer troop units to move forwardhost nation regional expertise early in the and reduces engineer force structure require-

ments in the theater.

2 GENERAL ENGINEERING

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CONSTRUCTION CRITERIAWartime construction requirements will begoverned by the following criteria:

Ž Make maximum use of existing facilities(US or host nation controlled).

Ž Modify existing facilities rather thanundertake new construction.

Ž Use austere design and constructiontechniques.

Ž Minimize US engineer troop constructioneffort.

Ž Reduce protective construction. Employpassive protection through dispersion offacilities and equipment (to include in-corporation of nuclear, biological, andchemical (NBC) protective measures andequipment) to reduce the need for protectiveconstruction.

Ž Use self-help construction. All non-engineer units must use self-help construc-tion procedures to the limit of theircapabilities, short of interfering withprimary missions, but without wastingscarce construction materials.

LOGISTICSAn extensive logistical and transportationsystem is required to support the acquisitionand distribution of engineer materials. Indeveloped theaters, engineers depend heavilyupon locally procured construction materialsand existing distribution networks for sup-plies. In undeveloped or heavily damagedareas, construction materials and distribu-tion networks are not available. Indeed, theengineer effort may be more focused on pro-curing the necessary material and moving itto project sites than on the project itself.Therefore, the logistics effort must be con-sidered in the planning stage so that projectscan be successfully accomplished.

PRINCIPLES OF THEATER OF OPERATIONS CONSTRUCTION

Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) Publication 3 TEMPORARY STANDARDdefines two construction standards for plan- The temporary standard is characterized byning, designing, and constructing facilities minimal facilities, intended to increase thein support of contingency operations. efficiency of operations. Design life of tem-

porary structures is targeted at 24 months.INITIAL STANDARD

The initial standard is characterized by CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLESaustere facilities. These minimize engineer The principles of construction in the Theaterconstruction effort and provide facilities of Operations are speed, economy, flexibility,which offer immediate operation support to decentralization of authority, and estab-units upon arrival in-theater. Initial standard lishment of priorities.facilities are intended to be used for a limitedtime, ranging from one to six months.


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SpeedSpeed is fundamental to all activities in aTheater of Operations. Practices that supportspeedy construction include:

Use existing facilities. Engineer unitsmust rapidly provide facilities that enableUS forces to deliver maximum combat powerforward. The use of existing facilities con-tributes greatly to the essential element ofspeed by eliminating unnecessary construc-tion effort.

Standardize. Standardized materials andplans save time and construction effort. Theypermit production-line methods, includingprefabrication of structural members. Stand-ardized assembly and erection proceduresincrease the efficiency of work crews byreducing the number of methods and tech-niques they must learn.

Simplify. Simplicity of design and construc-tion is vital in wartime because manpower,materials, and time are in short supply.Simple methods and materials allow scarcelabor to complete installations in a minimumof time.

Use bare-bones construction. Militaryengineering in the Theater of Operations ischaracterized by concern for only the mini-mum necessities and by the temporary natureof constructed facilities. Adequate, butminimal, provisions are made for safety. Forexample, local green timbers are often used toconstruct wharves or pile-bent bridges eventhough marine borers will rapidly destroy thetimbers. The rationale in this case is that thefocus of military effort shifts rapidly, justi-fying a short useful life for the structure.Sanitary facilities may consist of nothingmore than pit latrines, because it is notappropriate to provide more permanent orluxurious facilities. In short, quality is sacri-ficed for speed and economy.

Construct in phases. Phased constructionprovides for the rapid completion of criticalparts of buildings or installations and the useof these parts for their intended purposebefore the entire project is completed.Although phased construction is somewhatinefficient, it allows maximum use of facilitiesat the earliest possible time.

EconomyEconomy in Theater of Operations construc-tion demands efficient use of personnel,equipment, and materials.

Conserve manpower. The soldier is thevital element. For this reason manpowerpriorities go to units in contact with theenemy. Despite the mechanization of modernwarfare, battles are still won and territoryoccupied by ground forces. Construction tasksare time consuming, and engineers andconstruction workers are often in shortsupply. Conservation of labor is thereforeimportant. Every engineer must function atthe peak of efficiency for long hours toaccomplish the engineer mission. Carefulplanning and coordination of personnelassignments are necessary. Projects must bewell organized and supervised. Engineerpersonnel must be carefully allocated andwell provided for. The source of support toengineers will depend upon the nature ofestablished command and control relation-ships.

Conserve equipment. In the Theater ofOperations, military heavy constructionequipment will be in short supply. Somecivilian equipment may be available. Becauseof low densities, operational capability ofavailable equipment may be further jeop-ardized due to shortages of repair parts. Wiseuse of construction equipment is essential.


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Conserve materials. An overseas wartimeconstruction program must be organized toexecute the required work in the time allottedand with a minimum of shipped-in tonnage.Local resources must be used and naturalresources exploited to the maximum extentpossible.

FlexibilityThe ever-changing situation in militaryconstruction requires that construction in allstages be adaptable to new conditions. Tomeet this requirement, use standard planswhich allow for adjustment and expansion.Standard plans are a part of the ArmyFacilities Components System (AFCS) andthe Navy Advanced Base Functional Com-ponent System. The use of alternate materialsis permitted, and design is such that a givenconstruction item may have the maximumnumber of uses. Theater of Operationsstandard components are flexible. Forexample, a standard building plan may beeasily adapted to be used as an office,barracks, hospital ward, or mess hall. For-ward airfields are usually designed andlocated so that they can be expanded intomore elaborate installations as time andresources permit.

The AFCS provides the construction unitswith standard plans, bills of material (BOM),specifications for construction standards,labor and equipment estimates, and materialshipping estimates. This information signifi-cantly improves the planning effort at alllevels of the chain of command, and providesa common base of information for all units.The AFCS is developed in four technicalmanuals (TM): TM 5-301, TM 5-302 (a five-volume set of drawings), TM 5-303, andTM 5-304.

Decentralization of authorityThe wide dispersion of forces in a Theater ofOperations requires that engineer authoritybe decentralized as much as possible. Theengineers in charge of operations at partic-ular localities must have authority consistentwith their responsibilities.

Establishment of prioritiesIt is essential to establish priorities to deter-mine how much engineer effort must bedevoted to a single task. While detailedpriority systems are normally the concern oflower echelon commands, all levels of com-mand beginning with the theater commandermust frequently issue directives establishingbroad priority systems to serve as a guide fordetailed systems. Resources must initially beassigned only to the highest priority tasks.Low priority tasks must be left undone atfirst. Some unavoidable risks will result.Tasks must be analyzed and the risk ofbypassing them evaluated in order to assignpriorities.

By category of work for war-essential mis-sions, theater engineer efforts will generallygive first priority to damage repair of airbases and other critical facilities, secondpriority to LOC repair, and third priority torestoration or renovation of other necessaryfacilities. Engineer capability will be appliedto the prioritized list of war-essential supportmissions in accordance with the four prioritygroups shown in Table 1 (see page 6).

Table 2 (page 6) shows a priority scale appliedto each category of general engineer workexpected to confront Army engineers in thecorps rear and COMMZ. Note that prioritieschange rapidly and are dependent on thetactical situation.


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Table 1. Engineer Support Priorities in the Theater of Operations

Group Priority Implications of Nonsupport

A Vital High strategic importance.Early defeat of friendly forces.

B Critical Serious degradation of combat effectiveness.Increased vulnerability on the battlefield.Increased probability of tactical defeats.

C Essential Long-term degradation in sustainability.Significant equipment and materiel losses.

D Necessary Reduced quality of combat service support (CSS).Short term degradation in sustainability.Moderate equipment or materiel losses.Temporary inconvenience. Minor impact on tactical operations.

Table 2. Sample Integrated Priority List for General Engineering Tasks

Priority Priority Ranking Task Description

Vital 1 Assistance in emergency runway repairs.2 Essential field site preparations for air defense

artillery (ADA) units.3 Recovery of prepositioned materiel configured to

unit sets (POMCUS) equipment.

Critical 4 Restoration of aircraft operating surfaces (AOS)beyond emergency repairs (at main operating basesonly).

5 Essential support to hospitals.6 Assistance in emergency repairs (less AOS) at USAF

bases.7 Minimum emergency repairs to facilities at Army

bases.

Essential 8 Assistance in repair of LOC/MSR damage.9 Minimum recovery work at depots.10 Construction of POL distribution systems.11 Construction of minimum essential logistic facilities.12 Minimum restoration beyond emergency repairs.13 Force beddown construction.

Necessary 14 Minimum restoration beyond emergency repairs.15 New construction at AFCS initial standard.


Chapter 2PROCUREMENT AND PRODUCTIONOF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

A supply of suitable construction material is the basis forestablishing, maintaining, and repairing facilities in the

Theater of Operations. Nearly all general engineering consumesraw and/or prefabricated construction materials. The most com-monly needed materials are soil, sand, crushed rock, asphalt.concrete, and lumber. The burden of locating and manufacturingmany of these materials fails mainly on Combat Heavy EngineerBattalions. However, all engineer units must be prepared toexploit available construction materials. Engineer units taskedto procure construction materials must make full use of theirimagination, initiative, and resources. Where standard materialsare not available, engineers must improvise.

Required construction materials may he supplied through mili-tary logistical systems, obtained from local manufacturers,extracted from local natural resources, or produced by engineerunits. Planners must use the source or combination of sourcesthat will fulfill the mission with maximum speed, efficiency, andeconomy.

SUPPLY THROUGH MILITARY LOGISTICAL SYSTEMS 8

PROCUREMENT FROM LOCAL MANUFACTURERS 8

ENGINEER-PRODUCED NATURAL RESOURCES 8

ENGINEER-PROCESSED MATERIALS 10

PROCUREMENT AND PRODUCTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 7

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SUPPLY THROUGH MILITARY LOGISTICAL SYSTEMS

The military logistical system is generally The disadvantages of the military supplyvery responsive to the needs of the construc- system begin to appear further away fromtion engineer units. This system has the the source of supply. Long lead times must beadvantage of being organized under no- considered by project planners if the normalmenclature and units of measure familiar to supply system is used. The risk of damage tosupply personnel. This familiarity eases the materials and the cost of materials to themovement of material through the supply government increase because ofchain. When material is in the military supply shipping and handling required.system, its quality can be more easily moni-tored, and supply status can be easily veri-fied.

increased

PROCUREMENT FROM LOCAL MANUFACTURERS

Procurement of construction material fromlocal manufacturers or producers alleviatesmany of the problems associated with mili-tary supply channels, but creates otherconcerns. Local procurement can greatlyreduce the lead time before materials arriveat the construction site. In many cases thetheater command arranges supply agree-ments with host nations before engineer unitsarrive. The agreements specify the type andquality of certain materials and specify thelocations of material yards. Transportationarrangements, made with the host nation formoving materials closer to the constructingunits, reduce the motor transport requirementof these units,

Local procurement of construction materialscan cause problems because of variances inquality and dimensions. For example, someplywoods produced in European countriesare of such high quality that the circular sawblades normally used in engineer units quick-ly dull, creating a slowdown in constructionproductivity. Some material may not meetdimensional standards required by the pro-ject. This may cause delays and requiredesign modifications. Some materials, suchas cement, may have slightly different chemi-cal properties, which can alter the behaviorof the material during construction. It istherefore important that using units becomefamiliar with the locally procured material assoon as practical in order that any neededadaptations can be made.

ENGINEER-PRODUCED NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources can be tapped by engineerunits as a source for soil, sand, gravel, andtimber. Civilian and military intelligencesources, such as the Terrain Analysts and theMilitary Geographic Information (MGI) database of the supporting topographic unit, canlocate resources quickly. Since this informa-tion can significantly influence the locationof some facilities and installations, it isimportant to identify resources quickly.

BORROW PITSBorrow pits are the preferred source ofconstruction aggregate and fill material whenresources are scarce and material quality isnot critical. Borrow pit material—gravel,sand, and fines—seldom needs to be blasted,crushed, or screened. Though its quality maynot be as good as crushed stone, it is oftenacceptable. The equipment needed to work aborrow pit includes dozers for clearing and

8 PROCUREMENT AND PRODUCTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

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grubbing, dump trucks for hauling, and eitherscoop loaders, scrapers, or cranes with shovelor dragline attachments for loading.

Borrow pits are best located at the tops ofhills close to or on the construction site forease of material handling. If borrow pits arelocated away from the construction site, co-ordination with the local landowner must beeffected, and additional care must be takenwhen closing down the pit to prevent unduedamage to the surrounding terrain.

QUARRIESA quarry is an open excavation from whichrock may be removed, either by blasting or byripping with bulldozers. Quarries are typi-cally used when borrow pits cannot supportthe mission, either because the material isinsufficient, the quality is poor, or becauseborrow pits are too far from the work site.Existing quarries should be used whenever

possible, since developing and operating aquarry requires considerable time, man-power, and equipment. When planners con-sider opening a new quarry site, they mustweigh the tactical situation, the security ofthe quarry unit, and the lead time required todevelop the site. Engineer units with quar-rying equipment are scarce resources in theactive Army. The use of such units must becarefully planned.

The decision to develop a quarry site mustalso take into account the quality and quan-tity of material offered, the availability oftrained personnel and equipment, the pro-posed quarry’s rock structure and drainage,and the site’s location with respect to civilianpopulace, access roads, facilities, utilities, andthe construction site. The environmentalimpact of the quarrying operation should beconsidered because of possible air, groundwater, and noise pollution. The equipment


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needed to operate a quarry includes bull-dozers, air compressors, crawler drills orhand drills, and either scooploaders or craneswith shovel attachments.

LOGGING OPERATIONSWhen host nation support is not adequate tosupply timber products for construction, plan-ners may decide to conduct independent log-ging and/or sawmill operations. Logging isthe process of converting standing timberinto sawn logs or timber products and de-livering them to the sawmill for the manu-facture of lumber or heavy timber. Logs canbe processed and used for such purposes astimber piles, bridge or wharf stringers, rail-road ties, and framing members for protectivestructures. Logs can be processed into dimen-sioned lumber for use in Theater of Opera-tions construction if drying time is available.

The Army’s capability to conduct loggingand sawmill operations is located solely inEngineer Forestry Teams in the Reserveestablishment. The Forestry Team Generalof the Army (GA) is organized under Tablesof Organization and Equipment (TOE)5-520G. The team is divided into a teamheadquarters, a logging section, and a saw-mill section. Such teams may be attached to asupply and service battalion of the generalsupport group or to an engineer constructiongroup, or it may be used to support indepen-dent operations. The Forestry Team is 75percent mobile. Forestry Teams are scarceresources, and their use must be carefullyplanned.

When the decision has been made to usemilitary resources to produce timber products,the first step in planning is to select a timberstand and sawmill site. Again, the support-ing engineer topographic unit can provideuseful information. The timber stand may besome distance away from the site of thesawmill. The planner must therefore plan forroads and bridges that can handle heavyloads. Supporting engineer units will need toprovide for road maintenance. The sawmillsite should be convenient to roads or railroadsfor transshipment of the lumber products.The sawmill must have a large, clear areaaround it, be well drained, and be located at adistance from inhabited areas. Provisionsmust be made for properly disposing of woodwaste products and unused wood preserva-tive, which can be hazardous to humanbeings. An adequate water supply must beavailable for fire protection at the sawmill.

The Forestry Team conducts a reconnais-sance, called a timber cruise, to select alogging site. During the timber cruise, ap-propriate tree species are identified, and thetimber stand’s yield is estimated. After thetimber cruise is completed, the selected treesare cut, then logs are cut to the correct length.These logs are loaded on trucks and taken tothe sawmill, where bark is removed, the logsare sawn into the needed dimensions, andwood preservative is applied. The dimen-sional stability and sturdiness of the wood isenhanced if it is dried in a kiln or in the openair. The drying process consumes valuablespace and time.

ENGINEER-PROCESSED MATERIALS

CRUSHED ROCK PRODUCTION screened, and perhaps washed to meet qualityRock of specific size and gradation is needed standards for construction missions. It isfor asphalt and concrete production. Crushed almost a certainty that a supply of crushedrock is used as the base course for roads and rock will be needed in any Theater of Opera-airfields. Rock from quarry operations and tions construction.some borrow pit material must be crushed,


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Certain Army engineer units in the activeand reserve component have the equipmentand trained personnel to establish and operate large-scale rock crushing plants. Rockprocessing units, like quarry units, are low-density engineer resources which must beused carefully. Planners must be aware thatmoving a rock processing unit and establish-ing operations at a new site requires con-siderable lead time.

The plant must be sited within a reasonabledistance of the quarry and the constructionproject. It should be located on level groundwith good drainage. Adequate space shouldbe available for equipment, stockpiles, main-tenance areas, related facilities and utilities,and for expansion. An adequate supply ofwater must be available for the washingprocess.

The two most common rock processing unitshave either a 75- or a 225-ton per hour rockprocessing plant. Each plant consists ofseveral large pieces of towed equipment, Themajor components are crushers, screeningequipment, washing equipment, and portable

conveyers. Planners must be aware that theactual output of any given plant differs fromits nominal capacity. Actual productionreflects the plant’s capacity to handle thespecific product input, the desired size of thefinal product, the size of the crushing equip-ment, and the proportion of by-product orwaste produced.

Other problems that are inherently part ofrock processing operations must be consider-ed. Equipment maintenance is inevitably amajor task, because the heavy loads andabrasive action of crushing and moving tonsof rock rapidly wears and damages equip-ment. Repairs are sometimes difficult, be-cause spare parts are often scarce.

ASPHALT PRODUCTIONEngineer units with organic asphalt plantsare low density engineer resources in both theactive and reserve components, and shouldbe used carefully. Moving and establishingan asphalt plant requires considerable leadtime. An adequate source of raw materials,such as rock, sand, and bitumen, must beavailable.

ASPHALT PLANT WITH TRAILER-MOUNTED ELEMENTSBarber-Greene Co., Bituminous Construction Handbook

(Aurora, IL, Barber-Greene, 1963), Figure 67.


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The 100- to 150-ton per hour asphalt plant isthe Army’s current plant. This plant canproduce all types of bituminous mixes, in-cluding high-type concrete, cold mixes, andstabilized base mixtures. The plant consistsof a mixer, hot elevator, gradation controlunit, dryer, and feeder, all of which are trailermounted. The upper half of the gradationcontrol unit, the cold elevator, and numerousancillary parts must be moved on extratrailers. Equipment needed to support plantoperations includes dump trucks, portableconveyors, scoop loaders, bulldozers, andcranes with clamshell attachments. An aircompressor with drum cutting tools is neededto open drums of asphalt cement, and fuel

trucks are needed to supply the hot oil heatersand power plants.

When it is determined that a military asphaltplant is needed, planners must select anoptimal site. A large, well-drained area with agravel or hard top surface is to be preferred.The plant must be close to both the source ofaggregate and the construction site, becausemost bituminous mixes either become toocool or begin to cure if they are not placedquickly. A good road net is needed to avoidtraffic jams and resultant cooling of mixes.The planner must also consider the potentialenvironmental problems, including dust gen-erated by the plant and potential soil pol-lution from bitumen and fuel spills.

STANDARD ASPHALT TRAVEL PLANTBarber-Greene, Bituminous Construction Handbook, Figure 75.


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PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETEPRODUCTION

Portland cement concrete can be produced,on a small to medium scale, by any Armyengineer battalion and by most of the specialengineer support companies in the activecomponent. Certain engineer units in theArmy Reserve and National Guard establish-ment have the organic equipment and train-ed personnel to install and operate centralmix concrete plants if the project calls forlarge amounts of portland cement concrete.

The production of any portland cementrequires that the proper raw materials beavailable. The concrete requires gravel orcrushed rock as the coarse aggregate, andsand as the fine aggregate. These materialsmust be available in sufficient quantities.The coarse aggregate must be of the propergradation and of a specific size, depending onthe structure that is to be built. The fineaggregate should be well graded and free ofdeleterious material. There must be source offresh and preferably potable water availableat the mixing site. Water is also required atthe construction site for use in curing thefresh concrete. Finally, portland cement must

be provided to the using unit either throughthe military supply chain or through localprocurement in the host nation.

Small and medium scale concrete require-ments can be satisfied by any Army engineerunit with either the 16S concrete mixer or theM919 Concrete Mobile. The 16S mixer can beeasily moved to remote locations; it suppliessmall scale concrete requirements. It is man-power-intensive in operation. Several of the16S mixers can be grouped together to con-struct an efficient concrete central mix plant.

The M919 Concrete Mobile is a self con-tained concrete material transporter andmixing machine. This machine is capable ofproducing high quality, fresh concrete at theconstruction site. It is a one-person operation,as the driver of the vehicle is also the operatorof the mixer. This machine has the capacityto carry materials for 8 cubic yards of concretewhen it is fully loaded. The machine’s ma-neuverability is limited to good roads andfirm ground at the construction site. Scooploaders are generally required to support theM919 at the materials yard.

M919 CONCRETE MOBILE


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Large scale concrete requirements can besatisfied by those reserve engineer unitswhich operate central mix plants. Centralmix plants have the facilities to handle, store,batch, and mix concrete materials. Theindividual materials are accurately propor-tioned, then mixed in a large drum mixer. Theconcrete is deposited in dump trucks andmoved to the job site. Central mix plants arecapable of producing 80 cubic yards of freshconcrete per hour. This type of production

may be desirable on a large project such as anairfield. Central mix plant operations requirethe support of scoop loaders, cranes withclamshell attachments, and dump trucks.Central mix plants must be located near theconstruction site and near a supply of rawmaterials and water. They must also besituated on firm ground with good drainage,and have plenty of area for vehicular ma-neuver.


Chapter 3AIRFIELDS AND HELIPORTS

A irfields and heliports support the thrust of combat powerand the rapid resupply of friendly forces. Theater airfields

and related facilities must be ready to receive early deployingunits. They are basic to the Air Force missions of counter air, closeair support, and interdiction, and to the integrated doctrine of theAirLand battle. Engineer support to airfields and heliports istherefore a vital mission in the Theater of Operations.

Forces in and deploying to developed theaters can use existingairfields. Opening a contingency Theater of Operations maydemand that new airfields be built or existing airfields expanded.In a short-warning conflict, emergency war damage repair andpriority expedient facility work exceed deployed Air Forcecapability. Thus, extensive Army support is needed. Plannersmust identify critical existing airfields and indicate the need fornew construction and airfield expansion.

Engineer support to airfields covers a wide array of individualengineer tasks. A majority of these tasks may be classified ashorizontal. However, many vertical and utility tasks have beenidentified by the Air Force as requiring immediate Armyrestoration work. Major horizontal tasks associated with airfieldsand heliports closely parallel those required for roads (Chapter 4).Considerations unique to planning and constructing airfieldsand heliports are discussed in this chapter.

CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES 16

TYPES OF AIRFIELDS AND HELIPORTS 18

PLANNING MILITARY AIRFIELDS 19

NEW AIRFIELD AND HELIPORT CONSTRUCTION 21

EXPANSION AND REHABILITATION 24

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF AIRFIELDS AND HELIPORTS 25

AIRFIELDS AND HELIPORTS 15

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CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES

Engineer Combat Heavy Battalions, underthe appropriate Army command, performdesignated Air Force and all Army construc-tion. These battalions may be augmented byCombat Engineer Battalions, an EngineerCombat Support Equipment Company, anEngineer Light Equipment Company, anEngineer Construction Support Company, oran Engineer Pipeline Construction SupportCompany. These units execute large construc-tion projects on a task or area basis, asdictated by the theater plan or other theaterproject directives.

COMMAND RELATIONSHIPSUnits assigned in general support of anArmy or Air Force element may also beassigned in direct support of that element foremergency rehabilitation. When units areexecuting either general or direct supportmissions, they remain under Army commandand operational control. Units executingemergency rehabilitation (direct support)plans, receive and accept detailed opera-tional requirements from the supported com-mander, either Army or Air Force.

SUPPORT TO THE AIR FORCECurrent joint-service regulations have es-tablished policies, responsibilities, and pro-cedures for Army construction support to theAir Force. The duties of each service are listedbelow.

The Army provides troop construction support to Air Force-controlled airfields as fol-lows:

Ž Develops engineering design criteria,standard plans, and material to meet AirForce requirements.

Ž Performs reconnaissance, survey, design,construction, or improvement of airfields,roads, utilities, and structures.

Ž Repairs Air Force bases and facilitiesbeyond the immediate emergency recoveryrequirements of the Air Force (permanentrepair).

Ž Supplies construction materials andequipment.

Ž Assists in emergency repair of war-damaged air bases.

Ž Assist in providing expedient facilities(force beddown).

Ž Manages war damage repair and basedevelopment; supervises Army personnel.The Air Force base commander setspriorities.

Ž Performs emergency and permanent repairof war damage to forward tactical airliftsupport facilities.

The Air Force provides troop engineer supportas follows:

Ž Performs primary emergency repair of wardamage to air bases (rapid runway repair(RRR) and repair of other critical operatingfacilities), with Primary Base EmergencyEngineer Force (Prime Beef) Teams.

Constructs expedient facilities for AirForce units and weapon systems. Thisexcludes responsibility for Army basedevelopment.

Ž Operates and maintains Air Force facili-ties. Air Force engineer units (Red HorseTeams) perform maintenance tasks.

Ž Provides crash rescue and fire suppression.

Ž Manages emergency repair of war damageand force beddown construction.

Ž Supplies material and equipment for itsown engineering mission.

•

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ENGINEER SUPPORT TO AIR FORCE BASES


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TYPES OF AIRFIELDS AND HELIPORTS

Within the Theater of Operations, airfieldsand heliports are classified by both area andmission. For each area and mission there areessential, or controlling aircraft, either fixed-wing and/or rotary-wing. The controllingaircraft, or aircraft combination, is identifiedfor each kind of facility in order to establishlimiting airfield and/or heliport geometricand surface strength requirements.

AREA CLASSIFICATIONThe area classification identifies the theatersector and the military control under whichthe airfield is to operate. The four areas are—

1. Battle Area—Sector of the AirLand battle-field normally under military control of abrigade;

2. Forward Area—Sector of the Theater ofOperations immediately behind the battlearea and normally under military controlof a brigade or division;

3. Support Area—Sector of the Theater ofOperations behind the forward area, nor-mally within the Corps rear or areas undermilitary control of the fighter air securitycommand;

4. Rear Area—Sector of the Theater of Opera-tions behind the support area, normallythe COMMZ, under command of theTheater Army commander.

MISSION CLASSIFICATIONThe mission classification identifies theaircraft and aircraft combinations that usean airfield according to the kinds of missionsassigned to the field. The missions and theirassociated aircraft combinations are identi-fied separately for fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.

Fixed-wing aircraftFor the purpose of this manual, aircraft areclassified in six mission categories whichinclude all fixed-wing aircraft in the currentmilitary inventory. A controlling aircraft orcombination of controlling aircraft has beendesignated for each category to establishlimiting airfield, geometric, and surfacestrength requirements. The mission cate-gories include liaison, surveillance, light andmedium lift, tactical, and heavy lift. Theaircraft or aircraft combinations that performthe missions and their requirements are shownon Table 3.

Rotary-wing aircraftFour helicopters have been designated ascontrolling helicopters to establish thelimiting geometric and surface strengthrequirements given in this manual. Thesehelicopters are—

Ž Observation (light) helicopter (OH-58);

Ž Utility helicopter (UH-60);

Ž Cargo helicopter (CH-47);

Ž Attack helicopter (AH-1G).

The airfield classification systemAn airfield classification system has beendeveloped in TM 5-330. The system covers allknown air missions for fixed-wing aircraftwithin the theater. Airfield types are derivedby combining the controlling aircraft classi-fication with the appropriate military area.Where airfields are to serve as multimissionfacilities for support of all classes of Army orAir Force aircraft, the first term in the airfieldtype designation becomes Army or Air Forcerather than a controlling aircraft classifica-tion, for example: Army Rear Area. Theheliport classification system developed inTM 5-330 derives classifications by combin-ing the selected helicopters with the ap-propriate military area.


FM 5-104

Table 3. Mission Classification Data for Fixed-Wing Aircraft

Category

Liaison

Surveillance

Light andMedium lift

Tactical

Heavy lift

Aircrafttype

U-21FC-12CC-12DU-21A

C-12CC-12DOV-1D

C-130

F-15C/DF-SFF-16A/BF-4CF-15A/B

B-747C-141B

Surfacestrength

(per squareinch of main

gear)

100956560

956560

105

355318275265260

215180

Geometric (ground run in feet)*aircraft take off Minimum

clearance50 feet

C-12D 2,150 2,850

C-12D

C-130

F-111AA-10F-4CF-16A/BF-15A/BF-5F

C-141B

2,150

3,690

4,6004,0003,5603,2252,5002,110

3,400

2,850

5,410

5,6304,8504,8505,00

3,5003,270

4,050C-5A 7,200 8,600B-747 10,500KC-135A 13,500 18,400

*Other geometric considerations include taxiway, parking apron, overrun; and lateral safety arearequirements. Generally, the larger the aircraft, the greater these other geometric dimensions must be. See TM5-330 for details.

PLANNING MILITARY AIRFIELDS

THEATERWIDE AIRFIELDPLANNING

Most planning factors described Chapter 4for road design are applicable in airfields.The most important factors are discussedbelow.

Military missionTo achieve a proper design, it is essential thatthe engineer planner have a complete under-standing of the purpose, scope, and estimatedduration of the particular air missions. Mis-sions that may be conducted include recon-naissance, cargo transport, or attack.

Site selectionThe engineer planner’s attention must bedirected first toward selecting sites. Theoperational plan establishes tactical and/or

logistical requirements that influence thetype of aircraft and number of aircraftmissions required. With this data in hand,the planner can determine the number, type,service life, and construction time limitationsfor airfields needed in each military area.Within site requirements dictated by thetactical situation, the planner establishesreasonable site requirements for each type ofairfield. The planner chooses geographiclocations on the basis of topographic features(grading, drainage, and hydrology), soil,vegetation, utilities, climatic conditions, andaccessibility of materials. Other site charac-teristics to be studied include weather pat-terns (such as temperature, barometric pres-sure, and wind directions), and flight pathobstacles.


FM 5-104

Construction planningThe planner evaluates all existing transportfacilities to determine the best methods androutes. These include ports, rail lines, roadnets, and other nearby airfields that might beused for assembling and moving constructionequipment and materials to the constructionsite.

The planner evaluates the availability andtype of engineer construction forces to deter-mine if construction capability is sufficient tocarry out the required airfield construction.The planner must weigh the type and avail-ability of local construction materialsagainst overall needs for proposed con-struction. Both naturally occurring materialsand other possible sources for materials forsubgrade strengthening should be examined.Requirements for importing special materialsfor surfacing, drainage, and dust controlmust be feasible for available constructiontime and resources.

Security situationThe planner devises an adequate plan toensure that construction troops can protectthemselves, their equipment, and their ma-terials against harassment and sabotageduring airfield or heliport construction. Re-quirements for additional security forcesshould be evaluated.

Airfield damage repair (ADR)The planner must have knowledge of forcesdedicated to ADR. Depending upon baselocations, local agreements, and the overallmilitary situation, any combination of Army,Air Force, host nation, or contract engineersupport may be possible.

Logistical supportThe Air Force or Army furnishes the neces-sary data to help plan airfields and heliports.The data should include aircraft character-istics, allowance factors and formulas, broaddesign, layout, and construction criteria, and

policy guidance. Information should includedefinitive drawings, specifications, regula-tions, manuals, or other appropriate refer-ences. The services should also submit theirspecific requirements in broad engineeringterms together with general site and ultimatedevelopment plans. Army engineer units areusually responsible for site reconnaissanceand recommendations, survey, pavementdesign, layout adaptation, and construction.Logistical support is prescribed by ArmyRegulation (AR) 415-30/Air Force Regulation(AFR) 93-10. Engineering and logistic datafor Air Force base planning can be found inAir Force Manual (AFM) 86-3, Volume I.

INDIVIDUALAIRFIELD/HELIPORT DESIGN

The engineer commander is responsible forsite reconnaissance and recommendations,design of the airfield/heliport, and the actualconstruction of the individual airfield. Theengineer is normally given standard designsfor the type and capacity of the airfield.However, the planner must frequently alterthese designs to meet time and materiallimitations or the limitations imposed bylocal topography, area, or obstruction char-acteristics. The engineer in charge of con-struction may alter designs within the lim-itations prescribed by headquarters but mustobtain approval for major changes fromheadquarters before the work starts.

The engineer commander will need to solvethe following engineering problems in car-rying out most airfield assignments:

Ž Design a drainage system structure.

Ž Design runways, taxiways, and hard-stands.

Ž Select/dispose of soils encountered in cuts.Determine their usefulness for improvingsubgrade.


FM 5-104

Ž Choose a method or methods for stabilizing Ž Select the grade for a minimum of earth-the subgrade. work within specification limits.

Ž Decide upon the type and thickness of the Ž Design related facilities, including accessbase course. and service roads, ammunition and POL

s t o r a g e a r e a s , n a v i g a t i o n a i d sŽ Decide upon the type and thickness of the (NAVAIDS), maintenance aprons, warm-

surface course. up aprons, corrosion control facilities,control towers, airfield lighting, and otherfacilities.

NEW AIRFIELD AND HELIPORT CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION GUIDANCEA completed air base is a complex construc-tion project. However, careful planning and astrict focus on essentials can result in afacility that will support air operations soonafter construction begins. Subsequent im-provements can be made during use. Ifconstruction is guided by an ultimate plan,staged completion of each structure can bedesigned to serve both expedient operationand the final design of the facility.

Preplanned layouts for each type of field arebased on the assumption that previouslyunoccupied sites will be chosen. However, thelayouts have been so coordinated that, withinterrain limitations, it is practicable to developa larger field from a smaller one with minimalconstruction effort. Existing airfields can beused if they meet minimum requirements orcan economically be developed to meet re-quirements.

The construction combination to be followedin any single construction program is gener-ally established by the theater commander. Itis best to complete an air base to its ultimatedesign in a single construction program.Often, however, it is necessary to initiallydesign a lower construction combination toget the base into operation within availabletime and construction support. In such cases,every effort must be made to proceed to the

ultimate combination designed for the air-field. Repeated modification of a facility planis to be avoided.

AIRFIELD FACILITIESA fully completed airfield includes the fol-lowing types of facilities:

Ž Airfield-Runways, taxiways, hardstands,aprons, and other pavements, shoulders,overrun, approach zones, NAVAIDS, air-field marking and lighting.

Ž Sanitary facilities—Kitchens, diningareas, showers, latrines.

Ž Direct Operational Support Facilities—Ammunition, storage and distribution ofaviation fuels and lubricants.

Ž Maintenance, Operations, and Supply—Aircraft maintenance, base shops, opera-tions buildings, base communications,photo labs, fire stations, weather facilities,general storage, medical facilities.

Ž Indirect Operational Support Facilities—Roads and exterior utilities, such as watersupply and electric power.

Ž Administration—Headquarters, personne]services, recreation, welfare facilities.

Ž General housing and troop quarters.


FM 5-104

Construction prioritiesThe first goal in building a theater airfield isto achieve operational status. Therefore,construction is designed to support air trafficas soon as possible. The order for constructionproceeds according to the priorities describedbelow.

First priority. Provide the facilities mostessential for air operations as soon as pos-sible. Build airfield operational facilities,such as runways, taxiways, approaches, andaircraft parking areas of minimum dimen-sions. Provide minimum storage for bombs,ammunition, and aviation fuel. Provide es-sential sanitary, electric, and water facilities.

Second priority. Increase the capacity,safety, and efficiency of all air base opera-tions. Provide indirect support operationalfacilities. Construct access and service roadsand essential operational, maintenance, andsupply buildings.

Third priority. Improve operational facil-ities. Provide facilities for administrationand special housing.

Fourth priority. Provide general housing.

Staged constructionConstruction stages establish a sequence forconstructing an airfield. These stages providefor building the airfield in parts, so thatminimum operational facilities may bec o n s t r u c t e d i n m i n i m u m t i m e . F o rexample, a first-priority task may bereduced to stages as follows:

Ž In stage I, a loop that permits landing,takeoff, circulation, and limited apronparking is built. Runway lengths andwidths are the minimum required forcritical aircraft.

Ž Stage II provides a new runway. The stageI runway now becomes a taxiway, and

aprons, hardstands, and additional taxi-ways are built.

Ž In stage III, facilities are further expand-ed, and accommodation for more aircraftis added, if necessary. Expedient surfacingis standard for all airfields. When anexisting surface in the rear area is notadequate for all-weather- operations insupport of heavy transport aircraft or highperformance fighter aircraft, an appropri-ate pavement structure is designed andconstructed.

SITE PREPARATIONReconnaissance

Airfield reconnaissance differs from roadlocation reconnaissance (FM 5-36), in thatmore comprehensive information is needed.An airfield project involves more man-hours,machine-hours, and material than most roadprojects. Air traffic also imposes stricterrequirements on traffic facilities than doesvehicular traffic. Consequently, the siteselected has to be the best available. Tech-nical Manual 5-330 details reconnaissanceplanning for airfields and heliports.

SitingWhen new construction is undertaken, theplanner and the reconnaissance team mustchoose a site with soil characteristics thatmeet strength and stability requirements, ora site that requires minimum constructioneffort to attain those standards.

Airfields present more drainage problemsthan roads. Their wide, paved areas demandthat water be diverted completely around thefield, or that long drainage structures bebuilt. Sites at the low point of valleys or otherdepressed areas should be avoided becausethey tend to be focal points for water col-lection. As in road construction, subsurfacewater should be avoided. A desirable airfieldsite lies across a long, gentle slope, because it


FM 5-104

is relatively easy to divert water around thefinished installation.

To accommodate missions efficiently, air-fields require large areas of relatively flatland. Advance location and layout avoidscramping facilities. To obtain the requiredarea, the airfield may have to be spread overa large section. This may call for a complexnetwork of taxiways and service roads.Runways should be aligned in the directionof the prevailing wind.

The safe operation of fixed- or rotary-wingaircraft requires that all obstacles aboveelevations specified by design criteria beremoved. These criteria vary according to theoperating characteristics of the aircraft thatuse the airfield. For example, most heliportsrequire an approach zone with a 10:1 glideangle, whereas heavy cargo aircraft in therear area require a glide angle as flat as 50:1.To achieve the right glide angle, it is oftennecessary to remove hills and do majorearthwork on distant approaches to theairfield proper. The reconnaissance teamshould avoid locations that need extensiveearthwork to achieve the necessary glideangle. Clearances are also required along thesides of runways. An area of specified widthmust be cleared of all obstacles and gradedaccording to specification.

SurveysExcept for staking requirements, the tech-niques and principles for conducting airfieldand heliport construction surveys are iden-tical to those for roads. Technical Manuals5-232 and 5-233 discuss these principles andtechniques of field surveying in detail.

HORIZONTAL STRUCTURESEarthwork

An accurate estimate of earthwork volume isessential to proper control and management

of a horizontal construction project. Severalacceptable methods are described in TM5-330. Following mass diagram constructionand analysis, equipment is scheduled andproject durations are determined. Analysis ofthe mass diagram will also determine haulroutes, location of equipment work zones,and areas for waste and borrow sites.

Earthwork is conducted as described earlierfor road construction, except that projectwidth permits more balancing perpendicularto the airfield’s centerline. Earthworkbalancing may also occur between adjacentprojects (runway and taxiway, for example).

DrainageDuring-construction and permanent drain-age structures are essential to the successfulcompletion of an airfield or heliport. Planningconsiderations are similar to those used forroad construction. Detailed discussion ofdrainage design, construction, and main-tenance is contained in TM 5-330 and TM5-820-3.

SurfacingThe decision to pave an airfield or heliport inthe Theater of Operations is based upon theurgency that the airfield be completed, thetactical situation, the amount and type oftraffic expected, the soil-bearing charac-teristics, the climate, and the availability ofnew materials and equipment. Surfacingmust meet the allowable roughness criteriafor each type of aircraft that will use thefacility. Specific information on pavementdesign is contained in TM 5-330 and TM5-337.

Soil stabilizationSoil stabilization operations improvestrength, control dust, and render surfaceswaterproof. The process is discussed inChapter 4, and in further detail in TM 5-330.


FM 5-104

SUPPORT FACILITIESDesign

Maximum use must be made of existingfacilities. However, airfields and heliportsmay need extensive support facility con-struction. The Army Facilities ComponentsSystem (AFCS) provides estimates of ma-terial, man-hours of construction effort, andmaterial cost estimates (TM 5-301) for stan-dard types of facilities. Plans for most facil-ities that support airfield operations can befound in TM 5-302.

StandardsStandards for construction in the Theater ofOperations are based upon expected durationof use. Facilities are classified as initial (0 to 6months), and temporary (6 to 24 months).The theater commander normally dictateswhich standard will be adopted, considering

the expected duration of use and the avail-ability of labor and construction materials.Standards of construction and design appearin the AFCS. Often AFCS-recommendedconstruction materials are not available, andlocally procured substitutes must governconstruction standards and design.

Survivability enhancementSeveral kinds of fortifications are availableto enhance aircraft survivability. TechnicalManual 5-330 provides information to help inselecting designs, constructing, and main-taining fortifications. Their purpose is toprotect parked aircraft from hostile groundfire and the associated damage effects ofexploding fuel and ammunition. FieldManual 5-103 discusses revetment construc-tion.

EXPANSION AND REHABILITATION

Whenever possible, existing facilities mustbe used. The wartime missions of theaterengineer troops are so extensive and thedemand for their services is so great that newconstruction should be avoided. Facility usemust be coordinated with host nation author-ities, because existing airfields, particularlyin the rear area, are needed by host nation airforces and for commercial purposes.

Military operations may require that friendlyor captured enemy airfields be modified,expanded, or rehabilitated. Expansion andrehabilitation must always be consideredover new construction, since there is generallya substantial savings in time, effort, andmaterials.

Except in highly developed areas, existingairfields are seldom adequate to handlemodern, high-performance aircraft. However,some airfields may be made adequate with

only minimal effort. They may also serve asthe nucleus for larger fields that meet thespecifications of high-performance aircraft.Helicopters and light planes can often operatefrom existing roads, pastures, and athleticfields.

When the decision to use an existing facilityhas been made, a reconnaissance is conductedby representatives of the anticipated usersand by Army and/or Air Force engineers.They use principles outlined in Chapter 4 forroad reconnaissance. Support facilities areconverted to standards dictated by the theaterconstruction policy. Imaginative use ofexisting facilities is preferable to new con-struction. Ground reconnaissance of an air-field previously occupied by enemy forcesmust be cautious,booby trapped ornance (UXO).

since facilities may beharbor unexploded ord-


FM 5-104

Priorities for expanding and/or rehabilita- material requirements for expanding or re-ting an existing airfield generally parallel habilitating airfields are usually similar tothose for new airfield or heliport construction. requirements for new construction and air-Procedures, personnel, and construction field damage repair.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF AIRFIELDS AND HELIPORTS

EXPECTED DAMAGE hinder repair efforts. Airfields are likely to beRecent Threat analysis indicates that air- targeted for repeated interdiction attacks.fields will be subjected to damage by an Pavement damage categories established byincreasingly capable and complex array of the USAF are shown. The damage categorydestructive weapons, including cannon fire, for a given munition depends on the deliveryrocket fire, small bombs, bomblets, and large method and extent of penetration as well asbombs. Scatterable mines and UXO may charge size.

PAVEMENT DAMAGE CATEGORIES


FM 5-104

REPAIRSThe airfield commander prioritizes essentialairfield damage repair (ADR) missions,usually in this order:

Ž Reconnaissance/damage assessment;

Ž Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD);

Ž Rapid Runway Repair;

Ž Collateral damage repair to operationalfacilities, communication systems, am-munition storage facilities, essential main-tenance facilities, fuel storage and dis-tribution, utilities, on and off base accessroutes.

Runway and taxiway repairsEmergency repairs are conducted as part ofRRR to provide a temporary fix. This allowsthe earliest possible resumption of air mis-sions. The service that is responsible for theairfield determines the Minimum OperatingStrip (MOS) and performs crater and surfacerepairs. All UXO, including remotely de-livered mines, must be cleared from the MOSbefore surface repair starts. Innovations inhardening common construction equipmentnow give additional protection to engineersperforming rapid removal of small UXO fromthe MOS. Such hardening also protectsoperators and equipment during subsequentattacks.

Rapid repair can be achieved with poly-urethane- and polyester-reinforced fiber glassmats. These form a protective cover overcrushed stone, and show promise as a sub-stitute for more cumbersome metal airfieldmatting. Research continues in the use of

polyurethane concrete, which offers a rapidmethod of providing a semipermanent pave-ment repair.

Permanent pavement repairs are performedby Army engineer teams, primarily fromEngineer Combat Heavy Battalions. Theairfield commander directs the priorityof pavement repair effort, allowing perma-nent repair to begin as soon as the tacticalsituation, available equipment, and laborpermit. Pavements outside the MOS, includ-ing taxiways, usually have a lower repairpriority. Deliberately marking and/or clear-ing UXO must be done before permanentrepairs. Usually, EOD personnel are avail-able for clearing operations, but engineersmay have to perform this task under somecircumstances.

Techniques and criteria for maintaining andrepairing surface areas is provided in TM5-624. Office of the Chief of Engineers (OCE)reference documents listed at the end of thismanual address repair of bomb craterdamage.

Support facilitiesArmy engineers are responsible for helpingAir Force Prime Beef teams to repair criticalair-base support facilities, when such repairsexceed the Air Force’s capability. Normallythe Air Force performs emergency repairs,while army engineers perform semiper-manent and permanent repairs. Methods forrepairing collateral damage are much thesame as ordinary engineer construction tech-niques, and are within the capability of theEngineer Combat Heavy Battalions.


Chapter 4ROADS

A n adequate road network is needed to transport troops,equipment, and supplies in support of the combined arms

team in the Theater of Operations. Depending upon the mission,situation, and terrain, the road system usually carries most ofthese assets. Responsibility for road construction and mainte-nance within the theater rests almost wholly with the Army.While no engineer unit is designed solely for road constructionand maintenance, many engineer elements in the theater areactively engaged in this task.

ROAD NET REQUIREMENTS 28

EXISTING ROUTES 29

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 30

NEW ROAD CONSTRUCTION 32

ROADS 27

FM 5-104

ROAD NET REQUIREMENTS

TYPES OF ROADSRoads in the Theater of Operations are clas-sified according to their location, traffic-ability, and degree of permanence. Militaryroads are rarely constructed to meet theexacting requirements of civilian construc-tion. Standards vary—combat trails androads in the Forward Combat Zone (FCZ)(FM 5-101) may be hastily-cut pathwaysdesigned only to enhance mobility for a shorttime. More permanent networks—MainSupply Routes (MSRs) and Lines of Com-munication (LOCs)—are designed and builtto higher standards. This manual addressesmore permanent road construction andmaintenance.

Sound engineering logic and the urgencies ofthe military situation dictate that existingroads be used whenever possible. Exceptionsinclude the construction of roads in supportof United States Marine Corps (USMC)amphibious operations and road mainte-nance on installations or bases of otherservices. Where suitable networks do notexist, roads are upgraded or constructed tothe following specifications.

Temporary roadsTemporary roads are designed with a lifespan of up to 2 years. Frost design is omitted.Roads within the Theater of Operations arenear ly a l l constructed to temporarystandards.

Permanent roadsPermanent roads are designed for greaterthan 2 but less than 20 years of use. Frostdesign is incorporated.

SubclassificationWithin temporary and permanent specifica-tions, roads are subclassified as type A, B, orC according to the amount of traffic plannedper day. Type A roads are designed for thehighest capacity, while type C roads areplanned for the lowest.

CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIESEngineer elements, under the appropriateArmy command, have the following respon-sibilities:

Ž Road and bridge reconnaissance.

Ž Recommendations for traffic circulationas it pertains to terrain and constructionconsiderations.

Ž Maintenance, repair, improvement, andconstruction of roads and bridges.

Ž Topographic support (FM 5-105).

ROAD PLANNINGThe following factors must be considered inall Theater of Operations road planningdesign:

LocationRoute location is dictated by military neces-sity. Where possible, however, use existingroads to avoid unnecessary construction.

SimplicityUse simple designs that require a minimumof skilled labor and specialized equipment.Use available materials.

Economy of timeSpeed is critical to road construction in theTheater of Operations. The nearer the re-quired road is to the forward area, the morevital it becomes. Save valuable time—usemanpower, equipment, materials, and facil-ities efficiently.

Economy of materialsConserve materials, especially those shippedfrom outside the Theater of Operations. Uselocal materials wherever possible.

Planning and managementUse effective job management. Good plan-ning, careful scheduling, and thorough super-vision speed job completion and save time,

28 ROADS

FM 5-104

labor, equipment, and materials. Whereverpossible, use staged construction to allow theearly use of roadways while further con-struction and improvement continue.

TerrainStudy slopes, drainage, vegetation, characterof soil, likelihood of floods, and other con-ditions that may affect construction andlayout. Avoid dense brush, timberland, androlling terrain that require heavy clearing orgrading.

EXISTING ROUTES

RECONNAISSANCEConduct route reconnaissance to evaluatethe traffic-bearing capabilities of previously-constructed roads. Results support routeselection decisions designed to facilitate unitand logistical movement within the theater.Reconnaissance also determines improve-ments needed before a route can carryproposed traffic.

TypesRoute reconnaissance is classified as eitherhasty or deliberate. Hasty route reconnais-sance determines the immediate militarytrafficability of a specified route. It is limitedto critical terrain data necessary for routeclassification. The results are presented asan overlay supplemented by such additionalreports as are required by the situation andthe commander’s guidance. A deliberate routereconnaissance is conducted when sufficienttime and qualified personnel are available.Deliberate route reconnaissance is usuallyconducted when the situation demands pro-tracted use of an MSR. An overlay is madewith enclosures that describe all pertinentterrain features in detail. These documentsform a permanent record which is retained atthe engineer unit tasked to perform thereconnaissance. Pertinent information isforwarded to the corps and theater transpor-tation offices to be used in transportationplanning. The data may also be used tomanufacture special overprinted route mapswith the assistance of engineer topographicunits.

Information soughtThe engineer reconnaissance team is briefedas to the anticipated traffic (wheeled, tracked,or a combination) and the anticipated trafficflow. Single flow traffic allows a column ofvehicles to proceed while individual on-coming or overtaking vehicles pass at pre-determined points. Double flow traffic allowstwo columns of vehicles to proceed simul-taneously in the same or in opposite directions(see FM 5-36). The reconnaissance team mayalso be asked to determine the road name ordesignation, the location of the road by mapgrid reference, and the nature and location ofobstructions.

Obstructions are defined as anything thatreduces the road classification below thatrequired to handle proposed traffic efficiently.Obstructions include—

Ž

Ž

Ž

Ž

Ž

Restricted lateral clearance, includingtraveled way width such as bridges, built-up areas, rock falls or slide areas, tunnels,and wooded areas.

Restricted overhead clearance, includingoverpasses, bridges, tunnels, wooded areas,built-up areas.

Sharp curves.

Excessive gradients.

Poor drainage.

ROADS 29

FM 5-104

Ž

Ž

Ž

Ž

Snow blockage.

Unstable foundation.

Rough surface conditions.

Reinforcing obstacles, including NBC con-tamination, road blocks, craters, andminefield.

Existing bridging may require special atten-tion, as it is often a weak link. It may benecessary to conduct a bridge reconnaissanceand classification computations (see Chapter5 of this manual).

UPGRADING EXISTING ROADSUpgrading an existing road, combined withroutine maintenance and repair, usuallyinvolves reducing or eliminating obstructionslisted above. It is the preferred method ofimproving the trafficability of a selectedroute. Techniques, equipment, and materialsneeded for upgrading are the same as thoserequired for new road construction.

A changing tactical situation and unpre-dictable military operations may also requirethat engineer troops modify and expandcompleted construction. The location of aroad should allow for potential expansion.Expanding an existing route or facilityconserves manpower and material and per-mits speedier completion of a usable roadway.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Road maintenance is the routine preventionand correction of damage and deteriorationcaused by normal use and exposure to theelements. Repair restores damage caused byabnormal use, accidents, hostile forces, andsevere environmental actions. Rehabilitationrestores roads that have not been in thehands of friendly forces and do not meettheater requirements.

ROUTINE MAINTENANCEAND REPAIR

Routine maintenance and repair operationsinclude inspection and supervision, stock-piling materials for maintenance and repairwork, maintenance and repair of road sur-faces and drainage systems, dust and mudcontrol, and snow and ice removal. The mainpurpose of maintenance and repair work is tokeep road surfaces in usable and safe condi-tion. It also increases route capacity andreduces vehicle maintenance requirements.Effective maintenance begins with acommand-wide emphasis stressing gooddriving practices to reduce unnecessary

damage. Once damage has occurred, promptrepair is vital. After deterioration or destruc-tion of the road surface begins, rapid degener-ation may follow. A minor maintenance jobpostponed becomes a major repair effortinvolving reconstruction of the subgrade,base course, and roadway surface. The fol-lowing principles should be observed inconducting sound road maintenance andrepair.

Minimize interference with trafficIn order to keep surfaces usable, maintenanceand repair activities should interfere as littleas possible with the normal flow of traffic. Atemporary bypass may be required.

Correct basic cause of surface failureEffort spent to make surface repairs on adefective subgrade are wasted. Any mainte-nance or repair job should include an investi-gation to find the cause of the damage ordeterioration. That cause must be remediedbefore the repair is made. To ignore the causeof the damage is to invite prompt reappear-ance of the damage.

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FM 5-104

Reconstruct uniform surfaceMaintenance and repair of existing surfacesshould conform as closely as possible to theoriginal construction in strength and texture.Simplify maintenance by retaining uni-formity. Spot strengthening often createsdifferences in wear and traffic impact whichare harmful to the adjoining surfaces.

Assign prioritiesPriority in making repairs depends on thetactical requirements, the traffic volume, andthe hazards that would result from completefailure of the facility.

MAINTENANCE INSPECTIONSThe purpose of maintenance inspections is todetect early evidence of defects before actualfailure occurs. Frequent inspections andeffective follow-up procedures prevent minordefects from becoming serious and causingmajor repair jobs. Special vigilance must beexercised during rainy seasons and springthaws, and after every heavy storm.

MAINTENANCE ANDREPAIR MATERIALS

The materials required in road maintenanceand repair are the same as those used in newconstruction. Maintenance groups must openpits and build stockpiles of sand and gravel,base materials, and premixed cold patchingmaterial. Place materials in convenientlocations and in sufficient quantities foremergency maintenance and repair. Arrangestockpiles for quick loading and transpor-tation to key routes.

MAINTENANCE ANDREPAIR ORGANIZATION

In forward areas, extensive repairs are oftenneeded to make roads usable. Advance engi-neer combat units usually do this work. Underthe pressure of combat conditions, repairs aresometimes temporary and hurriedly madewith the most readily available materials.Such repairs are intended only to meetimmediate minimum needs. As advance units

move forward, other engineer units take overadditional repair and maintenance. Earlyexpedient repairs are supplemented or re-placed by more permanent work. Surfacesare brought to a standard that will withstandthe required use. Maintenance becomes amatter of routine.

Engineer units establish a patrol system tocover the road net for which the unit isresponsible. It is desirable to retain unitintegrity by using squads as patrols. Eachsquad is commanded by its squad leader anduses its organic hand tools and equipment.The squad is augmented with equipmentfrom the company equipment section orbattalion equipment platoon. Each patrol isassigned to a specific area. As many patrolsas needed are organized to cover the totalarea of responsibility. The traffic level andthe limited durability of a road sometimesmake it necessary to put the maintenancefunction on a 24-hour-a-day basis in forwardor heavy traffic areas. A squad-sized patrolequipped with a dump truck, motor grader,and hand tools can usually carry out allmaintenance and minor repairs normallyencountered on a 5- to 15-mile stretch of road.Squad size can be increased or decreased, andmore or fewer miles can be assigned to apatrol as the situation dictates.

WINTER MAINTENANCEIn the Theater of Operations, winter weathermay present special maintenance problems.Regions of heavy snowfall require specialequipment and material to keep pavementsand other traffic areas open. Low tempera-tures cause icing on pavements and frosteffects on subgrade structures. Alternatefreezing and thawing may cause damage tosurfaces and block drainage systems withice. Spring thaws may cause both surfaceand subgrade failures and may damagebridging. Winter maintenance consistschiefly of removing snow and ice, sanding icysurfaces, erecting and maintaining snow

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fences, and keeping drainage systems free units. Engineer and nonengineer patrolsfrom obstruction. Each command should must be established to monitor snow and icepublish a comprehensive snow- and ice- conditions within the area of operations.control plan that clearly specifies the Available snow- and ice-control equipmentresponsibilities of engineer and nonengineer and supplies must be allocated to support the

plan.

NEW ROAD CONSTRUCTION

ROUTE RECONNAISSANCEEngineer reconnaissance efforts can beclassified by their extent or their compre-hensiveness. In extent, reconnaissance maybe classified as either area or specific recon-naissance. Area reconnaissance is a searchconducted over a wide area to find a generalsite suitable for construction. Specific recon-naissance is investigation of a particular siteor an undeveloped but potential route.

New route reconnaissance may be classifiedeither as hasty or deliberate. The way inwhich reconnaissances are performed de-pends upon the amount of detail required, thetime available, the terrain problems encoun-tered, and the tactical situation.

Reconnaissance involves the following steps.

PlanningPlanning includes coordination of recon-naissance effort by appropriate headquarters,prediction of needs, and assignment of adefinite reconnaissance mission.

BriefingIn a briefing, the reconnaissance party is toldwhat site or area to reconnoiter, what isalready known, and what information theparty is expected to obtain. Pertinent detailsconcerning the times or methods of reportingresults are included in the briefing.

Preliminary studyThe initial job of the reconnaissance party isto conduct this study. The party reviews

information obtained during the briefing,conducts a map reconnaissance of the site orarea, studies air photos, delineates soilboundaries, assembles any other availableinformation, and plans and prepares for theactual reconnaissance.

The reconnaissance team may request thefollowing sources of information in planningreconnaissance missions and in making thepreliminary study of a specific mission:

Ž Existing intelligence dossiers; Army andAir Force periodic intelligence reports.

Ž Strategic and technical reports, studies,and summaries.

Ž Road, topographic, soil, vegetation, andgeologic maps.

Ž Existing aerial reconnaissance reports; airphotos.

Air reconnaissanceAn air reconnaissance includes a generalstudy of the topography, drainage pattern,and vegetation. Construction problems,camouflage possibilities, and access routesshould be identified. Usually, specific groundreconnaissance procedure is planned byselecting, from the air, the areas to investigateand the questions to be answered. Air recon-naissance can be used to eliminate unsuitablesites, but cannot be relied on for site selection.Aerial photography greatly enhances theusefulness of this method of reconnaissance.

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Ground reconnaissanceWhile air reconnaissance can effectivelyminimize needed ground reconnaissance, itcannot replace ground reconnaissance. It ison the ground that most questions areanswered, or that most observations ten-tatively made from the air are verified. Often,ground and air reconnaissance are not asdistinct as they would seem from this dis-cussion. A continuing air reconnaissancemay be interspersed with specific groundreconnaissances.

ReportingThe importance of prompt, accurate, andcomplete reports cannot be overempha-sized.

SITE SELECTIONSelect the most favorable trace for the routeto follow. Future problems can be avoided bycareful reconnaissance and wise considera-tion of future tactical, strategic, and post-hostilities needs. A project that is not welllaid out may not meet the requirements forconstruction ease and efficiency, maintain-ability, usability, capacity, and convenience.

Wherever possible, use existing facilities. Inmost areas, an extensive road networkalready exists. With expansion and rehabili-tation of the roadway and preparation ofadequate surfaces, this network can carryrequired traffic loads.

Where new construction must be undertaken,the roadbed should be aligned to take ad-vantage of the most favorable surface andsubsurface terrain. An alignment over soilwith good properties meets the design stan-dards for strength and stability and minimizesthe need to remove undesirable materials.

DrainageDrainage patterns are also important in siteselection. When the tactical situation permits,roads should be located on ridgelines. Thus,

natural drainage features minimize the needfor costly and time-consuming constructionof drainage structures. Whenever possible,avoid subsurface water. If it is impossible toavoid road construction in saturated terrain,water tables must be lowered during con-struction. Steps must also be taken to min-imize water’s adverse effect on the strengthof the supporting subgrade and base course.

EarthmovingEarthmoving operations are the largestsingle work item on any project involving theconstruction of LOCs. Any step that can betaken to avoid excessive earthwork willincrease job efficiency. Since all roads are aseries of grades that seldom appear in nature,it is inevitable that some earthwork must bedone. However, the amount to be done shouldbe minimized by properly locating the route.

The engineer should take advantage of allprevailing grades that fall within the requiredspecifications. Avoid excessive grades. By-pass steep hills whenever possible. If theroute must negotiate excessively steep hills,it should run along the side of the hill. Thismay result in a longer route, but will prove tobe more efficient in terms of earthwork andtrafficability. Following contour lines onhillsides or ridgelines also avoids excessivegrades and drainage construction.

It is important to make a careful analysis ofthe geology and ground cover within theproposed area of construction. Avoid woodedareas, extremely rocky soils, or undesirablehumus, unnecessary clearing, and earthwork.

If possible, balance all necessary earthwork.When there is need for both cutting andfilling at various points along a project, useexcavated material to construct embank-ments. This reduces the need for earthhandling. Plan balancing so that it fits thehauling capabilities of available equipment.

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Even though it is desirable to balance earth-work throughout a project, long haulingdistances may make it more practical to opena nearby borrow pit to obtain fill material orto establish spoil areas to dispose of excesssoil. Obviously, balancing cannot be donewhere excavated material cannot be used forembankment.

ObstaclesWhere possible, avoid obstacles such asrivers, ravines, and canals in order to min-imize the need for bridge construction or forother similar structures. Such construction istime-consuming and calls for materials thatmay be in short supply. Make maximum useof existing structures to decrease total workrequirements. Do not bridge an obstacle morethan once. See Chapter 5 for further dis-cussion of LOC bridging.

Curves and gradesTraffic flow over roads is far more efficient ifcurves and grades are held to a minimum.Even gentle curves significantly decreasetraffic capacity if there are too many on aroute. Therefore, lay out all routes with aminimum of curves by making the tangentlines as long as possible. The availability oflong tangents is influenced by terrain. It isalso limited by other principles of efficientlocation, such as minimizing earthwork,avoiding excessive grades, and obtainingdesirable soil characteristics.

MaterialsRoad construction requires many differenttypes of materials. These include aggregatefor concrete and bituminous pavements,timber and steel for bridges, load-bearing soilfor embankments, water for constructionphases, and other supplies. If possible, roadsshould be located near construction mate-rials. The basic construction usually strainsthe hauling capability of the unit, and readilyavailable construction materials ease thestrain.

SURVEYSWhen a general route has been selected fornew construction, a construction survey isinitiated. In this survey, the team obtainsdata for all phases of construction activity.This survey includes reconnaissance, prelim-inary, final location, and construction layoutsurveys.

Reconnaissance surveyThis survey provides a basis for selectingfeasible sites or routes and furnishes infor-mation for use in later surveys. Use tech-niques discussed in the sections on recon-naissance and site selection. If a locationcannot be selected on the basis of this survey,it will be chosen in the preliminary survey.

Preliminary surveyThis survey is a detailed study of a locationtentatively selected on the basis of recon-naissance, survey information, and recom-mendations. Surveyors run a traverse alonga proposed route, record the topography, andplot results. Several such surveys may beneeded if reconnaissance shows that morethan one route is feasible. If the best availableroute is not already chosen, it should beselected now.

Final location surveyConduct this survey if time permits. Establishpermanent benchmarks for vertical controland well-marked points for horizontal control.This enables construction elements to ac-curately locate and match specific designlocations with those on site.

Construction-layout surveyThis is the final operation before constructionbegins. In this instrument survey, providealignment, grades, and locations to guideconstruction operations. Make exact place-ment of the centerline; lay out curves; set allremaining stakes, such as slope, grade,shoulder; stake out necessary structures; layout culvert sites; and perform other workrequired to enable construction to begin.

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Carry on with this survey until constructionis complete.

The main purpose of construction surveys isto ease and control construction. The numberof surveys conducted and the extent to whichthey are carried out is largely governed byavailable time, construction standard, andby personnel and material assets. Roads inthe combat zone may be constructed withminimal preplanning and construction con-trol. However, extensive surveys may beconducted for a deliberate project in theCOMMZ. The quality and efficiency of con-struction is strongly related to the numberand extent of surveys and other preplanningactivities.

DRAINAGEAdequate drainage is essential during con-struction of a military road or airfield.Immediately provide adequate drainage forthe site to ensure that all water that mightinterfere with construction operations isremoved. Eliminate construction delays andsubgrade failures due to pending of surfacewater by aggressive, timely development of adrainage system. Include temporary meas-ures such as pumping. During clearing andgrubbing operations, keep existing or naturalwatercourses clear, and fill and compactholes and depressions to grade. Rough crownand grade must be maintained to permitwater from precipitation, sidehill seeps, andsprings to move freely away from worksitesby gravity flow. If water is permitted to pond,the subgrade becomes saturated and failsunder load, earthmoving is impeded, and theneed for equipment maintenance is increased.

SUBGRADE DRAINAGE TO LOWER WATER TABLE

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In permanent peacetime construction, under-ground drains are often used because efficientuse of space and safety practices do notpermit large open ditches, particularly fordisposal of collected runoff. In contrast,Theater of Operations design uses surfaceditching almost exclusively because of limitedpipe supplies and the absence of storm sewersystems to collect runoff.

Design the drainage system to remove surfacewater effectively from operating areas, tointercept and dispose of runoff from adjoiningareas, to intercept and remove detrimentalconditions of the selected design storm, andto minimize the effects of exceptionallyadverse weather conditions.

Consider the proposed use of the road. If it isto be used only for a short time, such as 1 or 2weeks, a detailed drainage design is notjustifiable. However, if improvement orexpansion is anticipated, design drainage sothat future construction does not overloadditches, culverts, and other drainage facil-ities. Drainage problems are greater whenall-weather use occurs than when onlyintermittent use occurs.

Consider the availability of engineer re-sources. Heavy equipment, such as dozers,graders, scrapers, and power shovels, iscommonly used on drainage projects. Butwhere unskilled labor and hand tools arereadily available, much work can be done byhand.

Maintain the drainage system so that itfunctions efficiently. Inspect structures inboth wet and dry weather. Give attention toobstructions, erosion, and failures in thesystem. A complete discussion of drainagedesign, construction, and maintenance iscontained in Chapter 6 of TM 5-330.

CONSTRUCTIONWhen earthwork estimation, equipmentscheduling, and necessary surveys are com-plete, the construction sequence can begin.Prepare the construction site by clearing,grubbing, and stripping. These operationsare usually done with heavy engineer equip-ment. Hand or power felling equipment,explosives, and fire are used when applicable.The factors determining the methods to beused are the acreage to be cleared, the typeand density of vegetation, the terrain’s effecton equipment operation, the availability ofequipment and personnel, and the timeavailable for completion. For best results, usea combination of methods, choosing eachmethod for the operation in which it is mosteffective.

Conduct cut and fill operations when clear-ing, grubbing, and stripping are finished.Cut and fill operations are the biggest part ofthe earthwork in road construction. The goalof cut and fill work is to bring the routeelevation to design specifications. Through-out the fill operation, compact the soil inlayers (lifts).

Achieve compaction with self-propelled ortowed rollers. The end product is a structurethat minimizes settlement, increases shear-ing resistance, reduces seepage, and mini-mizes volume change. The advantages thataccompany soil compaction make this pro-cess standard procedure for constructingembankments, subgrades, and bases for roadand airfield pavements.

Cut and fill and compaction efforts areintended to achieve the final grade. Thisalignment takes into consideration super-elevation along curves to ensure load stabil-ity, and falls within the grade specificationsrequired for the military road. When finalgrade is achieved, cut ditching to controldrainage runoff and crown the road along itscenterline. The road is now ready for sur-facing.

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PAVINGDecision makers consider paving a road inthe Theater of Operations by taking accountof the urgency of its completion, the tacticalsituation, the expected traffic, the soil bearingcharacteristics, the climate, and the avail-ability of materials and equipment. Pave-ments, including the surface and underlyingcourses, are divided into two broad types—rigid and flexible. The wearing surface ofrigid pavement is made of portland cementconcrete.

All other types of pavements and bases areclassified as flexible. Flexible pavements areused almost exclusively in the Theater ofOperations. They are adaptable to almostany situation and fall within the constructioncapabilities of normal engineer troop units.Rigid pavements are not usually suited toTheater of Operations construction require-ments.

Because flexible pavements reflect distortionand displacement from the subgrade upwardto the surface course, their design must bebased on complete and thorough investiga-tions of subgrade conditions, borrow areas,and sources of select materials, subbase, andbase materials. Specific information onpavement design is contained in TM 5-330and 5-337.

SOIL STABILIZATIONThe goals of soil stabilization are strengthimprovement, dust control, and soil water-proofing. Strength improvement increasesthe load-carrying ability of the road. Dustcontrol alleviates or eliminates dust gener-ated by vehicle and aircraft operation. Soilwaterproofing maintains the natural or con-structed strength of a soil by preventingwater from entering it. Stabilization is gen-erally accomplished by either mechanical orchemical methods.

In mechanical stabilization, soils are blended,then compacted. In chemical stabilization,soil particles are bonded to form a morestable mass. Additives such as lime, bitumen,or portland cement are used.

Dust control and soil waterproofing can becarried out by applying treatment materialsin a spray (soil penetrants), a mix (admix), orby laying aggregate, membrane, or mesh as asoil blanket. The agronomic method, usingvegetation cover, is suited to stable situations,and is rarely useful in the Theater of Opera-tions. Technical Manual 5-830-2 discussesthese techniques in detail.

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Chapter 5BRIDGING

M ilitary traffic engaged in rapid movement on the AirLandbattlefield must be able to cross wet or dry gaps in existing

road networks or natural high speed avenues. Bypasses andfording sites can be used to overcome obstacles when no bridgesare available. However, maneuver forces and logistical supportdepend upon permanent, expedient, or tactical bridges forsustained mobility. As the battle moves forward, MSRs areextended to support the force. Forward elements may demandthat expedient, nonstandard structures replace assault tacticalbridging. In-place bridging may need to be repaired or reinforcedto keep MSRs and LOCs open.

Engineer units in support of maneuver forces are responsible foremploying assault and tactical bridging. Field Manual 5-101addresses engineer bridging support to maneuver units. Re-inforcement and repair of in-place bridging is generally carriedout by engineer units operating within the corps and COMMZareas.

FIXED BRIDGING 39

FLOAT BRIDGING 42

RAILROAD BRIDGES 42

BRIDGE CLASSIFICATION 43

REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR 45

DETOURS AND BYPASSES 47

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FIXED BRIDGING

Fixed bridging in the Theater of Operationsis classified as standard or nonstandard.Standard military fixed bridges are stockitems, organic to engineer fixed bridge units(see FM 101-10-1 for details), or available forissue through the US Army supply system.Fixed bridge assets may be held in reserve atthe corps or theater level.

Fixed bridges consist of standard componentparts which are assembled in a standardsequence to carry predetermined loads. Thesemay be assault (Armored Vehicle LaunchedBridge (AVLB) and Ribbon), tactical (Bailey,Medium Girder Bridge, M4T6), or semiper-manent (beam and girder) bridges. The ArmyFacilities Components System (AFCS) listsseveral varieties of fixed bridging availablein standard sets. Descriptions and construc-tion techniques are discussed in TM 5-312.Nonstandard bridges may be constructed outof whatever suitable material is available.New construction is usually limited to short,simple span arrangements of timber or steel

stringer construction. In the Theater ofOperations, it is better to repair or reinforceexisting nonstandard bridges than it is toundertake new construction.

FIXED BRIDGE SITE SELECTIONReconnaissance of existing bridges

Bridge reconnaissance is a means of evalua-ting the physical details of existing bridges.The reconnaissance team inspects the bridgeto determine its load-carrying capacity (class-ification) and its structural well-being. Thereconnaissance team should determinewhether the situation warrants constructinga nonstandard bridge or emplacing tacticalbridging. When a damaged bridge is to bereplaced, reconnaissance information shouldinclude a report on the serviceability ofin-place structural members and other materialswhich might be reused in construction. Max-imum use should be made of existing bridgesites to take advantage of existing roads,abutments, piers and/or spans that areserviceable.

BAILEY BRIDGE SPAN OVER DEMOLISHED MASONRY ARCH BRIDGE

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Bridge reconnaissance is classed as eitherhasty or deliberate, depending on the amountof detail required, the time available, andsecurity in the area of operations. Both kindsof reconnaissance are fully discussed in FM5-36. A deliberate reconnaissance is usuallyconducted in support of MSR/LOC opera-tions, since greater traffic requirements dic-tate that time and qualified personnel bemade available to support the task. A delib-erate reconnaissance includes a thoroughstructural analysis and reports on approach-es, the nature of the crossing, abutments,intermediate supports, bridge structure, re-pair and demolition information, and alter-nate crossing sites.

Reconnaissance for new constructionThe two primary tasks of the reconnaissanceare to choose a site and to provide enoughinformation so that planners can design astructure that will support the maneuverunits’ mission.

The location chosen for the bridge by thereconnaissance team is determined by severalfactors, which are reflected in its structuraldesign.

Ž Location of an existing road net withrespect to the proposed site. Time may besaved if approaches to the bridge site areadequate.

Ž Availability of serviceable abutments andintermediate supports from a demolishedbridge.

Ž Characteristics of the existing channelwhich may restrict intermediate supportconstruction or may necessitate minimumclearance for navigation purposes.

Ž Soil or rock profile of the streambed, whichaffects the type and position of bridgesupports.

Ž Flow characteristics, including streamvelocity, seasonal water depth, and highwater mark.

Ž Stream width and bank characteristics,which establish material requirements andposition of abutments.

Ž Site restrictions such as existing structuresmay influence location of the centerline.

Ž Availability of construction resources.Labor and equipment may consist of hostnation support, contract constructionsupport, troop construction, or any combina-tion thereof. Sources of construction ma-terials include standing timber, nearbydemolished buildings or bridges, localmarkets, and engineer stocks.

Ž Topographic information. A detailed studyof the proposed site is developed usingtopographic, geologic, and terrain maps,and air photos as available or required.Stereo-pair air photos with a scale of1:20,000 or smaller are particularly usefulfor a map study of possible bridge loca-tions, since they usually indicate streamconditions, including channel location andbar positions. Frequently, a reasonablyaccurate estimate of soil conditions on thebanks can be made from air photos.

Ž Location of a bivouac site and a precon-struction storage area.

SITE STUDYFollowing selection of a bridge site based onreconnaissance, both by map and actualobservation, detailed planning and study areundertaken to—

Ž Prepare a topographical map to a scale ofapproximately 1:250 with a contour in-terval of 2 feet. The map is used to plotlocation and obtain distances and eleva-tions for design purposes.

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Ž Determine whether physical characteris-tics at the site limit normal constructionmethods or interfere with constructionplant installation.

Ž Make a detailed survey to furnish accurateinformation from which the bridge layoutcan be developed, materials requisitioned,and the construction procedure outlined.Submit the survey as plan and profile sitedrawings. Show subsurface conditionsgraphically. Technical Manual 5-312 dis-cusses survey drawing requirements forfixed bridges.

Ž Establish survey control. The complexityof the bridge construction project usuallydetermines the appropriate method andaccuracy requirement for survey control(TM 5-312, Chapter 12). Surveyors canusually rely on a line strung between thecenters of the proposed abutments for atimber trestle bridge. However, they shouldemplace an accurate system of benchmarksbefore constructing semipermanentbridges. This ensures accurate lateralpositioning of piers, abutments, and string-ers, and establishes vertical control so thatbearings and pier tops can be locatedaccurately.

Ž Conduct a foundation investigation. De-velop a soil profile along the proposedbridge centerline and at pier and abutmentlocations (TM 5-312, Chapter 2).

MAJOR ELEMENTS OFFIXED BRIDGE DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTIONHeight of bridge

The necessary height of the bridge is gov-erned by the relative height of the bridge endswith respect to that of the ground profile atpoints below the bridge. Do only as much

excavation as needed so that the footings ofintermediate supports can be placed on soilcapable of carrying the bridge loads. Provideclearance for vessels if the stream must bekept open to navigation. Provide enoughclearance to prevent the superstructure frombeing damaged by current or by floatingdebris. If possible, select standard pierdesigns to meet all these conditions.

Span lengthStandard designs for various span lengthsare available. Fit standard designs to groundand stream profile conditions. Select a com-bination of span lengths that locates inter-mediate supports where there is adequate soilbearing capacity for footings, and wherepiers of standard height offer the leastobstruction to the current. Place intermediatesupports where footings will not be under-mined by erosion. If footings are not possible,consider using piles for supports.

Design loadsLoads are classified as live (vehicles, wind,snow), dead (weight of the bridge and ac-cessories), and impact (short duration loadscaused by sudden acceleration and brakingaction of vehicles on the bridge roadway).

MATERIAL AND LABORREQUIREMENTS

Make the best possible use of materials onhand, and adapt the design to availablematerials. The construction site’s proximityto materials is important. Assess time andtransportation needed to bring materials onthe job.

Select a standard design that can be builtwith available skills and equipment. Engi-neer troops are trained to use carpentry toolsin framing timber. Concrete can be mixedand placed by ordinary field construction

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labor, provided adequate and experienced dling and erecting steel members require heavysupervision is available. Timber bridges can equipment. Erecting long spans, particularlybe erected with organic equipment and with- on high towers, is hazardous. Therefore, onlyout power equipment, if necessary. In fabri- well-trained and properly equipped crewscating structural steel, such work as template should undertake this work. Use skilled labormaking, laying out, cutting, drilling, riveting, to construct concrete forms, place reinforcingand welding require special training. Han- steel, and finish concrete.

FLOAT BRIDGING

Military float bridging is designed to providemaneuver forces with assault (Ribbon Bridge)and tactical (CL60, M4T6, Light TacticalRaft) wet gap crossing capability. Floatbridging is organic to Corps and DivisionalEngineer Float Bridge Companies (see FM101-10-1 for details) or maybe held in reserveat corps or theater level. These bridges consistof standard end and interior bay sectionswhich are self-buoyant, or consist of deckingaffixed to pontons. Descriptions and con-struction techniques are found in TM 5-210.

Main supply routes use fixed bridging whenit is available. Float bridging may be usedunder some circumstances. For instance, thelack of existing fixed facilities or suitableconstruction materials to fabricate/reinforce/repair fixed bridging, or the urgent need tomaintain logistical flow may dictate tem-porary military float bridging. When thesituation calls for prolonged use or heavytraffic, an existing fixed bridge should beupgraded or new construction initiated.

FLOAT BRIDGE SITE SELECTIONCriteria for establishing a float bridge siteare generally the same as those for fixed

bridge sites. The following are additionalconsiderations:

ŽBanks should be low, firm, moderatelysloping, and free from obstructions. Exist-ing or easily prepared assembly sites aredesirable.

ŽWater adjacent to the near bank shouldnot be more than waist deep. Currentvelocity should be moderate (less than 11feet per second).

ŽWater depth must be sufficient to preventboats or bridge components from runningaground.

ŽNatural holdfasts for anchorages are de-sirable.

Float bridging must be installed far enoughdownstream from a demolished or undercapacity bridge to avoid interference withreconstruction or reinforcement operations.Unstable portions of a demolished bridgeand debris that may damage the float bridgeshould be removed.

RAILROAD BRIDGES

United States Army railroad bridging is Many varieties of standard railroad bridgesfixed, and is classified as standard or non- are available through AFCS. Constructionstandard. The US Army does not currently details and bills of material are shown in TMemploy railroad float bridge equipment. 5-302. General information on types and

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construction procedures or criteria for stan-dard railroad bridging is given in TM 5-312.Nonstandard railroad bridging can be con-structed out of any available suitable ma-terial. The military situation rarely permitspermanent railroad construction, hence semi-permanent construction is generally used.

SITE SELECTIONThe urgency of the military situation, lack ofreadily available construction materials,specialized construction equipment require-ments, and the need for large quantities oflabor, generally preclude the construction ofrailroad bridges at locations away fromexisting rail lines. When a site must beselected, use the criteria for fixed highwaybridges.

CONSTRUCTION DESIGNTime, materials, equipment, and labor aremajor factors in engineer construction opera-tions. The engineer must choose the structurethat can be erected most swiftly with the leastexpenditure of materials and effort. Repairand reinforcement of existing railroadbridges take priority over new construction.New construction is normally limited totrestle bridges of rolled steel beams or built-

up girders. Stringer decks—heavy timber forshort spans of 16 feet or less—or steelstringers for longer spans, are the easiest toconstruct in the field. Design criteria fornonstandard railroad bridges are containedin Chapter 8 of TM 5-312 and civil designtexts listed in Appendix A of TM 5-312.

CONVERSION OF RAILROADBRIDGES TO HIGHWAY BRIDGES

The urgency of the situation, or lack ofadditional highway bridging assets, mayrequire that a railroad bridge be convertedinto a highway bridge by constructing asmooth roadway surface. However, the use ofthe bridge for rail traffic should not bejeopardized. The use of the bridge by bothmodes of transportation can be achieved byconstructing planking along the ties betweenand outside the rails up to the level of the topof the rail. The roadway surface is thus flushwith the top of the rail. The additional deadload of roadway decking must be factoredinto the bridge classification to determinesafe traffic loads. More information may befound in TM 5-312, Chapters 8 and 10. Sincerailroad loadings are usually heavier thanhighway loadings, it is seldom practical toconvert a highway bridge to railway use.

BRIDGE CLASSIFICATION

An efficient MSR network must be able to bridges with appropriate classificationcarry all expected traffic loads. Often, ratings, or to design and emplace bridgesbridging is the weak link in the load-carrying that can carry these loads.capacity of a route. Military standardbridging is designed to be assembled in Situations may arise when it will be impos-modules that result in a bridge of known sible to safely accommodate all traffic desig-capacity. Tactical bridging is designed to nated to cross MSR bridges. Guidelines arepass an uninterrupted flow of combat/ set for special crossings (caution and risk) fortactical vehicles, which generally fall within oversized or overweight loads on militarya military load classification (MLC) below fixed and float bridging (FM 5-34, FM60. However, some combinations of vehicles 101-10-1, TM 5-312, TM 5-210). The theatermay exceed a given bridge design capacity. commander may authorize such crossings.Where heavy loads are anticipated, it is best An engineer officer must periodically inspectto plot MSRs along routes that already use the bridge for signs of failure when routine

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caution crossings are made and after eachrisk crossing. Structurally damaged partsmust be replaced, repaired, or reinforcedbefore traffic can be resumed.

In addition, not all civil-installed bridges aredesigned to support military MSR traffic.Load classification may not have been deter-mined by civilian authorities. Many kinds ofbridges may be encountered in the Theater ofOperations, and there is no single easyapproach for classifying them. Some bridges,such as simple stringer bridges, can easily beclassified by their external dimensions. How-ever, it may be impossible to calculate areasonable classification for other types, suchas prestressed and continuous span concrete,unless complete design information is avail-able. The most reliable index for classifyingsuch a bridge would be an analysis of thefloor system. The Theater Engineer must setpolicy on caution and risk classifications forcivil-installed bridges, while the TheaterCommander retains authorization for thesespecial crossings.

When faced with a special crossing situation,always consider alternatives like bypassesand fords. Measure the importance of over-sized or overweight traffic against othertraffic using the bridging. Forward move-ment of combat power and logistics takesprecedence over evacuation and retrogrademovement.

METHODSThere are two methods of classifying a bridge:analytical and expedient. Careful analysismust often follow expedient classification.The situation and available time and in-formation determine the method chosen. Ananalytical classification may be required ifthe bridge is of great importance. An engi-neer’s estimate may suffice if similar bridges

in the area have a known classification (seeFM 5-34 and TM 5-312).

SOURCES OF EXISTINGINFORMATION

Bridge classification data can usually befound with the local engineer unit. This unitis responsible for the area where the bridge islocated along with the supporting topo-graphic engineer unit. If the bridge wasconstructed by military engineers, the designclass or as-built plans should be on file.Engineer intelligence studies often providebridge classification information for mostareas of operation in foreign countries.Classify the bridge using engineer recon-naissance data.

The most reliable source of bridge class-ification information for civilian-constructedbridges is local civilian authorities. In mostcases, complete design specifications, as-builtplans, and the types and strengths of ma-terials used in civilian bridges are available.

Local, state, and county officials in the UnitedStates and in friendly foreign countries oftenimpose maximum load limits or maximumpermissible stresses on their bridges. It isimportant that these officials be consulted todetermine maximum military load classifi-cation that can be applied to the bridge inpeacetime or for maneuver purposes. Corro-sion and normal wear and tear tend todiminish a bridge’s load-carrying capacityover time. The most recent evaluation of thebridge is desirable. Based upon the engineer’sevaluation of civilian reports, additionalappraisal of a bridge’s classification may berequired.

Correlation curves have been developed forsome standard US- and foreign civilian-madebridges that relate the known civilian bridgedesign loads to military classifications. These

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curves, discussed in TM 5-312, Chapter 5, areoften useful in establishing a temporarybridge classification. The analytical methodis always preferred when time and informa-tion are available.

RESPONSIBILITIESBridge classification and marking is anengineer responsibility. The responsible engi-

neer organization in the area will classifybridges of military significance by theanalytical method if possible. If a postedtemporary class is judged accurate by theresponsible engineer, the classification canbe posted as permanent. Engineer unitsshould keep records on each significantbridge within their assigned area.

REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR

Bridges in the Theater of Operations maybedamaged or may be below the load-carryingcapacity required for use on an MSR or LOC.These bridges can be reinforced or repairedby theater engineers. Bridge reinforcementcan increase the structure’s load-carryingcapacities by adding materials to strengthenthe component parts, or by reducing spanlength. Bridge repair, on the other hand,means restoring a damaged bridge to itsoriginal load-carrying capacity. Reinforce-ment or repair of existing bridges or sites hasmany advantages, chiefly economy of timeand material. Existing bridges are located onestablished routes, which require less workon approaches and speed the flow of traffic.The availability of serviceable bridge com-ponents, particularly abutments and piers,conserves both time and materials.

BRIDGE REINFORCEMENTCapacity

Tactical loads may exceed the capacity of theexisting structure or the bridge may bedamaged or deteriorated with use. Well-designed reinforcement usually increases thelife of the bridge.

Maintenance reductionBridge reinforcement at selected sites canserve to shorten the route and decreaseattendant vehicle maintenance problems.

When smooth deck surfaces can be provided,the movement of traffic is further expedited.Maintenance to bridge structural members isreduced as stress is decreased through re-inforcement.

Release of tactical bridgingReinforcement of existing bridges may permitthe release of tactical bridging, although theuse of M2 (Bailey) panel bridge componentsis often necessary for expedient reinforce-ment purposes. However, other types oftactical bridging including both fixed andfloating types may be released.

WeatherThe necessity for reinforcement measuresmay be dictated by increased stream flowduring the rainy season, when bypasses andfords are impassable. Such conditions mustbe anticipated to effect timely reinforcementmeasures.

Construction factorsOnce the decision has been made to reinforcea given bridge, several construction factorsmust be taken into consideration beforedetailed planning and execution may beundertaken. Among these factors are detailsof the site, available materials, and possibleconstruction methods. Pertinent questionsconcerning the site include— What parts of

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FM 5-104

the original structure are still usable? What isthe type of bridge and what are the spanlengths? What are the characteristics of thewaterway, particularly as to the use ofadditional bents or pile piers? Will the presentapproaches be satisfactory for a reinforcedbridge? Will the intermediate supports andabutments also need to be reinforced? Arealternate sites available?

Materials that may be used include standardsteel military units (preferred because ofquality and speed of construction), militarystock timbers, other military items of issue,local materials of adequate quality. Possibleconstruction methods depend upon items ofequipment available, working locations, andthe nature of the repairs. A detailed dis-cussion of bridge reinforcement is containedin TM 5-312.

BRIDGE REPAIRSEmergency repairs are usually governed bythe requirement that a crossing site beavailable as soon as possible. Immediateneed dictates the desired capacity and per-manence of the structure. Where possible,standard units should be used to expediterepairs. Tactical bridging is designed for thispurpose. However, in the absence of tacticalor standard bridging, expedient methods willsatisfy the requirements in many cases. Mostemergency structures will later be reinforced,replaced, or rehabilitated. Bridge structuresand surroundings, the nature of bridgedamage, and the methods of repair are all so

varied that no preferred method can besuggested.

Experience with several methods will usuallysuggest a practical method of repair. Unlessthere has been an opportunity for advanceplanning, the selection of repair methodsshould be left to the engineer commanderresponsible for the repairs. The factors uponwhich the engineer will base choices are—

Ž Type of bridge.

Ž Nature of damage.

Ž Tactical situation and bridge require-ments.

Ž Nature of surroundings and immediatelyusable bypasses.

Ž Troops and equipment available.

Ž Standard stock bridging materials andaccessories available, and the time in-volved to get them to the site.

Ž Local materials available.

Ž Time estimated for bridge repair versustime estimated for a detour or preparationof a bypass.

Ž Skill and ingenuity of officers and troops.

A detailed discussion of emergency bridgerepair is contained in TM 5-312.

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DETOURS AND BYPASSES

Detours and bypasses are second in priorityonly to the use of existing bridges. Rein-forcements and repairs of existing bridgesare third in priority. In general, detours andbypasses can be found and used more quicklythan existing bridges can be repaired.

Even though railroad detours usually covergreater distances than highway detours, theproblem is reduced considerably when analternate route is available to a serviceablebridge, or to a bridge that can be repairedunder favorable circumstances. Detours andbypasses are usually of the following types:

ŽAlternate routing over other existingbridges which have not been damaged.

ŽAlternate routing over bridges with lesserdamage or routing to other locations.

ŽAlternate routing of highways over rail-road bridges.

ŽBypasses with a grade crossing around anoverpass.

ŽFords.

ŽLocal ferries, rafts, or barges.

ŽIce bridges in extremely cold climates.

Consider the condition of existing roads andapproaches that connect with detours andbypasses. The work necessary to make roadsusable may outweigh the advantages of thesealternates. Traffic-supporting properties,grade and alignment, built-up areas, andsharp curves or corners involving clearancesare also important factors.

BRIDGING 47

Chapter 6RAILROADS

T he ability to move troops and materiel may well decide theoutcome of a conflict. Railroads provide one of the most

effective and efficient forms of land transportation available toforces in the Theater of Operations. They can move greattonnages of materiel and large numbers of personnel longdistances. They move with considerable regularity and speedunder practically all weather conditions. Railroads are flexibleand versatile—rolling stock may be tailored for almost any use,Extensive railway systems exist in most regions of the world withan interoperability provided by standard equipment and commongage. Due to these capabilities, railroads are often the preferredmeans of transportation within the Theater of Operations.

The degree to which a rail system maybe exploited depends on itscapacity (length and condition of existing track, condition ofrolling stock and other facilities), and its ability to supportmilitary demands while still maintaining essential commercialtraffic. While railroads are vulnerable to enemy attack, guerillaoperations, and sabotage, aggressive engineer support canprovide prompt repairs. Experience in World War II and in Koreademonstrated that rail lines could often be repaired and restoredto service within hours. This was particularly true wheremaintenance personnel and repair equipment had been strateg-ically located near vulnerable points.

RESPONSIBILITIES 49

PLANNING 51

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 51

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 55

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RESPONSIBILITIES

Within the Theater of Operations, the respon- Transportation Corps (TC). Each transpor-sibility for construction, major rehabilitation, tation unit may be assigned from 90 to 150and major repair of railroads is assigned to miles of main line with terminal operatingthe engineers. These responsibilities include and maintenance facilities, signalingall design, new construction, and modifica- equipment, and interlocking facilitiestion of existing railroads to meet military necessary for operation. Where host nationtraffic needs. agreements exist, day-to-day operations and

maintenance may be largely conducted byResponsibility for operating railroads and the local work force. Reconnaissance andperforming routinethe transportation

maintenance rests with selection of new routes and routes to berailway service of the rehabilitated are responsibilities of the

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TRANSPORTATION RAILWAY SERVICE ORGANIZATION

transportation units in coordination with the engineers must be prepared to provide con-engineer elements in the area of operation. struction support in missions beyond theAlthough responsibility for ordinary main- capability of the transportation services.tenance rests with the transportation corps,

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PLANNING

All existing facilities must be used to themaximum extent possible in order to holddown construction time. New railroad con-struction will probably be totally comprisedof short spurs to connect existing networkswith military terminals or to detour aroundseverely damaged areas. The focus of engi-neer effort should be on modifying andrepairing existing railroads to meet militaryneeds.

Local labor and management are key to therapid modification and continuing mainte-nance of existing facilities. Local personnelcan often supply materials as well as skilledlabor to speed the work and relieve militarypersonnel for other projects. Native railwayoperating personnel are also a source ofinformation on existing operations and sup-ply facilities in a liberated area.

Urgent tactical situations dictate lower stan-dards for construction and maintenance inthe Theater of Operations. Theater of Opera-tions railroads may have lower factors ofsafety, sharper curves, and steeper gradesthan recommended by the American RailwayEngineering Association (AREA). Once theminimum standard for immediate servicehas been attained, phased improvements canbe made, provided the importance of the linejustifies the effort. The end goal is to bringthe line up to AREA standards; however, thiscan seldom be accomplished in the Theater ofOperations.

Most railway bridging requirements can besatisfied by the simple steel stringer typebridge supported on timber trestles or piles.Plans for rapid replacement of existingbridging must be made, because the enemymay be expected to concentrate demolitionefforts on railway bridges and turnouts.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The construction process begins with adetermination of design requirements. Theengineer must establish immediate liaisonwith the Transportation Corps to develop—

ŽMission and required capacity of theproposed systems,

ŽType and size of rolling stock to be op-erated,

ŽTrack gage,

ŽInitial, intermediate, and final terminalpoints along the route,

ŽServicing and maintenance facilities re-quired,

ŽConnections with other rail systems,

ŽMaximum gradient and degree of cur-vature required,

ŽScheduling or timetable for construction,

ŽDirection of future development and expan-sion.

Upon determining the design requirements,a reconnaissance is conducted to determinethe siting of the rail system. The surveys,studies, and plans required for constructing arailroad are necessarily more elaborate thanthose for most road construction.

ROUTE SELECTIONStudies of the best available topographicmaps and aerial photographs narrow thechoice of routes to be reconnoitered. Factorswhich affect the location of a route include

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logistics, length of line, curvature, gradients,and ease and speed of construction.

LogisticsLogistics must receive first consideration inselecting a route in the Theater of Operations.Normally a rail line will extend from a port,beachhead, or other source of supplies in thecommunication zone, forward to mainte-nance areas supporting the forces present.Alternate routes are desirable for greaterflexibility of movement, and as insuranceagainst cases of mainline obstruction as aresult of enemy action, wrecks, washouts,floods, fires, or landslides.

Length of lineLength of line (mileage from point of origin toterminus) is important only when it addsmaterially to the time of train movement. Asmuch as 30 percent increased mileage ispermissible when it proves advantageous tothe other factors involved.

CurvatureCurvatures should be minimized as much aspossible consistent with speed of construc-tion. Curvature for a military railroad willdepend largely on the maximum rigid wheel-base of cars and locomotives. Superelevationis used to counteract centrifugal force oncurves by raising the outer rail higher thanthe inner. Field Manual 5-370 provides moreinformation on degrees of curvature andsuperelevation.

GradientsThe ruling grade of a route is the mostdemanding grade over which a maximumtonnage train can be handled by a singlelocomotive. Where diesel electric units areused, a single locomotive may consist of twoor more units coupled to work as a singlelocomotive that is controlled from the cab ofthe leading unit. The ruling grade is notnecessarily the maximum grade. Steepergrades can be negotiated by using an addi-

tional locomotive as a helper engine or, if thegrade is very short, the train may be carriedover the crest by momentum. Since militaryrailroads operate at slow speeds, the rulinggrade must be kept to a minimum. As always,the necessity for speedy construction must bea top priority.

Ease and speed of constructionThe route should be chosen to secure ease andspeed of construction. It is essential in aTheater of Operations that transportationfacilities be available as soon as possible.Many additional hours of earthwork andgrading can be avoided by a careful routeselection.

ROUTE RECONNAISSANCEA complete ground reconnaissance of thepossible routes is needed. The reconnaissanceteam should note odometer and barometerobservations of distances and elevations, thegeneral character of the terrain, the control-ling curvatures, soil and drainage conditions,bridge and tunnel sites, the size and characterof bridges needed, intersections with railwaysor important roads, availability of ballastand other construction material, and pointsat which construction parties would haveaccess to the railway route. The factors to betaken into consideration include the roadbed,rock cuts, hillsides, drainage, security, watersupply, passing track, and surveys.

RoadbedThe roadbed should be built on favorablesoils. Clay beds, peat bogs, muck, andswampy areas are unstable foundations andprovide unsuitable soils for building fills.Cuts through unfavorable soils will sloughand slide. Seek minimum earthwork in loca-ting the roadbed and track.

Rock cutsWhere rock cuts are proposed, the beddingplanes should dip away from the track toprevent rock slides. Cutting removes the

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support from rock sloping toward the track.Locations at the foot of high bluffs subjectthe track to rock falls, slides, and washouts.Rock work is time consuming. Avoid itwhenever practicable.

HillsidesIn the temperate zone, choose sites along thelee side of hills. This prevents snowdrifts andresists the effect of winds.

DrainageThe proposed site should facilitate drainageor prevent the need for it. Ridge routes arebest for this purpose, but may be exposed toenemy fire. Avoid locations that requireheavy bridging. Note that diesel equipmentcannot be operated over track inundatedabove the top of rail, because water willdamage traction motors.

SecurityConcealment from enemy fire and observa-tion must be considered, but may have to giveway to other necessary requirements.

Water supplyIf steam operation is planned, an adequatewater supply must be available at 15- to 20-mile intervals along the route.

Passing trackSuitable sites for passing sidings must beplanned. Passing track spacing depends ontraffic density and expected peak conditionsof traffic flow.

SurveysThe preliminary survey includes cross sec-tions along the feasible routes. Trail locationsare plotted and adjusted to give the bestbalance of grades, compensated grades, cuts,and fills. This establishes or fixes the line ofthe railroad.

Field survey parties locate the precise lineand stake it. This calls for much more

precision than the location survey of mostnew roads, since curves and superelevationsmust be accurately computed.

CONSTRUCTIONSchedules

When the necessary reconnaissance andsurveys are complete, the engineer preparesan estimate of the work and materials re-quired and a plan for carrying out theconstruction. The engineer must schedule thepriority and rate of construction and providefor the even flow of material to ensure orderlyprogress. Schedules must continually beupdated to accommodate changed field con-ditions or other exigencies.

In preparing schedules, the engineer willmake a full project analysis, identifyingconstruction phases and estimating man-hours, machine time, and necessary materialflow. This information can be most effectivelypresented in graphical form, such as barcharts or line charts. If the project is largeand involves other organizations and inter-mediate decisions, the Critical Path Methodshould be employed. This technique is fullydescribed in TM 5-333. In addition to theirplanning function, the schedules can alsoserve as progress charts.

MaterialsWhen no host nation agreements are in placeor construction materials cannot be obtainedwithin the theater, it may be necessary toprocure materials through the military logis-tical supply system and move them to theconstruction site. The planning and supplyactivities of the theater army engineer, inconsultation with unit engineers as to pro-bable needs, ensure the flow of materials sothat logistics facilities have sufficient stocks.The engineer orders track construction, over-sees the establishment of logistics facilitiesfor railroad materials, and arranges fortransportation forward. The commander ofan engineer construction group and its staff

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will be aware of the material stocks availableand the requisitioning and transportationsituation. The group may be able to stockpilesome railroad materials in unusually staticsituations, but usually the construction ma-terials that are not locally available mustcome from logistics facilities.

Materials may be hauled to the job site onwork trains when motor transport is in shortsupply or when the terrain is rough and/orthere is a lack of nearby highway and accessroads. Materials are brought to the end ofexisting track on rolling stock pushed aheadof the locomotive.

Construction sequenceAs a first stage in organizing the work, theengineer divides the line into sections inwhich special features such as bridges, sta-tions, yards, and rock cuts can be constructedwhile other work is in progress. Work canproceed concurrently at several locations.

The standard construction sequence is asfollows:

1. Clear and grub.

2. Prepare the subgrade by cutting or fillingand compacting.

3. Unload and distribute track materials.

4. Align and space cross ties.

5. Place line rails or ties.

6. Place gage rail on ties to ensure proper spacing.

7. Line the track.

8. Unload ballast.

9. Raise and surface track.

10. Make final alignment.

Each of these tasks is discussed in detail inChapter 4 of TM 5-370.

CONSTRUCTION OFAUXILIARY FACILITIES

In addition to the actual rail line, certainfacilities are necessary to rail operations orare required due to particular physical condi-tions.

SidingsSidings are auxiliary tracks next to the mainline. They are used for meeting and passingtrains, for separating and storing equipmentthat breaks down enroute, and for storingrolling stock that cannot be moved to itsdestination. The Transportation Corps givesguidance on the location of sidings. Sidingsare built parallel to the rail line. The sidingshould be 250 feet longer than the longesttrain that will use it. Generally, the sidinghas a turnout at either end.

Highway and rail crossing at gradesAvoid highway and road crossings at gradewherever possible. When crossings must beinstalled, they should be constructed so thatthe axis of the road is approximately per-pendicular to the centerline of the railroad.

Rail crossings carry one track across anotherat grade and permit passing of wheel flangesthrough opposing rails. The design of frogs toallow these crossings depends on the angle atwhich they cross. In military railroads, mostfrogs are made of precast, immobile railswhich can be easily installed.

WyesWyes are used in place of turntables, whichare normally impractical for use in theTheater of Operations. Wyes maybe installedat engine terminals, summits, junctions, andrailheads, as time permits. In some cases, the

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wye’s stem may be long enough to permitturnaround of the entire train.

Utility and service facilitiesService facilities should be laid out so thatservicing operations can be performed inproper sequence as the locomotive movesthrough the terminal. The usual relation ofoperations and facilities from terminalentrance to terminal exit is—

1. Inspection—inspection pits or platforms.

2. Lubrication (during inspection)-oil andgrease service areas.

3. Cleaning fires/ashpits-for steam loco-motives.

4. Coal, sand, diesel oil, and water—appropriate facilities.

5. Running repairs—engine house.

6. Outbound movement—the ready track andwye.

Block stations and buildingsBuildings are needed for crew headquarters,maintenance personnel, tools, material stor-

age, and block stations. Block stations arefacilities that house the switching and sig-naling equipment that controls trainmovements.

Railheads and yardsA railhead is at the end of a railroad line.Yards are a system of tracks that serve threebasic functions:

1. One or more tracks long enough to receivea entire train;

2. A system of shorter tracks for the storageor classification of freight;

3. Departure tracks on which rolling stockfrom the classification yard may beassembled for dispatchment.

In addition to the auxiliary facilities de-scribed above, other specific constructionrequirements may be dictated by the terrainor the military situation. Special equipment,materials, and expertise may be required bythe engineer command tasked with the con-struction of railroads and accompanyingfacilities in order to quickly and efficientlysupport units in the Theater of Operations.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

INSPECTION AND REPAIRS machinery will minimize the need for un-Auxiliary facilities will be inspected at regu- necessary maintenance and repairs.lar intervals to ensure adequate maintenanceand proper operation. Necessary action will RAILWAY MAINTENANCEbe undertaken as quickly as possible in order AND REPAIRto minimize future repair requirements and The upkeep of railroads is essential to thetime out of operations. smooth flow of troops and supplies to the

needed areas. Railroads are susceptible toCLEANING AND LUBRICATION maintenance problems, and vulnerable to

Preventive maintenance, including the prop- enemy attack, guerilla operations, ander cleaning and lubrication of equipment and sabotages. Railroads used by the transpor-

tation railway service are normally already

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located and constructed. The rail transpor- The maintenance standard in the Theater oftation officer’s task is to make the most Operations will not in most cases be to theefficient use of existing facilities by maxi- standard of railways located in the zone ofmizing maintenance efforts. the interior. However, aggressive engineer

action will help to keep this vital link open.

56 RAILROADS

Chapter 7LOGISTICS OVER THESHORE (LOTS) OPERATIONS

A t least 90 percent of the tonnage required to supportdeployed forms in the Theater of Operations must be

provided by sea LOCs. Although air LOCs carry high priorityshipments and personnel, sea LOCs Its obvously ly bear the mainburden. The uninterrupted delivery of materiel requires thatvulnerable fixed port facilities he backed up by a flexible system,Logistics Over the Shore operations provide that system. Armedforces LOTS operations involve transferring, marshaling, anddispersing materiel from a marine to a land transport system.The rule of thumb for planners is that 40 percent of all cargoentering contingency theaters by surface means must be deliveredthrough LOTS terminals. In some theaters, this proportion maybe much greater. Beaches distant from fixed port facilities serveas LOTS sites. The rapid establishment of a viable LOTS systemdepends on Engineer construction and maintenance support.

RESPONSIBILITIES 58

CAPABILITIES 60

LOTS INSTALLATION 61

LOGISTICS OVER THE SHORE (LOTS) OPERATIONS 57

FM 5-104

RESPONSIBILITIES

Logistics planning to support deployed forceson a foreign shore always begins with anevaluation of in-place fixed port facilities andcapacities. These, combined with connectingrailway, highway, and inland waterwaynetworks, are the major logistic systemsrequired for military operations. When areckoning of available resources is complete,planners determine the need for LOTS ter-minals to supplement and back up thetransportation net.

Overall responsibility for LOTS operationslies with the Transportation Corps. EachLOTS terminal acts under the direct controlof a transportation terminal battalion madeup of two service companies and appropriateIighterage units. The theater commander mayassign construction support responsibilitiesto Army, Navy, and/or Marine Corps engi-neer units, depending on their availabilityand the overall situation. Mutually sup-porting or follow-on construction must becoordinated with other engineer unitsassigned to or projected for the area ofoperations.

The US Army Engineers must be prepared tosupport the LOTS mission because—

ŽExisting ports may be damaged, incom-plete, or unavailable.

ŽExisting ports may be unable to handleresupply operations.

ŽExisting port facilities are vulnerable toenemy activities such as mining, NBCwarfare, and air interdiction.

ŽPorts under repair may be unavailable forlong periods.

To construct a LOTS site, the support ofCombat Engineer or Engineer Combat HeavyBattalion effort is needed. Specific construc-tion requirements may demand that theseunits be augmented by an Engineer PortConstruction Company, Combat SupportEquipment Company, or a Pipeline Construc-tion Support Company, or theater-level divingteams. Engineer missions are directed inaccordance with the applicable task orga-nization.

Engineer units give construction, repair, andmaintenance support to LOTS operations.An engineer unit may expect to encounterthese missions in supporting a LOTS:

ŽConstruct semipermanent piers andcauseways.

ŽPrepare and stabilize beaches.

ŽConstruct access and egress routes frombeaches to backwater areas.

ŽConstruct access to marshaling areasand/or adjoining LOTS sites.

ŽConstruct marshaling and storage areas.

ŽConstruct road and rail links to existingLOCs.

ŽConstruct utility systems.

ŽConstruct POL storage and distributionsystems.

ŽProvide other assistance or maintenancedetermined by the terminal commander.

58 LOGISTICS OVER THE SHORE (LOTS) OPERATIONS

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CAPABILITIES

PORT CONSTRUCTION COMPANIESEngineer Port Construction Companies arecapable of emplacing floating or elevatedsemipermanent piers and causeways. Theseare to be constructed from pontoon cubebarges, DeLong piers, or other state-of-the-art, rapidly deployable pier and bargeequipment. The Port Construction Companycan also install offshore POL facilities andhas a limited capability to install onshorePOL storage facilities.

PIPELINE CONSTRUCTIONSUPPORT COMPANIES

Engineer Pipeline Construction SupportCompanies are trained and equipped toinstall beach unloading equipment for POL,to assist engineer battalions with the con-struction of rigid distribution pipelines, andto assist in the construction of rigid metalstorage tanks. The companies have a limitedcapability to carry out all of these missionson their own, although at a much slower rate.

DIVING COMPANIESEngineer divers are found under TOE 5-530cellular teams to provide specialized divingsupport to all theater requirements. Thecontrol and support detachment located attheater level coordinates the efforts of theoperational teams attached to corps andechelons above corps in support of LOTSoperations. This detachment provides exper-tise to theater commands and specializedsupply, training, requalification, mainte-nance, and medical support to all theaterArmy diving assets. The basis of allocationfor the detachment is one per one to six divingteams.

The primary operational diving support forthe LOTS operations is supplied by the

Lightweight Diving Team. This sixteen-member team is capable of performing self-contained, underwater breathing apparatus(SCUBA) and lightweight diving to a maxi-mum depth of 190 feet in support of LOTSoperations. During LOTS operations, thesediving teams provide support in three distinctareas: engineer support, transportation sup-port, and quartermaster support. Additionaldiving support for LOTS operations is coor-dinated through the ControI and SupportDetachment at theater level.

Diving teams that support engineer activitiesassist with—

ŽInstallation, recovery, and repair of off-shore pipelines,

ŽBottom surveys for beach improvements,

ŽInspection and repair of vessel anchorages,

ŽEquipment recovery and clearings.

Diving teams engaged in transportationsupport assist with—

ŽChannel marking,

ŽBeach approach surveys,

ŽShip husbandry.

Diving teams assist the Quartermaster Corpswith—

ŽInspection of underwater pipelines,

ŽRepairs to pipelines,

ŽMaintenance of offshore mooring systems.


FM 5-104

LOTS INSTALLATION

LAYOUTThe supporting engineer must be informedabout the layout of the LOTS site, because thelayout determines the required engineereffort. A LOTS layout varies with the situa-tion and existing geographic conditions. Thephysical size of the individual site dependson security considerations, soil trafficability,the number of ships to be unloaded at the site,and the type of cargo coming ashore. Forexample, a LOTS terminal may need to bevery large if ammunition and/or POL arebeing unloaded over a beach that is subject toenemy attack. General cargo unloaded over asecure beach needs less area.

LANDING CRAFTUNLOADING POINTS

A knowledge of the beaching positions des-ignated for landing craft is important to thesupporting engineer, especially if landingpoints are to be used for extended periods. Acommon maintenance problem on beachingpositions is the creation of troughs or pits inthe beach beyond the water line. Troughingis caused by landing craft ramps, which diginto the inclined beach at a steep angle. Thisproblem is exacerbated when wheeled ve-hicles dig into the sandy beach material, andwater washes the loosened material away.Vehicles can easily bog down and stall inthese troughs, thus slowing unloading opera-tions. Engineers can reduce the troughing byplacing stone or gravel at the unloadingpoint, or by cutting down the slope of thebeach. Both these measures require mainte-nance for as long as the unloading points areused.

PIER AND CAUSEWAYCONSTRUCTION

Piers and causeways allow cargo vesselsdirect beach access, thus eliminating multiplehandling of material and speeding unloadingtimes. Piers are structures with workingsurfaces raised above the water on piles.Piers project beyond the surf zone. Their

Initial LOTS planning and site selection arecoordinated between the terminal servicegroup or brigade commander (TransportationCorps) and the Navy/Military Sealift Com-mand. Initial selection is based on mapstudies, hydrographic charts, and aerialreconnaissance.

RECONNAISSANCEThe reconnaissance party includes repre-sentatives of the terminal group commander,the terminal battalion command, the supporting engineer, the supporting signalofficer, Military Police, and Navy personnelto advise on mooring areas. Others partici-pate if the situation dictates, or at theterminal commander’s request. The recon-naissance party briefs the terminal com-mander on its findings. The briefing mustcover—

Ž Engineer effort required to prepare andmaintain the site, based on available units,equipment, and materials.

• Signal construction and maintenancerequired for necessary communicationswithin the beach area, and between thebeach and the terminal group head-quarters.

• Types of lighterage craft (LCU, LCM,LACV-30) that may be used, based onbeach conditions.

• Safe haven for lighterage craft in stormyweather.

• Location and desirability y of mooring areas.

• Adequate egress from the beach. This andthe beach dimensions are key factors indetermining tonnage capacity for thebeach.

• Tidal range.


FM 5-104

stability and protected working surfacespermit unloading at times when wave actionwould otherwise prevent landing craft fromoperating across a beach. The DeLong pier isa self-contained pier that can be brought tothe LOTS site and emplaced in a relativelyshort time. Specially trained engineer per-sonnel from the Engineer Port ConstructionCompany and certain other units can installthis equipment. Other engineer assistance isrequired at the beach end of the pier toprepare the beach and anchor the pier.

Causeways are floating structures whichproject out from the beach. In some appli-cations, they are used as rafts to ferryequipment from ship to shore. Causeways aremore susceptible to wave action than arepiers. But they are much more easilydeployed. In areas where wave action is not asignificant problem, causeways can be usedas floating piers. Engineers provide beachpreparation and anchoring for causewayoperation.

ROAD CONSTRUCTIONThe major engineer effort in a LOTS isinvested in road construction and mainte-nance. Considerable effort must be spent tostabilize soil and improve trafficability in thebeach area. Constructed roads must with-stand the impact of material-handlingequipment carrying extremely heavy loads.Roads that support LOTS are usually con-structed in a loop to reduce their requiredwidth and eliminate vehicle turning as muchas possible.

The availability of construction materialdetermines the types of roads that can beconstructed. Naturally occurring materialssuch as rock and wood may be scarce or ofpoor quality. Portland cement may not beavailable or may be prohibitively expensiveto use. Sand grid material is excellent for usein areas of cohesionless soil. Mo-mat andsteel planking may be used if they areavailable. When roads are constructed inareas of poor soil conditions, roadways mustbe well marked, and adequate drainage mustbe provided for.

EXPEDIENT SURFACING


FM 5-104

MARSHALING AREASMarshaling areas serve as a collection pointfrom which unloaded materials and equip-ment can be distributed to the proper units.The size of the marshaling area varies withthe size and type of shipping, the unloadingrate, the hostile situation, and the units beingsupported. Marshaling areas vary from 25 to500 acres. In hostile environments, mar-shaling areas are dispersed, with acreagedivided into many small parcels.

Marshaling area surfaces must be stableenough to support a loaded piece of material-handling equipment. Material-handlingequipment with loads may weigh up to100,000 pounds. Access and egress roadsmust be capable of supporting the sameloads. The surface must be protected withadequate drainage.

Most material shipped to a Theater of Opera-tions via surface transportation is container-ized. Once ashore, the containers are opened


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and unpacked for distribution to the intendedunits. Empty containers are collected andreloaded aboard ships, then returned to theirpoint of origin. Container collection areasmust therefore be provided. These areas musthave the same trafficability, drainage, andaccess/egress characteristics as the mar-shaling areas, and can require nearly asmuch space.

AMMUNITION STORAGE AREASAreas where ammunition is to be unloaded,sorted, and temporarily y stored requires thesame type of planning and engineer effort asmarshaling areas. In addition, engineer unitswill have to perform more horizontal con-struction work, making earthen berms andrevetments. Ammunition supply points thatwill be used for an extended time must be

provided with overhead protection from theelements.

Ammunition storage areas must be remotefrom other activities on the beach. They mustbe dispersed and camouflaged. Each siterequires access and egress routes, preferablyarranged so that vehicles will not have toback up.

POL STORAGE AREASFuel storage areas on the beach will likely bethe largest concentration of fuels in the dis-tribution system. Construction of rigid stor-age tanks and distribution pipelines withinthe storage areas is a major engineer task.Engineers also support the QuartermasterCorps by installing collapsible tank farmsand related facilities.


Chapter 8PORTS

O btaining adequate port facilities early in any overseacampaign is essential to the efficient flow of troops and

materiel into a given Theater of Operations. Port construction,rehabilitation, and repair are of vital importance to the success ofany such mission. Securing these facilities is often an initialobjective of oversea operations. Host nation agreements grantingmilitary use rights are essential to ensure the impact on commer-cial shipping and local military operations is kept to a minimum.

While the situation dictates the course of action, assault landingfacilities are usually used for supply and replenishment in theinitial phase of a campaign, followed by LOTS operations, asdiscussed in Chapter 7. As established port areas are acquired orrehabilitated, beach sites are normally abandoned. Certain areasof operation, however, may require use of beach sites for extendedperiods of time or even indefinitely, due to the lack of existingfacilities, the geography, the terrain, or the enemy situation Theconstruction of new ports is normally undesirable, as it requires alarge amount of labor, materials, and time, and probably wouldlack the desirable related facilities, such as connecting road andrail networks. Therefore, existing ports are usually targeted forrehabilitation and upgrade. The Engineer mission is to supportconstruction, maintenance, and repair of a wide variety offacilities, both above and below the waterline.

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CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES 66

PLANNING FACTORS 71

PORT CONSTRUCTION 73

REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE 76

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SCOPE OF PORT OPERATIONS

This chapter is a guide for the constructionand rehabilitation of ship unloading andcargo handling facilities in Theater of Opera-tions ports. The coverage includes specialproblems encountered in port constructionand the construction of those supportingstructures located in and around the portfacility. Based on current trends in thecommercial shipping industry, it is antici-pated that up to 90 percent of all cargoarriving in future Theaters of Operations willbe containerized.

This method of shipping requires dock androad surfaces capable of withstanding severeloads, as well as heavy lift equipment capableof transferring the largest loaded container(8 feet wide, 40 feet long, 67,200 pounds) from

large, oceangoing vessels to shore facilities.These factors should be considered duringport planning. The guidelines concerningfacilities for handling containerized cargoand container shipping outlined within thischapter represent the most current develop-ments in this industry.

The information provided is also applicableto both nuclear and nonnuclear warfarescenarios. In nuclear scenarios, however,large new ports would almost certainly not bebuilt, and it is unlikely that existing largeports would be rehabilitated because of theexcellent interdiction, target they would make.The port construction effort in these circum-stances would be confined to numerous smallports which would not offer lucrative targetsto the enemy.

CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIES

The operation of a port in a Theater ofOperations is a large and vital undertakingwith many divisions of responsibility be-tween the Navy and the branches of theArmy. Basic decisions as to the location ofports, capacity, utilization, wharfage, andstorage facilities are made at the Theater andTheater Army (TA) and TransportationCommand (TRANSCOM) Headquarters. Theresponsibilities of the Theater Command,Theater Army Command, and TRANSCOMcommander are stated in FM 100-10. The TAAssistant Chief of Staff (ACS), Movements,is responsible for operating ports and fur-nishing liaison with the Navy, Coast Guard,and other interested military and authorizedcivilian agencies, both of allied countries andthe United States. The ACS, Movements,requests, advises, and makes recommenda-tions concerning the engineer troopsemployed and the work concerned.

THEATER, THEATER ARMY, ANDTRANSCOM RESPONSIBILITIES

The functions of higher echelon command forthe construction or rehabilitation of a portinclude:

Ž Studies of intelligence reports and allavailable reconnaissance applying to eachport area that is considered for use.

Ž Tentative determination of the ports orcoastal area to be used as a part of overallstrategic planning.

Ž Assignment of the mission of the port.

Ž Determination of port requirements.

Ž Tentative decision on the general methodsof construction to be used, and determina-tion of engineer units, special equipment,and materials required.

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ENGINEER UNITSEngineer units are responsible for port con-struction and rehabilitation and for coordi-nating all work with that of any Navy unitsengaged in harbor clearance and salvageoperations, such as the neutralization ofmines and underwater obstacles. Engineersperform minor salvage operations, such asclearing obstructions and debris from harborentrances and improving channels. This doesnot include large-scale salvaging, which is aNavy responsibility. The majority of taskswill be accomplished by Engineer Port Con-struction Companies, Combat Heavy Battal-ions, and specialty teams assigned to theTable of Organization and Equipment (TOE)5-530 series. In performing their mission ofrehabilitation, construction, and mainte-nance of a port, Army engineers are respon-sible for—

Ž Construction and repair of breakwaters,docks, piers, wharves, quays, moles, andlanding stages.

Ž Construction and maintenance of roads inthe port area.

Ž Construction, and major maintenanceonly, of railway facilities required by theport.

Ž Construction of storage and marshalingareas required by the port.

Ž Construction or reconstruction of portutilities including water supply, electricpower, and sewerage, if required.

Ž Construction, and major maintenanceonly, of tanker unloading facilities, in-cluding mooring facilities, submergedpipelines, surface pipelines, and rigid POLtank farms.

Ž Maintenance and operation of the firefighting facilities of the port.

Ž Dredging, except as accomplished by theNavy.

Ž Debris clearance in the port area.

Ž Acquisition of buildings, facilities, andother property within the port area formilitary use.

Ž Provision of warehouses, depots, quartersfor port personnel, and other facilities asrequired for the operation of the port.

Ž Continuous study of the port situation andpreparation of tentative plans for possiblecontingencies.

Ž Requisitioning of the supplies and equip-ment to carry out the mission.

Ž Provision of diver support from theaterlevel.

Ž Liaison with naval units to coordinateconstruction with harbor clearanceactivities.

Ž Recommendation for the assignment ofseized areas and facilities within the portarea.

Ž Advising the TRANSCOM Commanderand staff on engineering matters connectedwith the identification, classification, in-transit storage, movement, and distribu-tion of engineer equipment and Class IIand IV construction materials.

The engineer unit normally responsible formajor port construction or rehabilitation isthe engineer construction group. It is orga-nized to include an Engineer Port Construc-tion Company or Companies, PipelineConstruction Support Companies, CombatHeavy Engineer Battalions, Dump TruckCompanies, Engineer Construction SupportCompanies, Dredge Teams, and other units

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the mission may require. When several groupsare employed together, they are organized asan engineer brigade.

The engineer construction group is a flexibleorganization, and only becomes operationalwhen working units are assigned or attachedto it. The Headquarters and HeadquartersCompany, Engineer Construction Group,commands and controls three to five CombatHeavy Battalions or their equivalent inassigned or attached troops. When composedof two or three Combat Heavy Battalions andat least one Port Construction Company, thegroup is capable of typical wharf construc-tion. Pipeline Construction Support Com-panies, dredges and Dredge Teams, Con-struction Support Companies, and DumpTruck Companies are added as the missionand scope of work requires.

The Engineering Port Construction Companynormally operates as one element of a large-scale, coordinated construction operationunder an engineer group, although it can beemployed separately on minor projects. Itsactivities are limited mainly to the construc-tion or major repair of waterfront structuresand POL off-loading facilities and anchor-ages. It is preferable to assign related on-landprojects to a Combat Heavy Battalion orother specialized unit, so that the Port Con-struction Company can handle the special-ized waterfront construction. The company isorganized for two-shift operation. Its equip-ment includes crane-shovels with attach-ments for dredging, excavating, pile driving,and other work; pipeline equipment; hy-draulic jacks; air compressors; pumps;tractors; concrete mixers; bridge erectionboats; and Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM).It is equipped for light repair or salvageoperations on ships or other floating plants.

Engineer divers operate under TOE 5-530 ascellular teams that provide specialized divingsupport to all theater requirements. As in theLOTS environment, a Control and SupportDetachment located at theater level coordi-nates the efforts of operational teamsattached to corps and echelons above corps,in support of port construction missions.

One such operational unit, the Deep WaterDiving Team, is allocated to port constructioncompanies on a basis of one team per one tothree companies. These teams are capable oftwo shift operations using SCUBA, light-weight, and deep sea equipment up to amaximum depth of 250 feet. Missions thatthese teams could expect to perform in supportof port construction operations include—

Ž Light underwater salvage,

Ž Harbor clearance,

Ž Underwater pipeline repair/maintenance,

Ž Fixed bridge construction,

Ž Port construction, repair, and rehabili-tation,

Ž Ship husbandry,

Ž Support of LOTS operations.

The Deep Water Diving Team is capable of upto three simultaneous separate operations orone extended diving operation. Some of theequipment peculiar to these cellular teamsincludes deep sea, lightweight, and SCUBAdiving equipment, underwater hydraulictools, recompression chamber, small water-craft, demolition equipment, and photo gear.Additional equipment and support such as

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underwater damage assessment televisionssystems, salvage pumps, and diving equip-ment maintenance support can be obtainedthrough the control and support team or onan as needed basis.

The Lightweight Diving Team is one otheroperational unit which may support portconstruction operations. These teams canperform all missions of the Deep WaterTeams, with the exception of deep sea andextended operations, and only to a maximumdepth of 190 feet. Unlike the Deep WaterTeam, the Lightweight Team is capable ofonly two separate diving operations at onetime.

Engineer dredge teams of the TOE 5-500series are assigned to operate organic currter-head pipeline or seagoing hopper dredges.Dredges of other types, when found in portsor waterways, are usually best operated byhost nation personnel.

Other units required for engineer service inconnection with port construction may in-clude forestry, topographic and intelligence,maintenance, fire fighting, and utility units.

TRANSPORTATION UNITSTransportation units are responsible foroperating the port. The unit coordinatesoperational activities with the completion ofnecessary projects, and provides liaison withthe Navy and Coast Guard. The transporta-tion unit also performs a continuous study ofthe needs of the port facilities to ensure thesmooth and orderly flow of personnel, sup-plies, and materiel through the port. The unitstaff plans, supervises, and controls freight

movement from the port by rail, motor, andinland water transportation, and under cer-tain conditions, air transport. Finally, thetransportation unit is responsible for estab-lishing engineer construction priorities.

QUARTERMASTER UNITSThe quartermaster units have overall respon-sibility y for the operation of petroleum pipelinesystems including off-vessel discharging andloading. They coordinate with naval units,engineer units, and transportation units indetermining the location of tanker unloadingand vessel fueling facilities.

CIVILIAN LABORCivilian labor is used to the fullest possibleextent in order to reduce the requirements forengineer units or to expedite construction. Inthe rehabilitation of developed areas, it maybe practical to arrange employment of hostnation engineers, contractors, superinten-dents, and the like, with their organizations.These may include a variety of skilledworkers. In many undeveloped areas, localbusinesses have established organizations toemploy and supervise labor in agricultureand other pursuits. Such organizations canoften provide labor skilled in primitive con-struction methods. In either case, the plansfor employing civilian labor must includeadequate consideration of such factors ashousing, transportation, local customs,language difficulties, any locally determinedcomplications due to race or religion, andadapting construction plans to the methodsand materials to be used. The use of localcivilian labor results in savings in mobiliza-tion and demobilization costs, and savingsdue to the local wage scale and standard ofliving provided in work camps.

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PLANNING FACTORS

Wherever possible, port construction effortsin the Theater of Operations are based uponthe rehabilitation and/or expansion ofexisting facilities rather than new construc-tion. Once the decision as to the location ofthe port has been made at the theater head-quarters, the mission is assigned to anappropriate engineer command. The locationof the port will be made based upon ananalysis of the projected capacity of thefacility, the quantity and nature of cargo tobe handled, the tactical and strategic situa-tion, and the construction materials andassets available.

Careful planning based upon extensive anddetailed reconnaissance is essential to suc-cessful port construction. This reconnais-sance should begin upon receipt of the mis-sion and continue throughout constructionand up to actual occupation. A thoroughinitial reconnaissance will help planners toestimate logistical requirements by providingdata on the physical condition of the port tobe seized or occupied.

Based upon this analysis, constructionassignments, facilities required, and sched-uled target dates for various phases ofdevelopment are derived and outlined in theoperation order. From this information, aconstruction schedule is formulated. Con-struction schedules are prepared to show indetail the time plan for all operations in theirproper sequence. Equipment hours and man-hours of labor required for each principaloperation are then tabulated. The construc-tion schedule is based on—

Ž

Ž

Ž

Time allowed for completion,

Available equipment,

Type of labor available (regular troop units,reserve troop units, newly activated troopunits, localcontractors),

contractors, international

Ž Delivery of construction materials,

Ž Local sequence of operations,

Ž Necessary delays between operations,

Ž Weather.

After the port has been occupied, plannersmust carefully and critically examine pre-vious plans in view of the actual physicalcondition of the port. The impact of proposedchanges on logistics and scheduling must becoordinated through engineer, transporta-tion, and command channels. Prioritiesestablished in the operation order may haveto be modified after construction is under-taken. Planning and scheduling are based onmeeting all immediate needs, while ensuringthat all work contributes toward the antici-pated requirements.

Studies are made to determine the relativevalue of rehabilitation and construction.These studies compare the value to be gainedfrom specific facilities within a port to theconstruction effort required. Among otherfactors, selection of the best ports for furtherdevelopment is determined by the need fordispersion, location of logistical require-ments, time and effort required to moveconstruction units, and local availability ofmaterials as well as civilian or prisoner-of-war labor.

Port capacity requirements are estimated byHeadquarters, TRANSCOM, or the TheaterArmy Support Command (TASCOM) ACS,Movements. The engineer usually makes anindependent estimate of the capacity of theport under various alternative methods ofconstruction, repair, or rehabilitation. Thisprocedure serves as an aid to determining themost advantageous relative priorities ofengineer projects. The capacity estimates ofTRANSCOM and TASCOM, however, mustgovern with respect to military loads. On the

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basis of port capacity estimates, the engineerrecommends schedules for construction/rehabilitation of port cranes and other facil-ities, road and railroad construction withinthe port area, preparation of storage andmarshaling areas, and the like. Some con-siderations in port capacity estimating andplanning follow.

WHARF FACILITIESRehabilitation and construction priorities,choice of construction materials, and plans ofoperations for the port are factors whichdetermine the attainment of the greatestcapacity from the wharfage with the leastexpenditure of manpower and materials.

DISCHARGE RATESPort capacity estimates are based on thedischarge rates of ships either at the wharf orin the stream. Priority is given to methodswhich allow ships to be discharged morequickly. Construction is scheduled in coordi-nation with transportation operations so thatconstruction activities interfere as little aspossible with the discharge of ships.

ANCHORAGE AVAILABLEWhen sheltered anchorage is available, light-erage operation offers a means of dischargingcargo while deep-water wharves are underconstruction or repair. By conducting light-erage operations while construction andrehabilitation work go forward, continuedunloading is possible through the use of thefollowing alternatives:

Ž The continuous dredging of the deep-waterwharf approach channel by using ashallow-draft approach and dischargeoutside of dredging work areas.

Ž The use of the shallow-draft parts of thewharf systems while some of the deep-water wharves are under construction.

Ž Unloading shallow-draft vessels overdeep-draft wharves during construction.

Planners may use the basic periods of timesuch as the two-shift, 20-hour working day, orthe days in a month to prepare estimatedlabor needs extending over a period of time.However, adverse physical conditions pecu-liar to the location must be considered. Forexample, severe icing conditions during thewinter months, periods of extreme tide range,or severe seasonal winds may have a directbearing upon construction or rehabilitationwork. When heavy seasonal rains, snowfall,icing, seasonal winds of unusual severity,frequent or seasonal fogs, or exceptionallyhigh or low temperatures are typical to acoastal area, work time estimates should bemodified to allow for such conditions.

Good engineering design is based on a carefulconsideration of pertinent variable relation-ships and their applications. A temporary orexpedient construction design is good if itfulfills its purpose within job limitations.Whenever possible, standard designs are usedto save time in design, construction, andmaintenance. Standard designs and theiraccompanying bills of material are the basisfor advance procurement of constructionmaterials and equipment. The engineer mustfit these designs to the site and adapt them tothe existing conditions. Reconnaissance,construction surveys, soil bearing tests,driving of test piles, and perhaps sievean alyses of local sands and gravels are thusprerequisites to the preparation of finaldesign drawings and bills of material. Designof nonstandard structures is usually carriedout only if standard designs cannot beadapted.

Field Manual 101-10-1 gives planning factorsfor approximate materials and man-hourrequirements in overall planning and esti-mating of general and break-bulk cargo portconstruction. Technical Manuals 5-301through 5-303 also give data on design,material, and labor requirements for portstructures.

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PORT CONSTRUCTION

PHASED CONSTRUCTIONCurrent procedures for port construction inundeveloped areas usually fall under thefollowing phases:

Ž Phase One, Preliminary. This phase in-cludes all requirements from the arrival ofconstruction units to the beginning ofconstruction of deep-draft wharves. TheLOTS operations are conducted duringthis phase.

Ž Phase Two, Initial Construction. Thisphase continues to the point at which thefirst cargo-ship berth is fully operational,including road and rail connection, watersupply and electrical services, and bulkPOL handling facilities that can receiveliquid fuels direct from oceangoing tankers.

Ž Phase Three, Completion. This phase endswhen all authorized facilities are fullyoperational.

CONSTRUCTION METHODSCommercial records indicate that at least 9months are required for a skilled construc-tion crew of 30 to construct a modern (approx-imately 80 by 1,000 feet) steel or concrete pilewharf by conventional (cast-in-place and/oron-site job erection) methods. This timerequirement, even allowing for larger con-struction crews, indicates that neither steelnor concrete pile wharves will likely be builtby conventional methods in the future. Recentstudies indicate that although steel and con-crete will be the most common buildingmaterials in new military port construction,their use will probably be limited to new,unconventional construction methods.

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Steel wharves or piersThe use of steel in future military port con-struction is expected to occur mainly in theconstruction of expedient container portswith large self-elevating, self-propelled, spud-type barge pier units. These can be put intoservice in relatively short periods of time.

These structures have been used extensivelyin the oil exploration industry. Their recom-mended use in expedient port construction istherefore based not only on concepts but alsoon actual use in situations at least as de-manding as those found in modern militaryoperations. The newer versions of thesebarges use truss-type supports rather thancaissons. They may be elevated at a muchfaster rate (50 feet per hour) and are morerelocatable than the older DeLong typebarges. This capability may limit the plan-ning for construction and expansion of futureports to getting the individual components tothe job site.

Concrete wharves or piersCommercial port engineers have preparedand are continuing to prepare designs forprecast concrete pier pilings, caps, decks, andcurbs. These techniques should reduce con-ventional concrete port construction timerequirements considerably.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALSMaterials demanded for port constructionare often quite specialized or unique. Class IVsupplies include all construction materialsand installed equipment. Following initialoccupation, supplies received from the conti-nental United States (CONUS) will, for acertain period of time, follow an automaticrate prescribed by the Department of theArmy. At a later stage, the basis of supplychanges from automatic shipment to requisi-tion. Theater requisitions for engineer con-struction materials must take careful accountof project requirements for special large-scaleoperations. Issues from stocks are based on

the requirements for the particular work onwhich the requisitioning unit is engaged.Critical items of Class IV supply may beissued under policies approved by the G-4;uncontrolled items are issued on call.

The task of providing engineer constructionsupplies for a modern Army from CONUS,especially in an overseas theater, is so large,so complex, and so costly, that every effortmust be made to simplify it through the use oflocal procurement. A continuous inventory ofstocks of construction materials and equip-ment available locally is maintained by theunit supply officer. Class IV supplies suitablefor local procurement may include: lumber,cement, structural steel, sand, gravel, rock,plumbing and electrical supplies, hardware,and paint.

SUPPORT FACILITIESA large amount of construction effort goesinto building port support facilities. If a portis located in an area where there is anadequate rail or roadway network, cargo-handling (break-bulk or container) operationswill be more efficient when there are likeconnectors on the wharves. Engineer unitsare responsible for the construction of railand roadway facilities required by the port.Plans are worked out in coordination withTransportation Corps requirements, as dis-cussed in Chapter 6.

Designs currently being recommended to theArmy for future expedient military containerport construction generally specify tractor-trailers to transport the individual containersfrom the wharves. The wharf must be ofsufficient strength (capable of supporting upto 1,000 pounds per square foot of live loads)and width (usually 80 to 100 feet) to accom-modate fully loaded TOE tractor-trailers andbe constructed to an elevation from whichsuitable connections can be made to existingor planned roadway networks.

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Other on-shore construction requirementsinclude—

Ž Potable and impotable water supply forships docked/moored in the port as well asthe port itself.

Ž Electric power supply and distributionwhich may require overhead and under-ground systems.

Ž Fire fighting facilities and special systemsas needed, such as special facilities forPOL terminals.

Suitable water depths must be maintained atports. According to FM 101-10-1, a minimumlow tide water depth of about 33 feet should beused for planning purposes because it willaccommodate virtually all deep-draft vessels.However, the recent trend toward containeri-zation and the use of large tankers with over50,000 hundredweight capacities indicatethat some future military ports should beplanned with minimum water depths of 40 to50 feet. The planned construction of wharvesin water depths several feet less than desiredmay also be justified where—

Ž It is established that the required depthcan be obtained by dredging, that suchdredging is practical as part of the con-struction project, and that it can be per-formed without endangering the in-placewharf structure.

Ž Short-term use is anticipated, thus makinglighterage more feasible than dredging orwharf relocation.

The actual minimum water depths of newwharf construction are dictated by thewharf’s intended use (POL wharf, containerwharf, lighter wharf). These depths aredetermined and given in the operation order.

Dredging may be required to establish andmaintain required depths. Experience gainedduring World War II and in Vietnam indicatesthat there are a number of specific problemsassociated with dredging projects in aTheater of Operations. Transportation ofdredges to the Theater of Operations can bedifficult. Hopper dredges and sidecastingdredges are the only ones that are seagoing.Other dredges must either be towed to the siteor assembled from components transportedaboard cargo ships.

It is also difficult to secure dredges within theTheater of Operations. The routine patternsfollowed by dredges greatly limit the effec-tiveness of any passive defensive measures.Pipeline dredges are virtually stationarytargets. The availability of dredges and crewsfor use in early stages of deployment in aTheater of Operations is a major problem.The Army at the present has no trainedmilitary dredge crews or portable dredgessuitable for use in a Theater of Operations.

Sweeping, covered in detail in TM 5-235, is amethod of locating pinnacles or other ob-structions which exist in navigation areasabove the depth limits required by the draft ofthe largest ships to use the area. Sweeping isalways used as a final check after dredgingoperations.

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REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE

Repair and maintenance involves the correc-tion of critical defects to restore damagedfacilities to satisfactory use. Repair andmaintenance of conventional and expedientconstruction could include emergency repair,major repair, rehabilitation of breakwaterstructures, and expedients.

EMERGENCY REPAIREmergency repair is work done to repairstorm, accident, or other damage to preventadditional losses and larger repairs. Emer-gency repairs include—

Ž Repairs to breached breakwaters to preventfurther damage to harbor installations.

Ž Repairs of wharf damage caused by ship orstorm damage or enemy action restorestructural strength.

Ž Dumping rock to control foundation scouror breach erosion.

MAJOR REPAIRMajor repair is significant replacement workthat is unlikely to recur, such as—

Ž Replacing wharf decks.

Ž Resurfacing access roads and earth-filledquays.

Ž Replacing wharf bracings and anchorageswhich have been destroyed by decay orerosion.

Ž Replacing entire spud barge pier, spud, orother major barge pier accessories.

REHABILITATION OFBREAKWATER STRUCTURES

The repair of breakwaters and similar struc-tures is required to protect the characteristicsof a harbor. Breached breakwater structuresare repaired by dumping rock of sizes suitablefor use in mounds.

EXPEDIENTSThe use of expedient methods should beencouraged during limited port operationswhile major repair and rehabilitation goforward. A number of possible measures tospeed repairs are listed below.

Ž Launches or tugboats with a line to theshore may be used for various hauling andhoisting functions in construction work atthe waterfront.

Ž A floating crane may be improvised byerecting a derrick or installing a crawler-or truck-mounted crane on a regular barge,LCM, a barge of pontoon cubes, or a bargefabricated for military floating bridgeunits.

Ž Rafts for pile-bent bracing operations maybe fabricated from oil drums, heavy tim-bers, spare piles, or local material.

Ž Floating dry docks for small craft may beimprovised from Navy pontoons.

Ž Light barges, floating wharf approaches,and small floating wharves may be im-provised from steel oil drums.

Ž Diagonal flooring laid over existingdecking strengthens a structure by dis-tributing the load over more stringers.

Ž The decking may be removed for addingstringers, or smaller stringers may beplaced on the pile cap between existingstringers from beneath the decking andwedged tight against the deck.

Ž If the wharf can support the weight of thepile driver, several floor planks can betaken up and the piles driven through thehole. New pile bents are capped and wedgedtight against the stringers.

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Ž A rock or ballast-filled timber crib may beused to replace a gap in a pile wharfstructure or to extend the outshore end onthe wharf. The timber crib may be built onland, launched by using log rollers, floatedinto position, and filled with rock or ballastto hold it in place.

Ž Use standard military floating bridges orNavy pontoons to supplement or tempo-rarily replace damaged causeways.

Ž Use standard military floating bridges orNavy pontoons to provide access betweenundamaged sections of off-loading piers.

Ž If a section of a wharf has been destroyed,the face of the wharf is restored first sothat ships may be worked while the areabehind the face is being restored.

Ž The shore end of a pier may be used forlighters or other short vessels while thepier is being extended.

Ž Part of a solid-fill wharf may be bridgedusing standard or nonstandard fixedbridging.

Ž If a slip is filled with rubble so that shipscannot be brought to the face of the wharf,it may be possible to fend them off withcamels, barges, or other devices so thatthey will be retained in deep water forunloading. Alternatively, it may be pos-sible to use standard trestles, fixedbridging, and assembled Navy pontoonsto extend the width of the pier.

Ž The hull of a capsized or sunken vesselmay be used as the substructure for a pier.

Ž The shore end of a causeway constructedfrom Navy pontoon cubes may be anchoredonshore by excavating a section of beach,floating the pontoons into the temporaryinlet thus made, and then backfilling toprovide a solid anchorage.

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Chapter 9GENERAL SUPPLY, MAINTENANCE,AND AMMUNITION STORAGEFACILITIES

A dequate logistic facilities are vital if combat operations areto be effectively supplied. Theater engineers provide, main-

tain, and repair facilities for receiving, storing, and distributingall classes of supply, and supporting all other logistic functions.This chapter addresses the procurement, construction, mainte-nance, and repair of logistic facilities, both for general supply andfor the more specialized purpose of storing munitions.

Engineers tasked to support logistic installations have threemajor missions: provide new facilities; maintain existing facili-ties; recover and repair facilities damaged by hostile actions.

In the European Theater, peacetime construction and host nationagreements have provided extensive facilities. In less-developedtheaters, there may be no preexisting logistic facilities. In suchtheaters, logistic support installations must be provided byadapting and converting commercial property to military use, orby constructing new facilities.

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SUPPLY AND MAINTENANCE FACILITIES

Logistic installations vary widely. Thesimplest installation may be a hardstandsurface with rudimentary surface drainageand a supporting road system. More complexinstallations may look like urban industrialparks, including warehouses, maintenanceand repair facilities, water, sewage, and elec-trical utilities, refrigeration or other climatecontrol capability, and supporting roads,railroads, ports, airfields, protective fencing,fire services, and personnel support adminis-tration facilities. Logistic installations (LI)include general, ammunition, and mainte-nance depots, storage sites, and hospitals.Medical treatment facilities and enemyprisoner of war facilities are covered inChapter 15.

CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITYThe theater commander identifies the mini-mum essential engineering and constructionrequirements for facilities, including newconstruction and repair of war-damagedfacilities. The Theater Army Engineer Com-mand (ENCOM) is responsible for planning,prioritization, and tasking subordinate unitsfor project execution.

The ENCOM also provides construction andrestoration support for the Air Force whenrequired tasks exceed the Air Force’s organiccapability. Support may also be provided toallied forces when they are assisting USoperations. The theater commander maydesignate a regional wartime theater con-struction manager (TCM) to coordinate andprioritize engineer construction activities ofall services in a geographic area. Detailedcommand and support relationships in thetheater and COMMZ are given in FM 100-16.

PLANNING FACTORSIn both developed and contingency theaters,it is necessary to determine requirements fortime-phased facility construction, wardamage repair, construction material, and

other engineering needs for supporting de-ployed US forces. In developing and eval-uating alternatives, planning should resultin—

• Determination of critical requirements,duration of construction projects, andinformation for scheduling and requisi-tioning.

• A logical task sequence based on prioritiesnecessary to accomplish the mission.

• An accurate estimate of required materialsand labor that takes into account hostnation guidelines and resources.

• Determination of command and supportrelationships, providing for engineeringcoordination throughout the theater orarea of operation.

• Identification of a method of controllingthe situation as it develops or changes.

SITE SELECTIONA preliminary reconnaissance, usually fol-lowed by a field reconnaissance, must beconducted. Preliminary reconnaissancesources of information and techniques arediscussed in Chapter 4 of this manual. Thefield reconnaissance team should be com-posed of, but not limited to, representatives ofthose units which the facility will support,the S-3 of the unit responsible for construc-tion, a command group representative, a civilaffairs personnel representative, and a rep-resentative of the host nation. Emphasisshould be placed on the following considera-tions:

Ž Tactical situation.

Ž Capability to defend the site.

Ž Terrain.

GENERAL SUPPLY, MAINTENANCE, AND AMMUNITION STORAGE FACILITIES 79

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• Availability of suitable existing facilitiesthat may be either occupied immediatelyor modified to desired specifications.

• Environmental restrictions which maylimit the size of the required facility (thesemay be caused by weather or host nationpolicy).

• Accessibility to projected traffic.

• Availability of construction materials.

• Climatic extremes which may demandrefrigeration or other climate controlmeasures.

PROTECTIONProtection of a facility or installation maybeaccomplished by active and passive securitymeasures, including facility hardening anddispersion. The enemy situation must beevaluated as thoroughly as possible. Threatsto supply and maintenance facilities mayinclude conventional or nuclear/chemicalattacks delivered by artillery, missiles, oraircraft. Remote delivery of mines shouldalso be considered. Covert activities maybe athreat following the insertion of deep-strikeforces. In determining how to best protect afacility against interdictory attacks, thecommander must take into account the sur-rounding terrain, weather, the availability ofClass IV and V materials to support protec-tive measures, and the enemy situation.Another consideration that may influencethe commander’s decision is the host nationpolicy governing construction and use ofconstruction resources.

Facility hardeningHardening of facilities should be emphasizedwhen terrain constricts dispersion and Threatanalysis indicates that the facilities are pos-sible targets for enemy weapons. Hardeningtechniques are discussed in FM 5-103.

DispersionWhere terrain conditions permit, facilitiesshould be dispersed to prevent the enemyfrom inflicting massive damage in a singlestrike. Precautions must be made, however,to ensure that operations are not undulyhampered by ill-planned dispersion schemes.

SecurityGenerally, security includes active and pas-sive measures taken to thwart enemy troopinterdiction. Active measures may includeconstruction of fire fighting positions, barbedwire obstacles, earthen barriers, minefield,placement of remote sensors, and use ofsecurity patrols. Passive measures may in-clude use of camouflage and decoy systemsand the enforcement of light discipline.

Refer to AR 50-6 and AR 190-11 for requiredsecurity measures for ammunition supplypoints. Engineer tasks that support securitymeasures include clearing a right of way forsecurity fences and constructing guard posts,fences, and lighting systems. Protectiveminefield may be required in some cases.

LAYOUTIn siting and laying out an installation, thecommander, with the assistance of the staff,evaluates all the information gathered in theplanning and reconnaissance phases. Oncethe commander or the designated representa-tive has made a decision on where the instal-lation is to be built, the engineer develops aconstruction plan that takes into considera-tion available resources (military, hostnation, or contract construction personnel,materials, and equipment). The layout shouldbe organized in such a way that it can becompleted soon enough to meet the priorityscheme. Internal operating efficiency mustalso be considered in the layout. The ArmyFacilities Components System (AFCS) TM5-302, illustrates typical installation layouts.

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CONSTRUCTIONNew construction must be held to the mini-mum. Whenever feasible, facility require-ments must be met by existing facilities (USand host nation), organic unit shelters, andportable or relocatable facility substitutes.

Standards for new construction (initial ortemporary) are dictated by the theater com-mander, based upon expected duration of use,the availability of materials, man-hours ofconstruction effort, and material cost (TM5-301). Locally available materials may dic-tate design and construction criteria. Plansare provided for many supply and mainte-nance facilities in TM 5-302.

CONVERSION OFEXISTING FACILITIES

Instances may arise when it will be better interms of labor, material, and time, to modifyexisting facilities. Chapter 12 discusses pro-

cedures for acquiring existing facilities andother real property in the Theater of Opera-tions. Host nation agreements may requirecompensation for using or converting suchfacilities. Army engineers and host nationand civilian contractors are encouraged touse ingenuity, imagination, and inventive-ness to adapt existing facilities for militaryuse.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRRoutine maintenance and repair of facilitiesis accomplished by user units through unit-appointed teams. Army engineers performmaintenance and repair work that exceedsthe capabilities of user units. This supportusually requires specialized skills or heavyequipment. Further information on RealProperty Maintenance Activities (RPMA) isgiven in Chapter 13.

AMMUNITION STORAGE AND SUPPLY

A well developed Theater of Operations needsa network of ammunition supply and storagefacilities. Well situated and stocked ammuni-tion storage and supply facilities are criticalto the timely distribution of required muni-tions. Ammunition must be stored withmaximum attention to protection againstnatural and man-made threats, includingaccidents caused by careless storage andhandling. Class V and Class V (W) (aircraftordnance) supply items are explosive andoften contain sensitive components. Im-proper, careless, or rough storage andhandling of ammunition and explosives mayresult not only in malfunctions, but may alsocause accidents which result in loss of life,injury, or property damage. Properly de-signed, constructed, and maintained ammu-nition storage and supply facilities will helplimit the possibility of such accidents. Appro-priate storage ensures maximum serviceabil-

ity and shelf life of stocks, and reducesmaintenance requirements to a minimum.

THEATER STORAGE LOCATIONSThe Theater Storage Area (TSA) or depot, isusually located within the COMMZ, andserves as the initial storage and distributionpoint for theater munitions. Ammunitionmay be pushed forward to Corps StorageAreas (CSA), where further distribution ismade to forward Ammunition Supply Points(ASP). These are located in the division rear.Units may then draw directly from ASPS.Ammunition may be brought further forwardto Ammunition Transfer Points (ATPs) wheremunitions are transferred from corps stakeand platform semitrailers to user resupplyvehicles.

Generally, the further to the rear the ammu-nition facility is, the more elaborate the


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construction, and the more extensive theconstruction support required. Dependingupon the extent of a contingency operation,land based ammunition supply and storagefacilities may also be desired. Their construc-tion may be less elaborate than the developedtheater counterpart, but security and safeand efficient operation must stil l beconsidered.

CONSTRUCTION RESPONSIBILITIESEngineer elements, under the appropriateArmy command, are charged with the fol-lowing construction responsibilities in sup-port of ammunition storage and supplyoperations:

Ž Reconnaissance and improvement and/orconstruction of roads and bridges whichprovide access to and egress from theammunition facility. Engineers will alsoconstruct roads within the facility.

Ž Location of water sources for fire fightingoperations and construction of requiredreservoirs or water distribution system.

Ž Construction of standard ammunitionstorage magazines for indoor storage, orberms and pads for outdoor storage. Engi-neers may be tasked to supply appropriatedunnage for ammunition stacks, inaccordance with TM 9-1300-206.

Ž construction of firebreaks in and aroundthe facility.

Ž Construction of quarters and support facil-ities for ammunition facility personneland security forces. This includes asso-ciated power and sanitary requirements.

Ž Construction and maintenance of peri-meter security fences, lighting systems orother required obstacles.

PLANNING FACTORSPlanners must consider a number of factorswhen they are designing ammunition storageand supply facilities, including drainage,shelter, ventilation, facility size, vehicleaccess, water supply, and protection.

DrainageMunitions can be damaged by excessive mois-ture, and must be kept dry. Proper gradingand, where possible, the installation ofdrainage facilities in the area of the ammuni-tion facility will divert rainfall and groundwater away from ammunition stacks.

ShelterAmmunition and explosives must be shel-tered, wherever possible, from the elementsand the enemy. Depending upon the situationand the assets available, these shelters mayrange from approved steel, arch-earthmounded igloos, to an outdoor modularstorage system reinforced with earthworkberms. These systems are discussed in detailin FM 9-38.

VentilationAdequate ventilation is required to protectstocks from moisture and to prevent thebuildup of toxic and combustible gases.

SizeThe size of the facility depends on the kindsand quantities of munitions being handled.Facility size will be determined by the logis-tical unit commander, based on standards setforth in TM 9-1300-206 and the tacticalsituation.

Vehicle accessVehicles that use the ammunition facilitymust be able to travel to and from the approp-riate pickup points. Road networks and trafficflow patterns inside the facility must supportconcurrent resupply and issue operations,and provide for rapid evacuation of all


FM 5-104

vehicles in case of emergency. Fire fightingequipment must have access to all parts ofthe facility.

Water supplyWater tanks and reservoirs must be located tosupport fire fighting activities. Refer to TM9-1300-206 for siting and resupply require-ments, and to FM 5-315 for fire fightingprocedures.

Facility protectionProtection of an ammunition facility maybeaccomplished through a combination offacility hardening and dispersion, and activeand passive security measures. These mea-sures are similar to those described in thesection on maintenance and supply facilitiesin this chapter (page 80). Generally, the AreaDamage Control (ADC) plan (Chapter 14)will stipulate what measures must be takenbefore, during, and after a damage incident,and who will be responsible for each measure.

SITING AND LAYOUTLocation

The location of ammunition storage andsupply points is determined by the logisticalunit commander. A location must first servethe needs of maneuver forces. The ASP islocated within reasonable support distanceof maneuver elements. It is desirable to placethe ASP near an established MSR (road orrail) in order to make stocking and distribu-tion easier. However, ammunition storagefacilities should not be placed too near majorfacilities such as airfields, POL storage, andports. Taking this precaution will reduceconcurrent destruction as a result of enemytargeting on other facilities.

Within tactical constraints, the best possiblesite characteristics should be chosen. Levelterrain with existing natural barriers andgood drainage is preferable. This will serve to

reduce earthwork requirements. If possible,existing facilities or structures suitable forconversion to storage areas should be used.The engineer advises the logistical unitcommander on such matters as location ofconstruction materials, topography, drain-age, and the condition of local road andbridge networks. Consideration must also begiven to security and ease of defense. Wher-ever possible, sites should provide a defiladeto give concealment from enemy observation.

LayoutSpecific layout of an ammunition supply orstorage facility depends on the tactical situa-tion, the terrain, and the type and amount ofammunition being handled. Engineers sup-porting construction of ammunition supplyand storage facilities advise the appropriatecommander on construction and mainte-nance matters. If required by the tacticalsituation, the facility may have to receiveand issue ammunition before constructionoperations are finished. Engineers may haveto alter construction plans and techniques toallow for safe and efficient handling ofammunition while construction proceeds.Ammunition storage facilities are bestarranged in dispersed storage areas. Separa-tion of facilities provides protective disper-sion, and expedites the handling, receipt, andissue of materials, and facilitates inventoryand segregation. The road network is de-signed so that each area can be entered andexited independently. This prevents crossingtraffic in all areas.

Firebreaks wide enough (50 feet minimum) toprevent fires from spreading should also bemaintained. Soil that contains enough or-ganic matter to allow it to burn must beexcavated to the mineral subsoil. Since fire-breaks around ammunition stacks are easilydetected by aerial reconnaissance, their usemay have to be restricted.


FM 5-104

STORAGE AND HANDLINGAs previously mentioned, existing buildingsmay be used for ammunition storage as longas the rated floor load is sufficient. Chemical,incendiary, and white phosphorus roundsshould not be stored on wooden floors, sincethey are a fire hazard. Refer to TM 5-302 forspecific layouts for ammunition facilities,and for design plans for ammunition storagemagazines.

Ammunition and explosives may be storedoutdoors in accordance with TM 9-1300-206,which details site and layout requirementsfor outdoor storage of ammunition. Thesesupplies may also be stored on vehicles foradequate dispersion and rapid deployment.Engineer units usually have a sizeablematerial-handling capability, and may berequired to support ammunition storage andsupply operations with material-handlingequipment.

CLIMATESpecial effects imposed by the local climatemust be taken into consideration in the designand construction of ammunition storagefacilities.

DesertIn the desert, the need for dispersion isextremely important since natural conceal-ment is generally quite sparse. Shadows andregular shaped patterns are conspicuous andcan be avoided by the use of small, irregularstacks and the elimination of regular linesand rows. In this environment, engineers areseldom required to develop road networks.

Arctic/cold weatherIn a cold weather climate, care must be takento provide adequate dunnage for ammunitionstorage. Defilades must be avoided. Theymay be susceptible to flooding following athaw. Engineer assets may be used to clearand maintain the road network in snow andicy conditions.

TropicsMaximum effort must be made to combat theeffects of moisture. Adequate shelter, dun-nage, and ventilation must be provided asnecessary.


FM 5-104

Chapter 10PETROLEUM PIPELINES AND STORAGEFACILITIES

T he AirLand battlefield is a highly mechanized and mobileenvironment, increasingly dependent on petroleum products,

In the European Theater during World War II, about half the totallogistical tonnage was petroleum fuels. During the Korean Warand in the war in Vietnam, this figure rose to about 60 percent.The concept of mobile warfare on the deep battlefield of futureconflicts anticipates increased consumption of these products,

In the conceptual plan for supplying needed fuels. hulk petroleumis delivered through ports or LOTS. There, it is off-loaded intostorage facilities and sbipped forward. The modes of shipment indescending order of priority are pipeline, inland waterways, rail,motor carriers, and aircraft. The preferred method of shipment tothe corps area is by pipeline. The use of pipelines reduces theamount of traffic on other modes of transportation. Pipelinessave more energy and personnel costs than other methods ofoperation. The Engineer mission is to provide genera] andspecialized assistance in building and maintaining pipelinesystems.

RESPONSIBILITIES 86

ENGINEER CAPABILITIES 87

MILITARY BULK PETROLEUM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 88

PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 90

PETROLEUM PIPELINES AND STORAGE FACILITIES 85

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responsible for all aspects of theater levelpetroleum distributio planning and relatedsupply opeations. The group performs liai-son with the Theater Army Materiel Manage-ment Center (TAMMC) and Host Nation(HN) staffs for coordinating allied petroleumdistribution support. It distributes fuels based

RESPONSIBILITIES

The Joint Petroleum Office (JPO) coordinates on priorities establishedthe petroleum needs of all services within the mander and by directivesTheater command. The petroleum group TAMMC.commander for the Theater Army (TA) is

by the TA com-received from the

Bulk petroleum in the Theather of Operationsis distributed by the Petroleum Pipeline andTerminal Operating Battalions. These bat-talions are responsible for the operation andorganizational maintenance of petroleumpeipelines and storage facilities. They areresponsible for installing collapsible tanks

86 PETROLEUM PIPELINES AND STORAGE FACILITIES

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and associated equipment for the Tactical ENCOM provides maintenance (excludingPetroleum Terminal (TPT). They also install organizational maintenance) and repair ofcollapsible hoselines used to temporarily existing pipelines. It also designs, constructs,extend pipelines. and expands the tactical pipeline system

(including marine terminals and storageThe Theater Army Engineer Command facilities). These tasks are done by US engi-(ENCOM) or the senior engineer HQ supports neer forces or through coordination with thethe petroleum distribution effort. The HN.

ENGINEER CAPABILITIES

Engineer support to the petroleum distribu-tion effort calls for a combination of generaland special construction skills. To maximizepotential and minimize duplication of lowdensity skills and equipment, general engi-neer construction units are augmented withspecialized units from the active or reserveestablishments.

COMBAT HEAVY ENGINEERBATTALIONS (TOE 5-115)

The primary military engineer units requiredto support the petroleum distribution effortare the Combat Heavy Engineer Battalions.These units provide horizontal and generalconstruction support for most of the tacticalpipeline construction mission.

Many tasks in pipeline construction are hori-zontal. These include route clearing andflattening, and constructing gap crossingsand pipe supports. These tasks can best bedone by a general construction unit withheavy earthmoving equipment. The battal-ions also provide the labor or help to super-vise HN personnel for assembling pipe andassociated equipment.

ENGINEER PIPELINECONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

COMPANIES (TOE 5-177)These units provide technical personnel andspecialized equipment. They help construc-

tion and combat engineer battalions to con-struct, rehabilitate, and maintain pipelinesystems. (They do not perform organizationalmaintenance.) These units have a limitedindependent capability to construct, rehabil-itate, and maintain pipeline systems.

Pipeline Construction Support Companiescan help using units with specialized repairs.They can provide advisory personnel to threeengineer companies of an engineer battalionengaged in pipeline construction. Unit per-sonnel can advise on such tasks as pipestringing, pipe coupling, storage tank erec-tion, and pump station and dispensing facil-ity construction. Engineer Pipeline Construc-tion Support Companies are equipped tofunction on a two-shift basis. The companieshave a limited number of bolster trailers fortransporting pipe.

ENGINEER PORT CONSTRUCTIONCOMPANIES (TOE 5-129)

In support of the petroleum distribution effort,Port Construction Companies install offshoremooring facilities. They can install bothfloating and underwater pipeline. They alsoconstruct POL jetties and wharfs, and caninstall limited POL storage facilities in thebeach area. With the support of divers, theseunits can conduct underwater pipelinerepairs.


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PIPELINE DESIGN TEAMS(TOE 5-530HD)

This six-member team helps to design spe-cialized pipeline construction projects. It canselect major tank farm locations and pipelineroutes, and design related structures. Theseinclude offshore discharge and loading facil-ities and fixed dispensing equipment. Thisteam helps to manage and supervise con-struction operations. One such team is allo-cated per engineer group or brigade engagedin pipeline construction operations.

RADIOGRAPHIC WELD INSPECTIONTEAMS (TOE 5-530HJ)

This three-member team performs radio-graphic inspection of pipeline welds for theunit to which it is attached or assigned. Oneteam should be allocated for each EngineerPort Construction Company (TOE 5-129).One team should be assigned to each Engi-neer Pipeline Construction Support Companyengaged in welded pipeline construction.

MILITARY BULK PETROLEUM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The Army has used large scale petroleum the mid-1980s, when a major upgrade ofpipeline distribution systems since World materials and equipment took place. TheWar II. During the war and shortly afterward, entire distribution system is now subdividedthe total military pipeline system became into offshore and inland systems. The basicstandardized. Standardization included the characteristics of each system and some ofbulk fuel distribution equipment. This their salient features are described in theequipment remained largely unchanged until following paragraphs.


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OFFSHORE PETROLEUMDISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (OPDS)

The OPDS is a set of equipment and materialused to move petroleum from ships or bargesto the first storage facilities on land. TheOPDS maybe installed entirely by US Armyengineer units or in conjunction with USNavy construction units. This depends uponthe specific theater or situation. The Armyengineers and Navy construction forces havethe capability to extend underwater pipelineup to 4 miles from the high water mark. Suchlines are needed where shallow waters orblocked channels prevent tankers fromentering ports. If tankers can enter and useexisting port facilities, engineers install fuelunloading equipment at the pier or wharf.The first major storage facility is usuallylocated within a 5-mile radius of the beach.

TACTICAL PETROLEUMTERMINALS (TPT)

The TPT has been recently developed to takeadvantage of new, rapidly emplaceable,flexible storage tanks. The standard TPTuses 18 of these 5,000-barrel (210,000-gallon)collapsible tanks to provide fuel storage.When the TPT is deployed at its maximumsize, it requires an area of about 160 acres.The tanks are interconnected, filled, andemptied by a system of flexible hoses andtrailer-mounted pumps. The Petroleum Op-erating Battalion is responsible for emplacingfuel tanks, hoselines, and pumps.

Substantial engineer effort may be needed tohelp the petroleum operating battalion pre-pare the TPT site. The areas around the tanksites must be cleared of vegetation, and thesites must be leveled. Earth berms must bebuilt to provide added support and horizontalprotection for the tanks. The tank farm areamust be properly drained to prevent waterdamage and to minimize problems from fuelspills or catastrophic failure of a tank.Interconnecting roads are needed within thetank farm, as well as access roads andparking areas for heavy vehicles at fuel

dispensing points. A water supply for firefighting may need to be developed.

BOLTED STEEL STORAGE TANKSBolted steel tanks with storage capacities ofup to 10,000 barrels (420,000 gallons) are stillin the supply system. These tanks are espe-cially useful at petroleum terminals in placeswhere area restrictions preclude the optimumspacing of collapsible tanks or where morepermanent facilities are required. The erec-tion of the bolted steel tanks requires con-siderably more time and engineer effort thancollapsible tanks.

INLAND PETROLEUMDISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (IPDS)

The IPDS is the system of pipelines, hose-lines, and storage containers that extendsfrom the shore or port as far forward towardthe combat area as practical. The systemconsists of one or more main or trunk pipe-lines, pumping stations that move the productthrough the line, intermediate tank farms,branch lines to large users such as airfields,and the head terminal at the end of the line.The main pipeline may bean existing civilianpipeline provided by the HN, a line capturedfrom the enemy, or a tactical military pipelineconstructed by military engineers, or a com-bination. The construction materials used intactical military pipelines are easily assem-bled and readily adaptable to existingconditions.

MILITARY IPDS PIPEAND COUPLINGS

The new standard pipe used in the militaryIPDS system is either a 6- or 8-inch nominaldiameter aluminum pipe. The pipe comes instandard lengths of 20 feet. The pipe endshave special grooves rolled on the ends toallow sections of pipe to be joined with agasket and coupling. The new couplings forthe pipe are designed to be closed with a lever.The new pipe is considerably lighter than theolder steel pipe and tubing, and can be joined


FM 5-104

much faster and with fewer people. Alumi-num pipe comes with curved elbow sectionswhich allow pipe to negotiate turns andelbows. The aluminum pipe can be cut andthe ends prepared in the field with specialtools held by the Engineer Pipeline Construc-tion Support Company.

PUMPS AND PUMP STATIONSPump stations are located along the pipelineto maintain the pressure required to moveliquid fuel. Pump stations are operated bycrews from the Petroleum Operating Bat-talion. These crews operate pumps, maintainequipment, and may perform pipeline patrolbetween adjacent pump stations. The spacingof the pump stations will depend upon thehydraulic design of the pipeline, as deter-mined by the engineer, and the anticipatedfuture requirements of the system, as deter-mined by the petroleum group. On relativelyflat terrain, pump stations will be about 15 to

20 miles apart. In mountainous terrain, pumpstations may be much closer together.

Pump stations consist of a set of pumps,station fuel storage tanks, various pipelineoperating equipment, and personnel facilitiesfor the crews. The tactical and logisticalsituation will dictate the other features of thestation. The pump station should be locatedon relatively high ground to allow fuel vaporsto move away from the facility. Personnelfacilities should be located away from theoperating equipment because of noise andthe presence of noxious fumes.

Assembling pump station components re-quires the specialized skills of personnel fromthe Engineer Pipeline Construction SupportCompany. Newly introduced equipmentsignificantly reduces construction time,because many of the components are modu-larized. However, some fabrication is stillrequired.

PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

PLANNING PHASEThe engineer planning phase for the con-struction of a petroleum pipeline begins assoon as the need for a pipeline has beenestablished. The ENCOM, in conjunctionwith the Petroleum Group and the Trans-portation Group, determines the general routefor the pipeline. This ensures that thematerial required can be available whenneeded. In some cases, pipe has to be man-ufactured and shipped to the area. This mayadd months to the construction schedule.

Early determination of required constructionunits and support must be made. Transpor-tation needs must be planned, since Engineerbattalions have a limited lift capability tomove themselves. The requirement to trans-port large volumes of pipeline material couldprevent the rapid installation of the pipeline.

Final selection of the pipeline route beginsafter a physical reconnaissance of the areasto be crossed. The pipeline route will havethese major characteristics:

Ž Route follows secondary roads in order toreduce disruption of traffic on the MSRs.

Ž Route should be the most level groundavailable and avoid sharp changes inelevation. Pipeline supports and suspen-sion bridges allow the construction of theline over small and large gaps, but add tothe construction time and amount of addi-tional construction material required.

Ž Route avoids heavily populated areas tominimize potential problems from spillsand to reduce opportunities for tampering.


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Ž Route can service large users such asairfields.

Ž Route follows natural linear features suchas wood edges and fence rows as an aid incamouflage.

It is essential to determine elevations alongthe route as part of the reconnaissance. Thesedata are critical to the system’s hydraulicdesign. The hydraulic design determines thelocation and number of pump stations and ofcertain control devices needed so the pipelinecan work properly.

CONSTRUCTION PHASEDifferent parts of the pipeline system can bebuilt simultaneously. As construction crewsare clearing the pipeline route, other crewscan be building gap-crossing structures orinstalling pump stations and intermediatestorage facilities. Thus, the construction of apipeline system requires a maximum offlexibility and decentralized control of theconstruction elements. Leaders of small unitsmust be well prepared to function with aminimum of supervision, because the con-struction battalion will likely have elementsspread over many miles. In this way, theentire battalion can be effectively employed.

Tactical situation, terrain difficulty, andrequired supporting construction will deter-mine how the construction will be carried out.The joining of pipeline elements is likely to bea short end phase, with longer earlier phasesin which the battalion works in a decen-tralized fashion.

As the pipeline is assembled, certain sectionswill have to be tested carefully to make surethey are absolutely leak-proof. Any section ofpipe that cannot be visually inspected or isnot readily accessible must meet this cri-

terion. Sections of pipe that are buried under-ground or are submerged under water mustbe tested. Other critical sections include anyparts of a pipeline that are placed in tunnelsused by personnel or vehicles. Leaks in tun-nels may allow vapors to accumulate orexpose the pipe to damage from movingvehicles. A fire or explosion may result.

The pipeline is best checked by pressure-testing with water. The engineer unit mustprovide water for this event. Water is intro-duced into the pipeline and subjected toincreasing pressure for a period of time. Thepipeline must maintain the required pressurefor the specified period before the section ofpipeline can be accepted by the operatingunit. Testing with air can be used for shortersections of line, but leaks are difficult topinpoint. Under extreme operational re-quirements the testing may be authorizedusing fuel, but only as a last resort.

PIPELINE MAINTENANCEOnce the pipeline has been accepted by thepetroleum operating battalion, that unit isresponsible for maintenance. The unit willmake frequent inspections of the line forvisual signs of leaks and damage. The unit iscapable of repairing minor leaks and re-placing short sections of pipeline that havebeen damaged. However, the operating unitwill need engineer support to make repairsbeyond its capability, for instance, on buriedpipe or pipe that is in an inaccessible location.

Safety is extremely important when dealingwith pipeline breaks and leaks. Spilled fuelmust be contained to reduce the fire hazardand to prevent contamination of water sup-plies. Absolute control of all flame- or spark-generating equipment or material within ornear the work is vital.


Chapter 11WATER SUPPLY

W ater supply directly affects the combat efficiency, morale,general health, and welfare of soldiers in battle. It is

required for consumption, decontamination, sanitation, andconstruction, as well as for vehicle operation and maintenance.The quantity required depends upon the regional climate and thetype and scope of operations. The quality necessary depends onthe intended use of the supply. Water requirements are signifi-cantly greater in rear areas, where there is heavy demand foraircraft and vehicle washing, medical treatment, laundry andbath facilities, and construction projects. Nuclear/biological/chemical (NBC) operations also use large amounts of water (seeChapter 14).

RESPONSIBILITIES 93

PLANNING 93

ENGINEER CAPABILITIES 96

92 WATER SUPPLY

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RESPONSIBILITIES

The Theater Army Commander is responsiblefor the control and distribution of water to USArmy forces, to other US services, and, asrequired, to allied support elements. TheTheater Army Deputy Chief of Staff forLogistics (TADCSLOG) has the overall re-sponsibility for developing the water distri-bution plan for the theater and supervisingthe TA Commander’s priorities and alloca-tion procedures.

The senior ENCOM headquarters and itssubordinate engineer organizations are re-sponsible for the detection of subsurfacewater, well drilling, construction, and repairand maintenance (excluding organizationalmaintenance) of support facilities. Engineersare responsible for construction and mainte-nance of semipermanent and permanentwater utilities at Army fixed installations.Management of water utilities at fixed instal-lations is accomplished by facil itiesengineers.

Logistical and civil affairs personnel or HNS,if available, operate and perform organiza-tional maintenance on semipermanent andpermanent water purification utilities at fixedinstallations. The logistics organizations areresponsible for the management, control,purification, storage, and distribution ofwater, including organizational maintenanceof water equipment.

Military units deployed in a contingencyarea must initially secure water for them-

selves or carry sufficient water with themuntil engineers, quartermaster water units,and supply and services (S&S) elements canestablish water operations. Divisional engi-neer units moving with the combat units canprovide important information about surfacewater sources and existing wells in the areaof operation. This information is useful forsupplementing maps and other existing data.When operations are conducted in an aridenvironment, it is particularly important thatall water sources are located and secured.Engineer terrain analysis teams and thewater detection response team can providevaluable information about where to look forwater sources.

If sufficient water sources are not availablein the contingency area, water may beimported from third country supply bases(TCSB) or from CONUS. Engineers will pro-vide construction support to assist in theunloading of water. Engineers can providepier and wharf construction and potablewater pipeline construction capability to theforce in order to move water forward into thecorps area.

In a fully developed contingency area, watershould be distributed by hose line and pipe-line. Engineer units will assist water supplyunits by providing pipeline construction andmaintenance and repair beyond the waterunit’s organic capability.

PLANNING

In developed areas, existing water sources the tactical situation, and the commander’sand distribution systems are used to provide plans.field water supply. In undeveloped areas andforward of the COMMZ in developed theaters, Initially existing developed and surfacewater supply points are established as far sources are used before ground water re-forward as possible, given the locations of sources are tapped. The employment of NBCavailable water sources, consuming units, munitions can contaminate surface water

WATER SUPPLY 93

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supplies over a wide area. Subsurface watersupplies are unlikely to be contaminated atfirst. Earth and rock layers are effective indiminishing contamination. In an NBCemergency, it may be necessary to use asubsurface water supply.

WELL DRILLINGAs a contingency, well drilling operationsshould be planned to meet an NBC threat. Ingeneral, wells will be established to providewater to forces in a new Theater of Opera-tions, to forward units in a mature theater,and to forces that occupy permanent or semi-permanent fixed Army installations in amature Theater of Operations. Wells arelocated and drilled in secure support areas of

brigades or higher levels or organizations.The purpose of well drilling is to supplementexisting water sources, reduce logistical dis-tances, and to avoid the use of contaminatedwater supplies. In arid regions, wells maysustain the force after the initial lodgementphase of operations.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSON PLANNING

Environmental conditions determine thelocation of water sources and how muchwater is needed for subsistence. The chartshows the characteristic advantages anddisadvantages associated with supplying andusing water in a variety of climatic condi-tions.

TEMPERATE REGIONSAdvantages Disadvantages

Abundant resources Surface sources easily contami-Ž Lakes nated by NBC munitions.Ž StreamsŽ Rivers Natural contamination possibleŽ Existing wells by organics, disease-bearingŽ Local water Systems. organisms, and inorganic salt.

Sources convenient to locate, Environmental pollution fromdevelop, and access. local development such as

septic fields, may contaminateWater sources can be purified ground water.at small unit level.

Drinking water does not requirecooling.

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TROPICAL REGIONSAdvantages Disadvantages

Water resources available but Surface sources easily contami-more scattered nated by NBC munitions.Ž LakesŽ Streams Dense vegetation may makeŽ Rivers access difficult.Ž Existing wellsŽ Local water systems. Increase of natural contamina-

tion.Water sources can be pur-ified at small unit level. Presence of waterborne diseases and

parasites capable of transmittingdisease may make water unsuitablefor bathing and laundry use untildisinfected.

Higher water use needed because ofhigh humidity and heat.

FRIGID CLIMATESAdvantages Disadvantages

Water resources may be abun- Increased consumption to pre-dant, but frozen vent dehydration.Ž LakesŽ Rivers Water purification, storage,Ž Streams and distribution system mustŽ Existing wells. be protected from freezing.

Snow and ice are impractical to meltfor other than very small units dueto excessive fuel needed for melting.

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None.

ARID REGIONSAdvantages Disadvantages

Surface fresh water almostnonexistent.

Available water sources limited andwidely dispersed.

Increased water use to prevent heatcasualties.

May dictate the tactical scenario.

Lack of water makes extensivestorage and distribution systemvital.

ENGINEER CAPABILITIES

The versatility of the engineer battalionscombined with the special capabilities ofcertain engineer companies and teams makesthe engineer force an especially valuableasset to the TA Commander. The EngineerCombat Heavy Battalion is best suited forthe general engineer support tasks associatedwith water distribution. The Combat Engi-neer Battalion may be assigned certain tasks;however, this unit’s construction capabilitiesare limited.

Specialized engineer companies and teamsaugment the engineer battalions’ capabilitiesfor certain projects. The Engineer Port Con-struction Company may be employed forthose tasks associated with waterfront con-struction and construction over the water.The Engineer Pipeline Construction SupportCompany augments the engineer battalionwith specialized skills and technical advicefor the construction, repair, and maintenanceof water pipelines and rigid storage tanks.The Terrain Analysis Team can providevaluable assistance for determining the pre-cise location for water wells. Water wells aredrilled by engineer water well drilling teams.

ENGINEER BATTALIONSEngineer battalions are employed in generalsupport (GS) to the logistics units involved inpurification, storage, and distribution ofwater. Expected tasks include the following:

Ž Develop water points by creating pondsand lakes across streams, deepening andreinforcing existing water collection areas.

Ž Provide drainage to prevent contaminationof water sources from storm runoff.

Ž Construct physical protection structuresfor water sources.

Ž Construct and improve roads from waterpoints and well sites to MSRs.

Ž Maintain, repair, and construct semi-permanent and permanent water utilitiesat Army fixed installations.

Ž Repair and construct water storage anddistribution systems in arid environments.

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These tasks are general and all engineerbattalions are capable of carrying them outto some degree. The Combat Heavy EngineerBattalion has a greater capability for con-ducting these tasks than the Combat Engi-neer Battalion.

ENGINEER PORTCONSTRUCTION COMPANY

The specialized Engineer Port ConstructionCompany can augment engineer battalionsor work independently on small projectsinvolving waterfront and construction overwater. In support of water supply efforts, thecompany may—

Ž Construct, repair, or assist in the construc-tion or repair of piers and wharfs wherewater tanker vessels may be unloaded.

Ž Install offshore mooring points and hoselines for water tankers.

Ž Install water pipelines in the port area.

Ž Construct water storage facilities in theport area.

Ž Assist water purification companies withthe site preparation and installation ofreverse osmosis water purification units(ROWPUs).

ENGINEER PIPELINESUPPORT COMPANY

Engineer units have the mission of designingand installing tactical (surface laid) potablewater pipeline. These pipelines extend as farforward as necessary in order to carry out theTA water distribution plan.

The standard pipe is either 6-inch or 8-inchaluminum, connected by mechanical coup-lings. The water is moved through the pipe bypumps, positioned along the line by thehydraulic design requirements. Standardaccessories (valves, bends, manifolds) are

available. These allow the pipeline to beadapted to any situation.

The material used for water distributionsystems is the same material which maylater be used for a POL distribution system.

WARNING. NEVER introduce potablewater into any system which containsequipment that has previously been usedto transport fuels.

The design and construction of the waterpipeline is similar to that used for the POLdistribution systems. More pumps are re-quired, because water is heavier than petro-leum fuels. Consideration must be given tothe temperature variation in the area, becausewater freezes at a higher temperature thanpetroleum.

The Engineer Pipeline Support Company isused to augment engineer battalions engagedin the construction of surface laid, potablewater pipelines. Pipeline Support Companiesprovide specialized equipment and technicaladvice to engineer battalions.

The Engineer Pipeline Construction Com-pany is capable of—

Ž Constructing short pipelines.

Ž Providing personnel and technical exper-tise for pumping station construction.

Ž Providing specialized equipment for cut-ting, leveling, or grooving both steel andaluminum pipe for joining either bywelding or bolted connections.

Ž Providing technical assistance or inde-pendently erecting steel tanks for waterstorage.

Ž Conducting route survey for pipelines.

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ENGINEER TERRAINANALYSIS TEAMS

Engineer Terrain Analysis Teams areassigned to the topographic engineer bat-talion in support of the TA command. TheENCOM Terrain Analysis Teams may beattached to the corps or the division asrequired. Terrain Analysis Teams acquireterrain data from existing data bases or fromphysical reconnaissance. They use this in-formation to prepare map overlays andreports needed to locate potential watersources.

WATER DETECTIONRESPONSE TEAMS

In the event that insufficient data is availablefor the terrain analysis teams to locate poten-tial water bearing areas, special surveys maybe undertaken. A Water Detection ResponseTeam (WDRT) maybe requested from the USArmy Engineer Topographic Laboratory/Terrain Analysis Center (USAETL/TAC)through the ENCOM. This team is composedof civilian scientists and is specially trainedand equipped to locate water bearing areas.The team uses the latest, most sophisticatedseismic and remote imagery techniques andequipment to locate water bearing founda-tions. Because the members have civilianstatus, this team may only be used in securedareas.

WATER WELL DRILLING TEAMSWater well drilling is accomplished by well-drilling teams that are organic or attached tonondivisional engineer units. These teamshave sufficient personnel to achieve 24-hourdrilling capability. Drilling rigs are eithertruck or semitrailer mounted, and havelimited cross country mobility. Therefore,external support may be required in order forthe team to reach the drilling site. Semitrailermounted drilling rigs are capable of reachingdepths of 1,500 feet. Truck mounted rigs canreach depths of 600 feet. The teams and theirorganic equipment maybe shipped, airlifted,or driven over land.

In general, each well drilling team cancomplete two wells in approximately threeand one half days. Two wells can support onequartermaster water supply point. Materialsufficient to complete two wells per team isthe unit’s standard load. The teams are notlogistically self-sufficient. They are incapableof providing their own security. The teamsare dependent on supporting units to clear adrilling site and excavate mud pits. A watersource must be provided to allow drilling tobegin.

The following are other general considera-tions concerning completed water wells:

Ž Water wells can easily be contaminated bylocal open wells and septic fields.

Ž Water well production can affect levels oflocal wells due to the drawdown of thewater table.

Ž Water table levels often fluctuate with theseasons.

Ž Aquifers of limited geographic extent withsmall recharge areas can quickly bedepleted.

Ž Abandoned uncapped wells will becomecontaminated and degrade the existingground water supply.

Ž Well drilling in active volcanic areas orgeothermal areas can be hazardous.

Ž Well drilling near oceans can cause saltwater intrusion and contaminate freshwater sources.

Once a well is completed by installing cas-ings, screens, and pumps, it is turned over toquartermaster water units for use. To preventcontamination, wells must be capped whenthey are no longer needed. In order to expeditereopening of closed wells, agreements have

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been made between many host nations tostandardize capping and labeling. Theseprocedures are covered for the North AtlanticTreaty Organization (NATO) by Standardi-zation Agreement (STANAG) 2885.

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Chapter 12REAL ESTATE

F ixed facilities are needed within the Theater of Operationsto support committed forces. These facilities house adminis-

trative, logistic, and maintenance functions. Such activitiesshould be put into existing facilities whenever possible, so thatthey can rapidly begin operation. The engineer effort can then beinvested in other immediate commitments. The Army Real EstateProgram is directed toward obtaining and managing in-placefacilities. In the absence of existing facilities, the program mayadvise new construction. It controls all real estate activitieswithin the Theater of Operations, thus fulfilling a vital supportmission for military operations.

OBJECTIVES

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY POLICIES

RESPONSIBILITY FOR REAL ESTATE

PLANNING

PROPERTY ACQUISITION

EXISTING FACILITIES

FACILITY CONSTRUCTION

101

101

102

104

104

105

106

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OBJECTIVES

The efficient conduct of real estate activities Ž Protect the United States and its alliesdepends largely on a command-wide under- against unjust and unreasonable claimsstanding of the objectives of the real estate and charges for using, renting, or leasingprogram in overseas commands. These real or personal property.objectives are:

Ž Provide reasonable compensation to in-ŽAcquire and administer real property dividuals or agencies for the use of real

essential to the mission. property, except when such property islocated in a combat zone or in enemy

Ž Acquire and use existing facilities in order territory.to keep new construction to a minimum.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY POLICIES

Department of the Army policy concerningreal estate acquisitions is described in AR405-10 and TM 5-300. Real estate operationsin overseas theaters are based on the fol-lowing general principles.

Ž Adhere to international conventions.United States forces will adhere to theprovisions of the Hague Convention (1907),the Geneva Convention Relative to theProtection of Civilian Persons in Time ofWar (1949), the Hague Convention Relativeto the Protection of Cultural Property inthe Event of Armed Conflict (1954), andFM 27-10.

Ž Conform to international agreements. TheArmy Real Estate Program will conform tointernational agreements and all otheragreements affecting the United States,such as treaties, memoranda of under-standing, lend-lease, reciprocal aid,military assistance, Status of ForcesAgreements (SOFA), and civil affairsagreements.

Ž Make appropriate compensation. Whenrequired, a fair and reasonable rental willbe paid for real estate used, occupied, andheld by the United States Army. Paymentfor the occupation of lands will not bemade to any person or persons, however,

who are of enemy nationality or who arehostile to interests of the United States.Compensation will not be made for anyreal property located in the combat zonewhich is lost, damaged, or destroyed as aresult of military action.

Ž Honor host nation laws. United Statesforces will honor, to the fullest extentpossible consistent with military require-ments, the real estate laws and customs ofthe host country.

Ž Use existing facilities. United States forceswill use existing facilities as much aspossible to reduce the need for new con-struction and conserve resources, time,and personnel.

Ž Minimize acquisition. Real estate acquisi-tion will be held to an absolute minimum,consistent with military requirements, toprevent disruption of the local economy.Joint utilization by the services will beencouraged. Unnecessary duplication offunction and services will be avoided.

Ž Follow appropriate acquisition policies.Full use of the host nation’s governmentalagencies will be made whenever possible,if not restricted by treaties. Acquisition ofreal estate in an overseas Theater of

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Operations will be by requisition, lease, or the territory of an ally; or by requisition,through consignment by the host nation to confiscation, or seizure when property is inthe United States where the property is in enemy territory.

RESPONSIBILITY FOR REAL ESTATE

CHIEF OF ENGINEERSThe Chief of Engineers is the Department ofthe Army staff officer responsible for realestate functions and, as such, exercises staffsupervision over Army real estate activitiesof overseas commands. The responsibilitiesof the Chief of Engineers are as follows:

Ž Provide technical advice and assistancein handling real estate procurement,management, and disposal.

Ž Issue instructions.

Ž Enforce applicable directives, policies, andregulations.

Ž Review records and reports.

UNIFIED COMMANDERSUnified commanders are responsible forcarrying out the following duties:

Ž Determine real estate requirements.

Ž Plan, execute, and analyze real estateoperations in accordance with pertinentdirectives, policies, and regulations.

Ž Prepare budget estimates and justifica-tions, as directed.

Ž Prepare and submit real estate reports, asdirected.

Ž Conduct utilization inspection in accor-dance with instructions and criteria fur-nished by the Chief of Engineers.

Ž Notify the Chief of Engineers of utilizationproblems which require action at Head-quarters, Department of the Army level.

Ž Furnish the Chief of Engineers with copiesof all intercommand real estate and spaceutilization directives.

THEATER COMMANDERThe commander of a Theater of Operations isresponsible for all real estate activities withinthe theater. This authority may be delegatedto a designated deputy, or to the theaterArmy, Navy, or Air Force component com-mander who has the greatest requirement.Maintaining a single interservice real estatefacility use policy consolidates activities,reduces duplication, and limits the impact onthe local economy. The theater commandermay either establish a central real estateoffice to direct and record all real estateactivities or direct that such an office beestablished by the commander assigned realestate responsibility.

THEATER ARMY (TA) COMMANDERIf the TA commander is assigned responsi-bility for theater real estate operations, all orpart of this responsibility may be redelegatedto the Communications Zone Commander.The TA commander often retains control ofreal estate in the combat zone, redelegatingresponsibility for rear areas only.

THEATER ENGINEERThe theater engineer operates and managesreal estate and property acquisition, mainte-nance, and disposal functions. A suggested

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organization of a theater engineer’s realestate division is shown below. The duties ofthis division include:

Ž Furnish technical real estate guidance andadvice to the theater commander, staff,and all echelons of the theater command.

Ž Recommend real estate policies and opera-tion procedures to the theater logisticsofficer.

ŽWith approval by the theater logisticsofficer, prepare, coordinate, distribute, andexercise staff supervision over the execu-tion of theater real estate directives.

ŽAcquire, manage, dispose of, pay rents anddamages for, handle claims, and preparerecords and reports for real estate usedwithin the Theater of Operations.

Ž Maintain a theater real estate office.

Ž Prepare long-range real estate plans andrequirements.

ŽŽUse existing facilities as much as possible

to reduce the need for new construction.Ž

Ž Exercise staff supervision over the reale s t a t e o p e r a t i o n s o f s u b o r d i n a t ecommands. Ž

Ž Ensure compliance with internationalagreements and the law of land warfare.

Ž

Ž Coordinate with the authorities of thefriendly host nation. Ž

When the theater commander delegates realestate authority to the TA commander, theduties enumerated above are performed for

all services by the theater engineer. When thecommander of another service is responsiblefor real estate activities, only the appropriateduties for the Army command are performedby the theater engineer.

SUBORDINATE COMMANDENGINEERS

Engineers of commands below the theaterengineer are responsible for furnishing tech-nical real estate guidance to the commanders,staffs, and subordinate echelon of the com-mands. They handle such other real estateduties as may be assigned or subdelegated tothem by the TA commander.

ARMY ENGINEERREAL ESTATE TEAMS

Army Engineer Real Estate (AERE) teamsare responsible to the Area Support Com-mand (ASC) and conduct real estate opera-tions within their assigned areas in accor-dance with directives, instructions, andstanding operating procedures. Their dutiesinclude—

Acquire, manage, and dispose of realestate.

Investigate, process, and settle real estateclaims.

Conduct utilization inspections.

Record, document, and prepare reports onreal estate used, occupied, or held by theArmy within their assigned areas.

Coordinate with agencies of the friendlyhost nation to execute joint US/host nationreal estate functions.

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PLANNING

Real estate operations plans are based ondirectives or instructions issued to the theatercommander by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, or bythe service commander appointed executiveagent for the JCS. Other policies are estab-lished by the theater commander based upondirectives and instructions issued by theJCS.

Real estate planning must be initiated in thepreparatory phases of a campaign by a plan-ning group that includes the theater generalstaff and representatives of all service com-manders. The agency that will handle theaterreal estate operations when the campaignbegins is organized at this time, and should

participate in all planning activities. In addi-tion to plans for real estate operations duringhostilities, consideration should be given toreal estate requirements for the occupationperiod after hostilities cease.

Qualified personnel are essential to thehandling of real estate responsibilities, sincesuch activities can have major consequencesin relations between US forces and the hostnation. Military legal officers and civilianlawyers familiar with the laws of countrieswithin the Theater of Operations shouldassist the planning group with advice andtechnical review of proposed real estate poli-cies and procedures.

PROPERTY ACQUISITION

In the active combat zone, real estate requiredby US forces is acquired by seizure or requisi-tion, without formal documentation. Seizureis resorted to only when it is justified byurgent military necessity, and only with theapproval of the commander who has arearesponsibility. Host nation property may beoccupied without documentation to the extentthat tactical operations dictate, and in ac-cordance with US\host nation agreements.

Normally, property is obtained throughrequisition, which is a demand upon theowner of the property or the owner’s repre-sentative. No rent or other compensation ispaid for requisitioned or seized property inthe combat zone either for its use or for

damage resulting from acts of war or causedby ordinary military wear and tear.

Outside the active combat zone, property isacquired only by requisition, and all trans-actions are documented thoroughly underthe applicable provisions of theater direc-tives. Large tracts of real estate are requiredfor ports, staging areas, training and ma-neuver areas, leave centers, supply depots,and headquarters installations. Some of thisproperty may be highly developed and haveconsiderable value to the civilian population.Procedures must provide the property re-quired while ensuring that the legal rights ofowners are protected.

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EXISTING FACILITIES

Existing facilities should be used wheneverthey are available. The advantages of usingexisting facilities are—

Ž Swift occupation by military activities.

Ž The presence of existing utilities, telephoneservice, and connecting air/ground/sealines of communication (LOC) facilities.

Ž Availability of on-site administrative andindustrial equipment.

Ž Less diversion of troops from combatmissions.

Ž Smaller outlay of government funds.

Ž Some inherent camouflaging of militaryactivity.

The advantages of using existing facilitiesnormally outweigh disadvantages. Somedisadvantages, however, may make facilitiesundesirable for military use. Planners shouldconsider alternatives when existing facilitiescannot be adapted to desirable survivabilitystandards, when dispersion is difficult orimpossible, or when facilities cannot betailored to military needs.

ACQUISITIONLocal government officials can help identifyavailable facilities or properties that meet orapproximate military requirements. If theseofficials are unable to provide adequateassistance, military intelligence sources canbe used to locate facilities. Civil affairs per-sonnel and/or AERE teams may workthrough local government officials or directlycontact property owners to settle agreements.Local government officials will normally

evict and resettle any civilians from propertyrequisitioned by the military forces. Only inthe most urgent circumstances, or uponrefusal of local authorities to act, will evictionbe handled by the Army.

A representative of the local governmentshould assist in preparing all property inven-tories. It is particularly important that requi-sitions carry the correct property descrip-tions, and that local government officialscheck all requisitions against the corre-sponding entries in their permanent records.If local records have been destroyed, the localauthorities must establish a correct legalidentification for the requisitioned property.The signature of the local official chargedwith real estate responsibility must be ob-tained on both the initial and release inven-tories. This official signature is required byinternational agreement to ensure that theUS Government will be protected from unjustclaims for loss of or damage to property usedby US forces.

MODIFICATIONInstances may arise when it will be beneficialto modify existing facilities in order to betterserve military needs. Correcting deficienciesshould be the primary focus of general engi-neering work. Theater planning shouldidentify deficiencies and corrective actionsthat need to be taken. Theater real estateprinciples for property acquisition apply asdiscussed above. Some additional compensa-tion to property owners may be required,however. The ingenuity of Army engineers,host nation and civilian contractors, com-bined with tools such as AFCS, will berequired to adapt existing facilities to militaryuse.

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FACILITY CONSTRUCTION

New construction in the Theater of Opera- plishment of the overall mission, where notions is normally limited to facilities that are existing facility meets the criteria.vital—as defined in Chapter l—to the accom-

106 REAL ESTATE

Chapter 13REAL PROPERTYMAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

R eal Property Maintenance Activities (RPMA) are thoseactions taken to ensure that real property is acquired,

developed, operated, maintained, and disposed of in a mannerresponsive to the theater mission. Acquisition, disposal, majorand minor construction activities for new facilities, and additionsor alterations to existing facilities are covered in Chapter 12. Thischapter includes operation, maintenance, and repair of facilitiesand utilities, fire prevention and protection, and refuse collectionand disposal.

The RPMA function does not include maintenance and repair ofmobile and portable equipment or other items not classified asreal property. Some of the coordination aspects of Theater ofOperations RPMA, however, do include many tasks not normallyassociated with minor construction and routine maintenance andrepair aspects of RPMA.

RESPONSIBILITIES 108

PLANNING 108

OPERATION OF UTILITIES 108

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF FACILITIES 109

FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION 110

REFUSE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL 110

REAL PROPERTY MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES 107

FM 5-104

RESPONSIBILITIES

Real Property Maintenance Activities are (ENCOM) at Theater Army (TA) level givesadministered in the COMMZ by the Theater overall supervision and technical assistance.Army Area Command (TAACOM) through Administration of RPMA forward of the corpsits subordinate Area Support Groups (ASGs). rear boundary is a corps responsibility.Support for RPMA is provided on an area Command relationships in the TA are de-basis to all installations, organic activities, scribed in FM 100-16.and tenant units. The Engineer Command

PLANNING

The ENCOM and the responsible engineer or alterations on existing structures muststaff must consider current and anticipated include estimates for labor and materials.RPMA requirements for their area of opera- Planners may use estimating sources such astions. This will include— the Engineering Performance Standards

(EPS) or a commercial estimating guide suchŽ Maintenance and repair in the COMMZ. as the Means Estimating Guide.

Ž Estimates of potential requirements forrepairing war damage.

Ž Phase planning and target date require-ments.

Any alteration or renovation work that isplanned for existing structures should bedesigned according to the guidance of theAFCS, and should be of a nonpermanentnature. Plans for major repairs, renovations,

There may be instances in the Theater ofOperations where the estimated materials orlabor resources are in short supply or un-available. Local materials and labor shouldbe used to accomplish RPMA wherever pos-sible. With the approval of the TA Engineer,and with the support of ENCOM resources,the local engineer may change the designand/or scope of planned work to take ad-vantage of locally available personnel andresources.

OPERATION OF UTILITIES

In the Theater of Operations, the operationand maintenance or upgrade of existing util-ities as well as the construction, operation,and maintenance of new utilities systemsmay be an engineer responsibility. Utilitiessystems include electrical generating anddistribution systems, waste water collectionand treatment systems, and other specialutilities systems such as cooling and refrig-eration, compressed air, and heating systems.Operating these systems requires speciallytrained personnel. They may be availablethrough the ENCOM, trained locally, or hiredfrom the local work force.

Since utilities systems must be reliable,measures should be taken to ensure theircorrect operation and to provide increasedsecurity if the situation warrants. Suchmeasures include controlled access, con-tinuous inspection, and adequate securitypersonnel.

POWER GENERATION ANDDISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

If existing electrical generating and distri-bution systems are substandard or inade-quate for military requirements, either theywill have to be upgraded or new systems

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installed. Army Regulation 420-43, TM 5-683,and TM 5-684 give detailed guidance oninstallation, maintenance, and repair ofelectrical generation and distribution sys-tems. Electrical supply in the Theater ofOperations can be accomplished in phases.Portable generating sets can supply mini-mum power requirements until fixed genera-tion and distribution systems are installed.

WASTE WATER COLLECTIONAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Large troop concentrations at fixed facilitiesgenerate requirements for sewage and wastewater collection and treatment. Whenexisting fixed facilities are occupied, theyusually include waste water systems. How-ever, these may not be operational or suitablefor use by military forces. These systemsshould be operated, maintained, and repairedby engineer elements or qualified indigenouspersonnel. Construction, operation, mainte-nance, and repair of adequate sewage dis-posal systems are described in AR 420-46,TM 5-665, and TM 5-666.

Field sanitation measures, such as pit latrinesand grease sumps, or portable chemical toiletsand waste treatment plants, may be usedtemporarily until fixed facilities are com-pleted and in operation.

As with all AFCS design in the Theater ofOperations, the standard of construction forwaste water systems will be nonpermanent,and designed to require minimum mainte-nance during the limited time anticipated forthe period of occupation. Locally-availablematerials may be used if approved by the TAEngineer. Engineers will perform RPMA andoperate the system as directed by the TAengineer.

OPERATION OF OTHERUTILITIES SYSTEMS

In some areas, other types of central utilitiessystems may have to be operated by theaterforces. These systems include heating,cooling, or refrigeration. Often, existingfacilities will have utility equipment thatmust be repaired and/or maintained if it is tobe operated. Responsibility for this work willbe directed by the TA engineer.

Local, portable, or unit systems such asstoves and portable refrigeration units willbe maintained, repaired, and operated by theusing unit. Central utility systems such assteam plants, cold storage warehouses, orcooling plants are usually maintained byengineers. Where existing facilities are used,these systems may also be maintained byENCOM assets.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF FACILITIES

Maintenance and repair of facilities are theresponsibilities of a local commander, sup-ported by engineer assets. Existing facilitiesthat need maintenance and repair beforethey can be used are repaired to minimumstandards. Repair materials must be esti-mated and prestocked to ensure they will beavailable when needed.

Much short-term maintenance and repairwork can beganized into

performed by local troops or-self-help teams. These teams

work with local logistics sources or sup-porting engineers to obtain the materials andtools they need. Adequately trained self-helpteams can perform the majority of mainte-nance and repair work on their facilities,thereby releasing engineer troops to accom-plish more critical duties, complex repairwork, and major construction projects.

When major repairs are required, the engineerunit assigned to the ASG, augmented whennecessary with assets from the ENCOM,


FM 5-104

makes repairs according to priorities givenby the TA engineer. Generally, the prioritiesare scheduled based on the impact the workhas on the mission.

After immediate and ongoing maintenanceand repair requirements are determined, arepair and maintenance program will beestablished using self help and supportingengineer assets and/or local personnel to

accomplish the work. If the program is exten-sive or long term, the unit commander shouldcoordinate with the TA engineer to initiate acontinuing facility engineer operation at thefacility or installation. The facility engineerwill then coordinate all requirements andresources needed to accomplish the mission.Further guidance on facilities maintenanceand repair may be found in AR 420-22, AR420-70, TM 5-610, and DA Pam 738-570.

FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION

Construction standards and materials in theTheater of Operations make facilities verysusceptible to fire damage and catastrophicloss of life or materials. Technical Manual5-315 gives specific guidance for fire fightingand rescue procedures in the Theater ofOperations. This technical manual prescribesthe assignment of fire fighting assets basedon the supported population or facility area.For example, airfields, troop populations of5,000 to 10,000 persons, or storage areascontaining more than 100,000 square feet ofstorage space, are each allocated at least onefire pumper truck team.

In all cases, and especially at smaller instal-lations and facilities that do not have

assigned fire protection equipment, the com-mander has responsibility for fire preventionand protection. All Army, command, andlocal fire regulations must be enforced. Pro-grams of inspection must be established andself-help fire fighting responsibilitiesassigned. Fire protection measures availableto the commander include strict enforcementof rules, setting up alarm and notificationprocedures, procuring and making availableextinguishers and other fire fighting equip-ment, and training personnel in fire preven-tion and protection measures. Army Regula-tion 420-90 and DA Pam 420-2 provide furtherinformation about fire prevention andprotection.

REFUSE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL

Improperly handled refuse can be a safety as to perform excavation, spreading, compac-well as a health hazard. The local commander tion, and backfilling. This type of work lendsis usually made responsible for refuse collec- itself well to engineer equipment andtion and disposal. The command’s engineers management. Other troops may bring refuseaccomplish the task. Guidance on refuse to the site. Burning may be combined withcollection and disposal may be found in landfilling to reduce the volume and extendAR 420-47 and TM 5-634. the life of the landfill operation.

Refuse disposal in the Theater of Operations Besides burning, other methods of reducingis usually accomplished by landfilling, the volume of refuse are compaction andburning, or removal from the area. Land- selective disposal. Selective disposal is thefilling requires a suitable area and equipment separation of certain types of refuse, such as

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wood or metal, from the refuse to be buried.The separated material is then stored orreused. Compaction is accomplished withspecialized equipment for collecting andcompacting refuse before it is dumped intothe landfill. At the landfill site, special mobilecompaction equipment may be used to reducethe volume of the refuse before it is covered.Other compaction and refuse handling tech-niques include compacting and baling refusefor burial or removal from the area.

Refuse collection and disposal techniquesdepend on the volume of refuse to be gener-ated, the duration of facility occupation, thepresence of existing collection facilities, the

resources available to perform the work, thearea where the facility will be located, thesituation, and environmental aspects of thearea.

Special consideration should be given tohazardous waste, especially waste productsgenerated by medical facilities and mainte-nance operations. Every attempt should bemade to dispose of hazardous waste inaccordance with appropriate regulations.Improper disposal of such products may causeserious illness or death to those who operatelandfills or cause irreversible damage to theenvironment.


Chapter 14AREA DAMAGE CONTROL (ADC)

A rea Damage Control operations include those measurestaken before, during, and after hostile actions or natural or

man-made disasters to reduce the probability of damage and tominimize its effects. Because of organic equipment and expertise,engineer support wiIl be critical in accomplishing many ADCmissions. In the Theater of Operations, disruption or impairmentof US or allied efforts in and behind the COMMZ may be causedby one or a combination of three events: enemy action, naturaldisasters, and man-made disasters.

Forces in the rear area can defeat the Threat and overcomenatural or man-made disasters. They can continue to supportforward forces by applying the principles and objectives of reararea protection (RAP). Rear area protection operations includeRear Area Combat Operations (RACO) and ADC operations.Rear Area Combat Operations include actions taken to neutralizeor destroy enemy forces in the rear area. These operations areconducted by any combination of individual units, base defenseforces Military Police (MP) response forces, and tactical combatforces (TCF). They are discussed in FMs 100-10, 100-15, and100-16.

AREA DAMAGE CONTROL MISSIONS 113

MISSION ORGANIZATION 113

ADC RESPONSIBILITIES 116

SUPPORT OF LARGE-SCALE DECONTAMINATION OPERATIONS 119

DECONTAMINATION RESPONSIBILITIES 120

PLANNING AND OPERATIONS 122

112 AREA DAMAGE CONTROL (ADC)

FM 5-104

AREA DAMAGE CONTROL MISSIONS

ENEMY ACTIONSoviet military doctrine is based upon thebelief that modern warfare is highly mobile.Disruption of our efficiency is predicatedupon disruption of our rear area operations.This disruption may be directed againstcommand and control centers, communica-tion networks, nuclear weapon sites, supplyand maintenance facilities, airfields, ports,and reserve forces. The means of disruptioninclude actions by independent operationsand actions closely coordinated with maneu-ver forces behind the main battle area. Theseactivities may be carried out by airborneunits, airmobile conventional units, special

operations teams, and deep cover agentssupported by artillery, air attacks, radio-electronic combat and nucassets.

DISASTERSThe potential for man-made

lear/chemical

disasters hassignificantly increased through the intensi-fied use and handling of hazardous material.This type of material includes NBC devices,bulk explosives, and POL. In some areas ofthe world, natural phenomena such as floods,earthquakes, or storms could destroy militaryoperations. Rapid recovery from these eventsis essential.

MISSION ORGANIZATION

Area Damage Control operations increase asthe Theater of Operations evolves from acontingency operation to a fully developedtheater with extensive support facilities inthe COMMZ. Initial phases of a contingencyoperation characteristically maximize com-bat power while keeping support elementsand facilities at a minimum. Airlift andsealift assets are heavily relied upon for rapiddeployment, reinforcement, and resupply.However, for an extended operation, the keyto success in generating maximum combatpower is to secure a lodgement area or providea base for rapid buildup. The decision of thecommander to introduce combat support (CS)and combat service support (CSS) units intothe lodgment area depends upon how securethe units can be made. Support bases may beforced to operate from ships or a third country.

If the contingency operation is in support ofan allied nation and valid agreements andsupport will ensure security of forces in therear area, the host nation may provide ADCsupport for the force. In many cases, thissupport may consist only of unskilled labor.Expertise must be supplied by organic engi-

neer elements. Where no previous HN agree-ments exist, civil affairs elements willnegotiate with local authorities and theprivate sector to secure engineer assistanceshould the need arise. Rear Area CombatOperations may be introduced into the con-tingency operations, depending on the size ofthe force conducting the operation and thecontrol the commander wants to exerciseover RAP operations.

REAR AREA OPERATIONSAt each echelon, brigade and above, a RAPofficer is assigned to ensure that units preparefor and conduct RAP operations in accor-dance with command priorities. At divisionlevel and above, a Rear Area OperationsCenter (RAOC) is organized to assist theRAP officer by controlling the rear areabattle at each echelon. The RAOC providesthe G3/Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations(DCSOPS) with operational planning andsupport to fight the rear area battle. Basedefense liaison teams (BDLT) are assigned toeach RAOC to coordinate base defense andconduct liaison as directed by the RAOC, asshown on the following page.

AREA DAMAGE CONTROL (ADC) 113

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ENGINEER SUPPORT TO AREA DAMAGE CONTROL


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HOST NATION SUPPORTThe rear area protection structure within a When HNS is viable, host nations may becontingency operation will depend on mis- responsible for ADC. However, US engineersion, enemy, terrain, troops, and time units may have to conduct ADC operations(METT-T), strategic and tactical intelligence, beyond the perimeters of rear area units.posture of the host nation, and degree of Theater Army area commands and ASGsacceptable risk. coordinate ADC support with host nations.

UNITED STATES-HOST NATION INTERFACE FOR REAR AREA PROTECTION

AREA DAMAGECONTROL ORGANIZATION

Units and bases in the rear area must planand train for damage contingencies usingorganic manpower and equipment. The ADCsection of the RAOC at each echelon reviews,coordinates, and comments on base ADCplans. Area Damage Control plans are coor-dinated with units, including supporting

engineers and staffs for ADC support.Alternative areas for ADC support, includingindividual base capabilities, base clusterassets, and host nation support, are reviewedand included in the ADC plan. Recommenda-tions are made and priorities for ADC supportare established based on the commander’sdirectives and the needs of units requiringsupport. Close coordination is maintained


FM 5-104

with the RAOC operations section to developalternative plans for incidents where exten-sive damage cannot be resolved. The ADCsection provides information on the locationand extent of damage to the RAOC for thetasking of engineer assets. These missions donot involve dedicated support, but ratherunit-type missions which can be performedby units with ADC-related capability assufficient assets become available.

Centralized control of ADC assets must bemaintained within the ADC section to permitoverall analysis of their capability and toprevent piecemeal application of criticalassets. Execution of ADC is decentralized tothe lowest level. When ADC requirementsexceed base or base cluster assets, the RAOCresponds with engineer assets to alleviate theproblem or initiate action. Their goal is toisolate the damage and to reduce its effects onother supporting units.

ADC RESPONSIBILITIES

The destruction from modern weapons maybe so widespread that only essential functionscan possibly receive priority assistance fromexternal sources. Accordingly, damageassessment reports and requests for externalADC assistance must be concise. They mustaddress only mission-essential functions.Nuclear attacks so reduce communicationsthat commanders must plan and establishalternate means for reporting damage andcoordinating recovery and restoration efforts.External ADC support is provided as assetsbecome available.

ADC UNITSArea Damage Control Units designateresponsibilities for ADC operations andestablish ADC priorities. It is their duty toestablish communications and warning pro-cedures, and maintain a personnel roster foreach facility or activity to expedite casualtyrescue or search operations. The ADC unitprepares an analysis of the vulnerability of afacility or unit in relation to its importance asa target. It may plan to disperse and hardenfacilities and units to reduce the possibility ofextensive damage. The unit also designatesalternate operational sites or alert areas, andconducts an ADC capabilities analysis. SeeFM 5-100, Appendix D.

When preparations have been made, the ADCunit coordinates and rehearses ADC plansand Standing Operating Procedures (SOPs).The unit also organizes, equips, and trainspersonnel and units for ADC operations.Finally, the unit identifies food, water, andother critical supplies such as medicine foremergency distribution.

The RAOC will assist in the operational andtechnical planning for and coordination ofspecial ADC assistance, such as externalengineer support. Each base defense planwill contain an ADC plan to provide a pre-coordinated, decentralized response usingorganic assets. Priorities of engineer andother external support for ADC assistancewill be based upon the degree of exposure of abase or unit and its importance to the mainbattle effort.

ADC command dutiesUnit and base commanders must be preparedto plan for ADC operations by establishing,planning, and executing a damage controlplan. It will be their job to supervise andexecute recovery, repair, and reconstitutionplans in case of enemy attack, naturaldisaster, or accident. Commanders mustorganize, train, and equip damage controlteams for fire fighting, medical support, NBC


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monitoring, surveying, and decontamination.They must incorporate ADC measures intoplans and SOPs, ensuring that all ADC plansand SOPs are reviewed for adequacy by thesenior engineer officer. Commanders willmaintain a personnel roster for each facilityor activity to expedite casualty rescue orsearch operations. They will also establishand test a communications and warningsystem, identify supplies of food, clothing,water , and fue l for d is tr ibut ion inemergencies.

In the event of a damage incident, the com-mander must report the incident to the BaseDefense Operation Center (BDOC) or BaseCluster Operations Center (BCOC) or com-mand operations section by the fastestmeans. The commander will be prepared toprovide ADC assistance to adjacent basesand units as directed. The command will alsoprovide input to the cluster vulnerabilityanalysis by keeping the BDOC and BCOCinformed of changes in its location and status,and coordinate ADC requirements with theappropriate engineer headquarters.

ŽADC priorities

The ADC unit will carry out its mission byacting promptly in the event of damageincidents. The unit will assess damage andisolate danger areas, providing reports andupdates as needed to the base or clusteroperation center (BCOC). The unit will pre-vent and fight fires, and administer medicalcare and evacuate casualties. Unit personnelwill act swiftly to restore mission-essentialoperations and reestablish communications.The ADC unit must be ready to control trafficand stragglers, to supply emergency food,clothing, water, and fuel to the damagedfacility, and to remove or dispose of explosiveordnance. The duties of unit personnel mayalso include conducting contamination sur-veys and decontamination operations, andevacuating the dead. All activities should be

coordinated with the appropriate engineerheadquarters.

ENGINEER SUPPORTDepending on the nature, extent, and locationof damage, engineer assets from one orseveral organizations may be required toconduct ADC operations within a givenechelon or area.

The Theater of Operations ENCOM plansengineer support required to perform ADCmissions in accordance with Theater ofOperations engineer mission priorities. Sub-ordinate engineer headquarters may beassigned on-order ADC missions in supportof specific area commands, and may be placedin operational control for the mission. Directcoordination occurs between these engineerheadquarters and their supported area com-mands in the development and execution ofADC plans.

Engineer elements charged with ADC mis-sions facilitate these missions by—

Maintaining liaison with echelon RAOCs.

Ž Planning and coordinating ADC opera-tions in concert with higher headquarters.

Ž Reviewing unit and base ADC plans toensure their adequacy.

Ž Executing ADC missions beyond unit andbase capabilities as directed by thecommander.

Engineer units charged with responsibilityfor a compound must establish their ownADC plans. Development of these plans willtake into account the commander’s guidance,established priorities, unit capabilities,expected outside support requirements andexpected support from host nation sources,and other tactical mission requirements.


FM 5-104

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PLANNINGEngineers will be the primary source of per-sonnel to assist in assessing damage tobuildings, roadways, bridges, sewage sys-tems, and electrical systems. This assessmentprocess begins before any incident by deter-mining the amount, location, and type offacilities that are most critical to the supportof forward forces and those most susceptibleto damage from each type of expected inci-dent. Once damage has occurred, damagesurvey teams are deployed first to thesecritical facilities and then to other facilities todetermine the extent of damage, and theminimum effort and time required to makerepairs to return the facility to missionessential operational capability.

Ž

Ž

Ž

Ž

Engineer assistance before an incident mayconsist of stockpiling select fill material forrepair of craters on airstrips and roads. It isadvisable to stockpile filler material forsandbags in areas subject to flooding. Engi-neers may assist in hardening critical facil-ities and constructing critical commandbunkers or air defense positions. Installationof deliberate protective minefields may alsobe required.

Ž

Ž

The operations section must be kept currenton the status of ADC projects, difficultiesencountered, and requirements for additionalassistance.

Due to the austere nature of most contingencyoperations, units should expect to performthe majority of ADC-related missions withorganic assets. Engineer assistance will bededicated to maintaining air and sea lines ofcommunication through construction/repairsupport to airfields and LOTS facilities. If thesituation warrants the establishment of a fullRAOC with an ADC support section, contin-gency engineer forces may be tasked to sup-port ADC operations as they do in a fullydeveloped theater.

REPAIR PRIORITIESThe unit/base commander will determinerepair priority based upon the theater com-mander’s guidance, which focuses on facili-ties that have the greatest impact on theforward battle. Priorities will normally be asfollows:

Assist USAF teams in emergency runwayrepair.

Repair air defense emplacements.

Make permanent repairs to aircraftoperating surfaces.

Assist in repair of USAF facilities requiredfor minimum base operation.

Make emergency repairs to Army basefacilities.

Assist in repairs to LOCs or MSRs. Themission includes repair of ports, railroads,POL pipelines, and vital bridges.

DAMAGE CONTROL TASKSPrimary engineer effort will be directedtoward cleanup after damage has occurred.The main tasks may include rubble clearance,fire protection services, power productionand restoration, facility repair, flood damagecontrol, and clearance of tree blowdowns. Asdetermined by the Threat, appropriate se-curity forces should be provided to the engi-neers due to their vulnerability when engagedin a work project, and to let the engineers doengineering tasks rather than security orcivil control tasks. Preventive measures takenbefore an incident may require engineer sup-port to construct protective fortifications andobstacles.

Rubble clearanceEngineer heavy equipment may be requiredto facilitate immediate removal of rubble anddebris which have direct bearing on the


FM 5-104

accomplishment of the mission. Particularcare should be taken to avoid further injuringburied survivors. Unexploded ordnance maybe located in the debris. Depending upon theacceptable risk of further damage and delayin completing the cleanup, engineers may berequired to explode the ordnance in place ormark it for neutralization by EOD personnel.Controlled dumping areas and routes to themmust be designated for the clearance.

Fire protection serviceIndividual units and bases will be expected toconduct their own rudimentary fire fightingoperations. The base defense liaison teammay be able to coordinate for host nationsupport. When available, engineer firefighting teams may be responsible for pro-viding fire protection to facilities. Otherengineer elements may assist in containingfires by providing manpower and heavy andlight equipment. If the fire is too extensive, itcan be limited by firebreaks using engineerequipment and explosives. Knowledge ofexisting stores of flammables, explosives,and gas lines is imperative to the preventionof further damage.

Power production and restorationRepair of local power production equipmentis an extremely technical task and may re-quire local assistance. When available, engi-neer electrician teams may provide assistancein repair of in-place equipment, or may berequired to install a backup system if damageis too extensive. Rights of way for transmis-

sion routes may need to be cleared or repaired.These operations will generally require theuse of heavy equipment.

Facility repairA wide variety of tasks may be needed torepair facilities. Reference should be made toapplicable chapters in this manual. Within agiven echelon or area, priority of facilityrepair will generally follow guidelines dis-cussed in the section on repair priorities(page 118).

Flood damage controlEngineer equipment and expertise may berequired to construct or repair dikes, levees,and drainage channels. Storm sewers mayrequire clearing and reconstruction. Fillermaterial for sandbags will be needed andmay need to be transported to work sites. Inseverely flooded areas, temporary work plat-forms and ferries may be constructed withfloat bridging equipment. Search and rescuemissions may be required by engineer bridgeboat crews.

Tree blowdown clearanceTree blowdown may occur for a variety ofreasons, including nuclear strike, conven-tional bombing or explosives, and naturaldisasters. The most extensive and hazardouscleanup will result from nuclear strikes. Pre-cautions must be taken to protect work crews.Continuous monitoring for radiation andaccurate personnel exposure rosters must bemaintained.

SUPPORT OF LARGE-SCALEDECONTAMINATION OPERATIONS

On the AirLand battlefield, enemy forces for and carry out their own decontaminationmay employ NBC weapons. Combat opera- operations. However, they will perform hastytions may also be carried into areas pre- decontamination only, so that they canviously struck by these weapons. It is the accomplish their immediate assigned mis-responsibility of all combat, combat support, sions (FM 3-5, FM 3-100).and combat service support units to prepare


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For deliberate and complete decontamination ity will enhance the efficiency of units in theof personnel and equipment of large units, it following ways:may be necessary to establish permanentdecontamination sites within the Theater of Ž Reduce the risk of further injury to troopsOperations. These sites will allow large-scale, and civilians.move-through decontamination operationsin support of fixed facilities or in unit restor- Ž Control vapor and runoff hazards.ation and reconstitution operations from theCOMMZ forward to the division rear. The Ž Provide a standard, rapidly operating,services of a planned decontamination facil- efficient, fixed facility.

DECONTAMINATION RESPONSIBILITIES

DECONTAMINATION UNITSFixed decontamination sites are operated byspecially trained and equipped decontamina-tion units assigned to the corps or Theaterlevels. Such units have overall responsibilityfor planning, site preparation, operation, andpost-operation activities for the decontami-nation site. They require considerable aug-mentation from using and supporting units.Support on a semipermanent basis is alsorequired for administration and food service,equipment maintenance, transportation andsupply, and engineering support (FM 3-5).

ENGINEER SUPPORTEngineers tasked to support a large scaledecontamination operation can expect to beassigned to the tasks and responsibilitiesdescribed below.

Route reconnaissancePerform route reconnaissance from the battlearea or the installation to the decontamina-tion site. Route selection will be coordinatedwith the NBC unit that has overall responsi-bility for the decontamination site. Onealternate route should be chosen if possible,to avoid unnecessary decontamination of theMSR and other LOCs. Any access routes tothe decontamination site should be a safedistance from uncontaminated civilian andmilitary areas. Final selection of the routes tothe decontamination site is the responsibilityof the area commander.

Engineers may assist the NBC reconnais-sance element in reconnaissance and selec-tion of the decontamination site (FM 3-5).Final selection is the responsibility of theunit command, with assistance from theNBC unit. However, engineers may provideadvice and assistance on site selection,preparation, and maintenance, water supply,setup and shutdown operations, and decon-tamination operations.

Site selectionFinal selection of a fixed decontaminationsite is the responsibility of the local com-mander, usually assisted by the NBC unit incharge. The engineer unit commander, how-ever, should be aware of requirements forsuch an area (FM 3-5). A fixed decontami-nation site should be easily accessible but outof contamination range of populated areas. Itshould be large enough to accommodateplanned operations, and have drainage andsoil characteristics favorable for operationsand storage of contaminated materials. Wateris an integral part of the decontaminationprocess. Though nonpotable water is used, itmust be available and uncontaminated insufficient quantities or the decontaminationoperation will cease to function. The siteshould also be favorable for camouflage andconcealment.


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VEHICLE DECONTAMINATION WASHING POINT

Site preparationEngineers may help to determine the drain-age and contamination storage characteris-tics of the site, and overall site suitability forvertical and/or horizontal construction. Theycan also provide estimates of the approximatetime and effort required for engineer prepara-tion of the site. Engineers are also responsiblefor preparing and maintaining access andegress routes to the site and the road networkwithin it. The design life of these routesshould not exceed the planned duration of thedecontamination operation.

The work required to prepare and maintainthe site is determined by the NBC unitresponsible for the site, but can be expected toinclude clearing and grading, drainageanalysis and construction of drainage facil-ities and hazardous waste holding facilities.Horizontal construction and maintenance ofshowers, wash racks, and other structures asrequired, and hardening of the site are alsoengineer tasks.

Normal engineer construction planning andestimating is accomplished in accordancewith standing operating procedures. Becausedecontamination operations are essentially atemporary mission, design of all facilitiesshould be for a duration not to exceed thelength of decontamination operations.Effects of climate and terrain will stronglyinfluence decontamination operations andtheir engineer support. Specific guidanceregarding environmental factors is found inFM 5-100, FM 90-3, FM 90-5, and FM 90-6.

Water supply improvementWell drilling, water source improvement, andother support may be required to help theQuartermaster unit supply potable water forthe decontamination site (TM 5-700).

Assistance in site setup and shutdownEngineer support may be required inmaterials handling, earth moving, and othertasks as required.


FM 5-104

Assistance in areadecontamination operations mentation from engineers and other sup-

Decontamination of roads, bridges, struc- porting units. Responsible NBC units willtures, and selected areas of terrain is a long determine requirements for area decontami-and arduous task requiring extensive aug- nation (FM 3-5).

PLANNING AND OPERATIONS

PLANNINGAll planning must be done in close coordina-tion with the responsible NBC unit. The mostimportant initial planning factor is to calcu-late procedures for working in a contaminatedarea and the effects these will have uponnormal engineer operations. Mission-orientedprotection posture (MOPP) level will be set bythe local commander based upon informationgained from the responsible NBC unit.Drastically reduced efficiency will result fromoperations in MOPP and repeated but neces-sary decontamination of personnel andequipment (FM 3-100).

ENGINEER SUPPORTLimited special training may be required forpersonnel conducting engineer support in acontaminated area. It can be expected thatengineer support will be required on a fre-quent or constant basis for the duration ofdecontamination operations. Maintenance ofsite road networks and drainage will requireconstant attention. In the event of a nuclear

environment, engineer support may first berequired to clear rubble, blowdown, and re-establish LOCs before supporting decontami-nation operations. Shutdown of a largedecontamination site may involve extensiveearthwork and hauling of contaminatedmaterial. Engineer support in this phase ofthe decontamination operations may meet orexceed all other engineer support require-ments combined.

STORAGE OF CONTAMINANTSA large decontamination site generatesquantities of contaminated water andmaterials. The NBC unit in charge of the siteplan is responsible for permanent disposal ofthese materials. Engineers, however, areinvolved in temporary storage of thesematerials, particularly contaminated water.Extreme care must be taken to prevent escapeof contaminated water or materials into thesurrounding area, especially into potablewater sources and sanitation systems.


Chapter 15MEDICAL TREATMENT AND PRISONERDETAINMENT FACILITIES

M edical and detainment facilities are necessary to supportactivities in the Theater of Operations. The need for such

facilities is immediate, and intensifies as conflict lengthens orbecomes more severe. Engineers must be prepared to supportfacility construction and maintenance.

MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITIES 124

ENEMY PRISONER OF WAR FACILITIES 126

MEDICAL TREATMENT AND PRISONER DETAINMENT FACILITIES 123

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MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITIES

Regardless of the size, intensity, or durationof a conflict, medical treatment facilities areneeded in the Theater of Operations. How-ever, the longer the anticipated duration ofthe conflict, the greater the need to supportmedical treatment through rear area fixedfacilities. More forward base fixed facilitiesare also needed for medical units. Theseinclude Evacuation Hospitals (EVACs),combat support hospitals (CSHs), and mobileArmy surgical hospitals (MASHs).

These facilities must have the capacity anddegree of sophistication to treat injuries andother health problems sustained within theTheater of Operations. They must promoterapid, high-quality treatment within thetheater to expedite soldiers’ return to theirassigned duties. In addition to US troops, USforces are responsible for the well being ofenemy prisoners of war (EPW) and non-military personnel who accompany combatforces or who function within the theater, forexample, the press, contractors, and the RedCross. Emergency treatment of allied soldiersor the civilian population may also berequired.

THE HEALTH SERVICESUPPORT SYSTEM

Requirements for fixed facilities are generallyrestricted to the COMMZ, where hospitalunits do not move in conjunction with re-deployment of major tactical units. Thedegree of permanence may range from atemporary field hospital, to a semipermanentstation hospital, to the permanent construc-tion of a general hospital.

Site selection is the responsibility of healthservice support planners who in turn mustcoordinate with the logistics staff officer. Thelogistics staff officer allocates the site andcoordinates the required engineer construc-tion support. These facilities should be locatedso that patients from the combat zone can beeasily brought in, and so that patients can be

safely transferred within the COMMZ fromone medical facility to another. Locationnear ground transportation networks andproximity to an air terminal is therefore mostdesirable. Hospitals within the COMMZ mayalso be located to support high density trooppopulations.

Medical treatment facility requirements arebased on estimates of inpatient and out-patient loads and the theater patient evac-uation policy. This policy establishes thenumber of days that patients may be heldwithin the command for treatment. Thenthey either return to duty or convalescence, orare evacuated to a facility outside of thecommand. Shortcomings in major existinghospital facilities and all new requirementsmust be identified so that construction orrehabilitation can begin. Except when theyare located in existing structures, generaland station hospitals require many weeks fordevelopment before they can function. Onceestablished, they can be moved only withsubstantial difficulty and time-consumingeffort. The AFCS contains bills of materials,estimates of man-hours of construction time,and plans for station and general hospitalfacilities and associated clinics (TMs 5-301and 5-302).

SITE RESPONSIBILITIES ANDPLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

The best sites have existing utilities, such asa potable water supply, sewage disposal, andelectrical power. When new construction mustbe initiated, the site should be a relativetopographic high point, and the subsoil free-draining. The site should be isolated fromareas where sanitation may be difficult, andfrom areas subjected to noise, smoke, odors,and other nuisances. It should, however, belocated in an area that is conducive to expan-sion, and safe for handling large volumes offuels (up to 50,000 gallons of JP4 or dieselcontained in collapsible fabric tanks). Thefuel is needed for auxiliary power generation.

124 MEDICAL TREATMENT AND PRISONER DETAINMENT FACILITIES

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The site should be located near waste collec- of waste products, including edible andtion facilities that can handle large volumes contaminated solids.

HEALTH SERVICE SUPPORT


FM 5-104

Principles of phased construction will beenforced. Lower priority complementaryfacilities may include a helicopter landingsite, waste collection facilities, motor pools,laundry, vehicle parking, supply receivingand shipping facilities, and recreation areas.Even though waste collection facilities havelow priority at the initial planning phase, theimportance of this facility increases in directproportion to the intensity and duration ofthe conflict, since vast amounts of contami-nated waste may be generated. Expedientmethods for disposing of contaminated wasteproducts must be considered during the initialstages of planning. Such efforts must bedesigned to avoid any possibility of contami-nating ground water supplies. Expedientmethods, whether they are landfill operationsor incinerators, should be planned and lo-cated so that they enhance the operations ofthe medical facilities. These methods shouldalso be planned for the semifixed facilitiessuch as EVACs, CSHs, and MASHs to pre-vent them from contaminating their own

ground water supply, thus potentially ex-posing patients and staff to infections.

FACILITY PROTECTIONPrecautionary measures taken to prevent orminimize damage as a result of naturaldisaster, accidents, and enemy activity arespecified in the area damage control (ADC)plan. Medical treatment facilities should notbe located immediately adjacent to potentialtactical targets such as airfields, ammunitionstorage and supply facilities, POL storage,and major bridges. When the facility must liewithin an established defensive perimeter, itshould be located away from the perimeter,and at a distance from critical targets.

The decision to camouflage a hospital ordisplay the Red Cross emblem rests with thetactical commander. All protection affordedmedical units under the Geneva Woundedand Sick Convention of 1949 is compromisedwhen medical treatment facilities are camou-flaged.

ENEMY PRISONER OF WAR FACILITIES

Successful combat operations inevitablyresult in the capture of enemy prisoners ofwar. Depending on the duration and extent ofthe conflict, requirements for the evacuationof EPWs may warrant the establishment ofprisoner of war holding areas within thecorps area and semipermanent internmentfacilities within the COMMZ area. Furtherevacuation to semipermanent or permanentfacilities outside the Theater of Operationsmay also require a total evacuation scheme.Discussion of EPW facilities in this chapterwill be limited to the COMMZ.

Generally, EPWs are evacuated for their ownsafety, for medical treatment, or to relievetroops in the capturing unit from the task ofsecuring EPWs. Individual EPWs may be

selectively evacuated for interrogation pur-poses. Once EPWs are gathered at internmentfacilities, they constitute a pool of potentiallabor assets. They are, however, subject tospecial considerations and some limitations.

RESPONSIBILITIES AND PLANNINGWithin the COMMZ, the personnel command(PERSCOM) commander is responsible forinterning EPWs and administering theiractivities. Site selection for internment facil-ities is usually determined by PERSCOM.The following considerations must beweighed by the PERSCOM staff:

Ž Locations where EPW labor can mosteffectively be used.


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Ž Potential threat from the EPW populationto logistical support operations in theproposed location.

Ž Threat and boldness of guerrilla activityin the area.

Ž Attitude of the local civilian population.

Ž Attitude of the EPWs.

Ž Accessibility of the facility to supportforces and transportation to the site forsupport elements.

Ž Proximity to probable target areas (forexample, airfields, ammunition storage.)

Engineer participation in managing EPWactivities includes providing constructionsupport for building or renovating internmentfacilities, and employing EPW labor in engi-neer tasks where appropriate.

FACILITIESEnemy prisoners of war must be lodged inbuildings or barracks which are dry, heated,lighted, and protected from fire. Minimumdormitory area and air-space requirementsare the same as for troops at base camps.Enemy prisoners of war must have constantlyat their disposal installations conforming tosanitary rules, including the best practicableprovisions for baths and showers. They mustbe allowed to take physical exercise and toenjoy the fresh air. Sexes must be segregated.

Site selectionPrisoner of war internment facilities must beplanned soon enough in a contingencyoperation to provide for timely site selectionand development. Construction materialsmust be procured and construction initiatedpromptly. Construction should be planned tomaintain a standby capability for the accep-tance of additional EPWs. The site should be

located on a local topographic high point,with free draining subgrade soil. This willserve to minimize earth moving requirementsfor drainage. Greater sanitary precautionsmust be taken when working with high watertables or swamp-like environments. Plannersshould also assure a potable water supply, asewage system, an available electrical powersupply, and nearby supplies of constructionmaterials. If possible, existing structuresshould be used to minimize new construction.

Types of internment facilitiesWithin the COMMZ, EPW internment facil-ities are classified as EPW camps or EPWbranch camps. The EPW camp is generallysemipermanent construction and is composedof one to eight 500-person enclosures. TheEPW branch camp is a subsidiary camp of adesignated EPW camp. It is established tomeet a specific EPW labor requirement andfacilitates the accomplishment of a particularwork need. As with any Theater of Operationsconstruction, existing facilities that can beused directly or modified with a justifiableeffort are preferable to new construction.

New constructionConstruction standards, bills of material,and estimates of man-hours of constructioneffort are contained in the Army FacilitiesComponents System (TMs 5-301, 5-302, and5-303). If facilities must be built, they are to bebuilt to temporary standards. For economy inarea and fencing, buildings are best groupedin the center of the enclosure. Space betweenthe buildings and the deadline fences may beused for open air and exercise area.

Engineer support to the construction of EPWfacilities may include—

Ž Install security fencing/obstacles, light-ing, and towers.

Create a vegetation-clear zone.Ž


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Ž Construct patrol roads adjacent to or out-side of the facility.

Ž Construct EPW camp barracks, dispen-sary, mess, and baths and latrines, withrelated water and power facilities.

PRISONER OF WAR LABORPrisoners of war constitute a significantpotential supply of both skilled and unskilledlabor. Prisoners of war may possessengineer-related labor skills. The campcommander can assure the best employmentfor each EPW by establishing and main-taining occupational skill records. Approvalfor work on a project is obtained throughoperations channels from PERSCOM. Use ofEPW labor assumes a non-hostile attitude onthe part of the EPWs. The commander, indeciding to use EPW labor, must weigh howessential the required work is against thepersonnel (security and support) and logis-tical effort required to provide the EPW labor.Generally, the significant effort required tomanage EPW labor means that EPWs areonly used in the absence of qualified locallabor or contractors, or when the commanderdetermines that military engineers are notavailable or must be employed elsewhere.

Prisoners of war should be used to the maxi-mum extent for all work necessary in theadministration, management, construction,and maintenance of EPW camps andfacilities.

The following guidelines apply to the use ofEPW labor:

Ž The EPW may not be retained or employedin an area subject to hostile fire in thecombat zone. This generally precludes useof EPWs forward of the COMMZ.

Ž The EPW may volunteer, but may not becompelled to transport or handle stores, orto engage in public works and buildingoperations which have a military characteror purpose.

Ž The EPW may not be employed in laborconsidered to be injurious to health ordangerous because of the inherent natureof the work.

Ž The EPW may not be assigned to performwork considered as humiliating or de-grading. This would not include any tasksrequired for the administration or mainte-nance of the EPW camp itself.


FM 5-104

GlossaryABN/AMBLACSADAADCAdminADPADRAEREAFAFCSAFMAFRAMBAOSARAREAASCASGASPATPAVLBBCOCBDEBDOCBDLTBNBOMCBT ENGRCESPCMOCOCOMMZCONUSCSCSACSHCSSDCSOPSDIVENCOMENGREODEPSEPWEVACFCFCZFLOTFMFSSPFTGAGSHNHNSHPHQINIPDSJCSJIJPOKGLBLCMLILOCsLOTS

Airborne/AirmobileAssistant Chief of StaffAir defense artilleryArea Damage ControlAdministrationAutomatic data processingAirfield Damage RepairArmy Engineer Real EstateAir ForceArmy Facilities Components SystemAir Force ManualAir Force RegulationAmbulanceAircraft operating surfacesArmy RegulationAmerican Railway Engineering AssociationArea Support CommandArea Support GroupAmmunition supply pointAmmunition transfer pointArmored vehicle launched bridgeBase Cluster Operation CenterBrigadeBase Defense Operation CenterBase Defense Liaison TeamsBattalionBill of materialCombat EngineerCivil Engineer Support PlanCivil-military operationsCompanyCommunications zoneContinental United StatesCombat SupportCombat Storage AreaCombat Support HospitalCombat Service SupportDeputy Chief of Staff for OperationsDivisionEngineer CommandEngineerExplosive Ordnance DisposalEngineering Performance StandardsEnemy Prisoner of WarEvacuation HospitalField CircularForward Combat ZoneForward line of troopsField ManualFuel System Supply PointFoot, feetGeneral of the ArmyGeneral SupportHost NationHost Nation SupportHorsepowerHeadquartersInch, inchesInland Petroleum Distribution SystemJoint Chiefs of StaffJoint IntelligenceJoint Petroleum OfficeKilogram, kilogramsPound, poundsLanding Craft MechanizedLogistices installationLines of CommunicationLogistsics over the shore

GLOSSARY 1

FM 5-104

MMAINTMASHMEDCENMEDDACMETT-TMGIMHEMLCMOPPMOSMPMSRNATONAVAIDSNBCOCEOPCONOPDSOPLANOPNPERSCOMPETR OPPOLPOMCUSQMRACORAOCRAPRO/ROROWPURPMARRRS&SSCUBASECSOFASOPSTANAGTATAACOMTADCSLOGTAENCOMTAMMCTAMMSTASCOMTCTCFTCMTCSBTDATMTOETPFDDTPTTRANSCOMTRANSPORTRSTSAUSUSACE

Meter, metersMaintenanceMobile Army surgical hospitalUS Army Medical CenterMedical Department ActivityMission, enemy, terrain, troops, and timeMilitary Geographic InformationMaterials handling equipmentMilitary load classificationMission oriented protection postureMinimum operating stripMilitary PoliceMain Supply RouteNorth Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNavigation AidsNuclear, biological, chemicalOffice of the Chief of EngineersOperational controlOffshore Petroleum Distribution SystemOperations PlanOperationsPersonnel CommandPetroleum Pipeline and Terminal OperatingPetroleum, oils, and lubricantsPrepositioned materiel configured to unit setsQuartermasterRear area combat operationsRear Area Operations CenterRear area protectionRoll on/roll offReverse osmosis water purification unitReal Property Maintenance ActivitiesRapid Runway RepairSupply and servicesSelf-contained underwater breathing apparatusSectionStatus of Forces AgreementsStanding operating procedureStandardization AgreementTheater ArmyTheater Army Area CommandTheater Army Deputy Chief of Staff for LogisticsTheater Army Engineer CommandTheater Army Materiel Management CenterTheater Army Materiel Management SystemTheater Army Support CommandTransportation CorpsTactical Combat ForcesTheater construction managerThird Country Supply BasesTable of Distribution and AllowancesTechnical ManualTable of Organization and EquipmentTime-phased force deployment planTactical Petroleum TerminalTransportation CommandTransportationTransportation Railway ServiceTheater Storage AreaUnited StatesUnited States Army Corps of EngineersUnited States Army Engineer Topographic Laboratory/Terrain AnalysisUSAETL/TACCenter

USAF United States Air ForceUSMC United States Marine CorpsUXO Unexploded ordnanceW WithWDRT Water Detection Response TeamZI Zone of the Interior

2 GLOSSARY

FM 5-104

AppendixGENERAL ENGINEERSUPPORT EQUIPMENT

T his appendix describes various types of equipment that canbe used to support general engineer missions. This informa-

tion is provided to help planners choose and locate the types ofequipment needed. The equipment is grouped into four categories:lifting and loading, earthmoving, hauling, and special purposeequipment.

LIFTING AND LOADING EQUIPMENT 130

EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT 132

HAULING EQUIPMENT 137

SPECIAL PURPOSE EQUIPMENT 139

APPENDIX 129

FM 5-104

LIFTING AND LOADING EQUIPMENT

WHEEL- AND CRAWLER-MOUNTED CRANES

DESCRIPTION: Engineer units use a wide variety of cranes. The cranesare of three basic types—crawler, truck mounted, and wheel mounted. Theyare capable of operating various attachments. The 12½-ton crawler cranesand 20- to 25-ton truck- and wheel-mounted cranes are capable of operatingwith hook, ¾-cubic yard clamshell and dragline, concrete bucket, wreckingball, and 7,000-pound diesel-operated pile driver. The 40-ton crawler crane iscapable of operating a hook, 2-cubic yard clamshell and dragline, and a12,000-pound diesel-operated pile driver. In addition, crawler cranes arecapable of operating backhoe and shovel front attachments. The 25-tontruck-mounted crane is hydraulically operated, whereas the 20-ton truck-and wheel-mounted cranes and crawler-mounted cranes are hoist/drumoperated.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The truck- and wheel-mounted cranes areemployed by units that have material-handling and excavating capabilityto support combat support missions. The crawler cranes are employed byconstruction support units that have a primary mission to operate quarriesor construct port facilities.

BASIS OF ISSUE: Crawler cranes are authorized in the equipmentplatoons and quarry sections of the Engineer Construction SupportCompany, Engineer Equipment Maintenance Company (Combat Heavy),Engineer Port Construction Company, and in various Engineer Teams. The25-ton hydraulic crane is found in the same TOEs. The 20-ton wheel-mounted crane is authorized in the Engineer Combat Battalion (Corps),Engineer Bridge Companies, and in supply /support TOEs.

130 APPENDIX

FM 5-104

THE 7.5-TON CRANE

DESCRIPTION: The 7.5-ton crane is a diesel-engine driven, 2- and 4-wheel drive vehicle. It is hydraulically operated and equipped with a fullrevolving telescoping boom. The family consists of two types of the samebasic crane. A Type I crane (non-sectionalized) is for units other thanairborne/airmobile (ABN/AMBL). The Type II crane (sectionalized) is forABN/AMBL units and will be supplied with a kit to aid in sectionalization.The cranes used in ABN/AMBL units are capable of airdrop and lowaltitude parachute extraction. The Type II crane is externally transportableby medium lift helicopter.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: United States Forces require materialshandling equipment to be utilized in combat support and combat servicesupport roles in the division, corps, and theater army areas. Due to thevariety of units requiring a materials handling capability, the crane mustperform many different tasks, including: ammunition resupply for armoredand artillery units, construction materials handling for engineer units,disassembly and reassembly of equipment for air transport and air dropoperations, general cargo and supply handling for all types of units.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The existing assets of the 3-, 5-, and 7-ton cranes will bereplaced by the appropriate version of the 7.5-ton crane on a one-for-onebasis.

APPENDIX 131

FM 5-104

EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT

GRADER, ROAD, MOTORIZED, HEAVY

DESCRIPTION: The heavy duty grader is diesel-engine driven,pneumatic-tired, 6 x 4 front wheel steer with articulated frame steer type. Itis equipped with a power shift transmission, fully enclosed cab,hydraulically-operated blade and scarifier. The grader is roadable from onefield/work site to another; however, for long distance moves it should bemoved on a transporter.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The heavy grader is employed by non-divisional Combat Engineer and tables of distribution and allowances(TDA) units. The grader is used for grading, shaping, bank sloping,ditching, scarifying, and for general construction and maintenance ofroads and airfields.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The grader is normally authorized in the equipmentsection or at platoon level in nondivisional Combat Engineer units.

132 APPENDIX

FM 5-104

SCOOP LOADERS

DESCRIPTION: The scoop loader is a versatile item of equipment forperforming horizontal and vertical construction tasks. The loader is adiesel-engine driven, four-wheel drive machine with rear axle oscillationand articulated frame steering. The hydraulically-operated scoop bucket isattached to the front of the loader by means of a push frame and lift arms.Loaders are usually equipped with a one-piece general purpose bucket, arock bucket, or a multipurpose (hinged jaw) bucket. Current loaders rangefrom 2½- to 5-cubic yard capacity. New 2½-cubic yard scoop loaders forABN/AMBL units feature a quick-coupler mechanism to attach/detach themultipurpose bucket. The loaders in ABN/AMBL units can be delivered byairdrop and low altitude parachute extraction, and a small number arecapable of sectionalization for helilift operations.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The loader can be used for loading trucks,stockpiling aggregates, excavating loose or compacted soil, and in quarryoperations.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The scoop loader is employed in the equipment sectionor at platoon level in divisional and nondivisional Combat Engineer unitsand in other Combat Support type organizations.

APPENDIX 133

FM 5-104

TRACTOR, BACKHOE/LOADER JD 410

DESCRIPTION: The backhoe/loader JD 410 is a commercial item ofconstruction equipment used for excavating, trenching, backlifting, andlimited earthmoving. It can be equipped with a variety of attachments,including a hydraulic-operated concrete breaker, a tamper, backhoe, and afront-mounted scoop bucket. It is primarily used in the backhoe/loaderconfiguration. Backhoe digging capability is approximately 30 cubic yardsper hour in good terrain. The backhoe/loader tractor is roadable for shortdistances at speeds of only 15 to 20 miles per hour. For long distances, itmust be transported.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The backhoe/loader is used for excavationof pipeline trenches, building footings, drainage ditches, hasty fortifica-tions, backfilling, loading small quantities of earth in trucks, and formoving earth and material within confined areas of a construction site.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The backhoe/loader in the Division, Corps, and HeavyEngineer Battalion is normally authorized as one per company.

134 APPENDIX

FM 5-104

TRACTOR, FULL TRACK, LOW SPEED, MEDIUM AND HEAVY DRAWBAR PULL

DESCRIPTION: The crawler tractor, commonly referred to as a dozer orbulldozer, is the basic item of earthmoving equipment for heavy dozing andclearing. Both tractors are full-tracked, low speed, and diesel-engine driven.The tractors are equipped with a power shift transmission and hydraulicoperated semi-U-type dozer blade with tilt cylinder, and a rear-mountedwinch or ripper. The medium dozer has an operating weight of 50,000pounds, 200 horse power (HP) engine and 39,000-pound drawbar pull. Theheavy dozer has an operating weight of 83,000 pounds with ripper, 300 HPengine and 56,000-pound drawbar pull. The dozers are transported to the jobsite by a truck-tractor (M916/M920) and low bed semitrailer (M172Al\M870)transport system. Both dozers are air transportable in C-5 aircraft. Themedium dozer can also be transported in C-130 aircraft with removal ofsome components.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: Due to the low ground bearing pressure, thecrawler tractor has the capability of working in adverse underfoot condi-tions and is normally the first piece of construction equipment on a job site.The tractors are used to perform dozing, rough grading, cutting and filling,ripping, and towing in support of general engineering tasks.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The medium tractor is presently employed at theplatoon level in divisional and nondivisional Combat Engineer units. TheM9 Armored Combat Earthmover (ACE) is programmed to replace themedium tractor in divisional and Corps Combat Engineer Battalions and inseparate Brigade Companies. The basis of issue for the heavy tractorincludes. the Engineer Construction Support and Combat Support Equip-ment Companies and the Heavy Combat Battalion.

APPENDIX 135

FM 5-104

TRACTOR-SCRAPER, 14 TO 18 CUBIC YARDS

DESCRIPTION: The scraper is a self-propelled open bowl, pneumatic-tired, two-axle, single diesel-engine driven, articulated frame steer vehicle.Its loading capacity is 14 cubic yards minimum struck, and 18 cubic yardsheaped. The self-propelled scraper can work alone and self load, butproduction is increased when assisted by a pusher tractor during loading.The scraper provides a self-loading, hauling, and dumping capability toperform efficient earthmoving tasks in support of earthmoving projects.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The tractor-scraper can be used for loading,hauling, and spreading earth materials. It will be employed by Engineerunits for improving, maintaining, and constructing combat trails, mainsupply routes, airfields, excavating protective positions and antitankditches, and developing logistics support facilities.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The tractor-scraper will be assigned to the EngineerCombat Support Equipment Company (nine each) and the EngineerCompany, Combat Battalion, Heavy (four each).

136 APPENDIX

FM 5-104

HAULING EQUIPMENT

THE 5-TON DUMP TRUCK

DESCRIPTION: The primary haul capability in engineer units for earth,rock, aggregate, and construction materials is accomplished by 2½-ton,5-ton, and 20-ton dump trucks (see page 138). All models are equipped withtandem axles, dual wheels and a rear dump body. The 2½-ton and 5-tondump trucks are a part of the tactical vehicle series used throughout theArmy. The 20-ton dump trucks are commercial vehicles with minormodifications to meet military needs. The 2½- and 5-ton dump trucks servedual roles as engineer squad carriers and as carriers for equipment andconstruction materials. The 2½- and 5-ton dump trucks are capable of beingoperated over all types of roads, highways, and cross-country terrain. The20-ton dump trucks are authorized where large hauling requirements existand for limited off-road requirements.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The 2½-ton and 5-ton dump trucks are usedto tow trailers, to carry squad tools and personnel, and to haul earth, rock,general cargo, and construction materials in support of unit missions. The20-ton dump trucks are used where there is a large requirement for earth,rock, and asphalt in support of major construction projects.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The 2½-ton dump truck authorization is limited toABN/AMBL units. The 5-ton trucks are authorized at the platoon level indivisional and nondivisional engineer units to include ABN/AMBL units.The 20-ton dump truck is authorized in the Equipment and MaintenanceCompany Engineer Heavy Battalion, Combat and Construction SupportCompany, and the Engineer Dump Truck Company.

APPENDIX 137

FM 5-104

THE 2½-TON DUMP TRUCK

THE 20-TON DUMP TRUCK

138 APPENDIX

FM 5-104

SPECIAL PURPOSE EQUIPMENT

PNEUMATIC TOOL AND COMPRESSOR OUTFIT

DESCRIPTION: The pneumatic tool and compressor outfit is a diesel-engine driven, trailer-mounted, rotary-screw air compressor with integralstorage compartments and pneumatic tools with accessories. The toolsconsist of a pavement breaker, rock drill, wood borer, nail driver, centrifugalpump, tamper, chain and circular saws, and accessories for each tool.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The compressor is capable of supplyinglarge volumes of air under pressure to operate the pneumatic tools utilized inrepair and construction of roads, bridges, landing strips, heliports and portfacilities.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The tool and compressor outfit is assigned at theplatoon level in divisional and nondivisional Combat Engineer units and inother combat support organizations.

APPENDIX 139

FM 5-104

SMALL EMPLACEMENT EXCAVATOR (SEE)

DESCRIPTION: The SEE is a lightweight, all-wheel drive, diesel-enginedriven high-mobility vehicle with backhoe, bucket loader, and otherattachments such as a hand-held hydraulic rock drill, chain saw, andpavement breaker. The SEE weighs less than 16,000 pounds, is airtransportable, can travel at speeds of more than 40 miles per hour onimproved roads, and has excellent off-road mobility.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: Although the SEE is used primarily to digcombat emplacements (crew-served weapon positions, command posts andindividual fighting positions) for units in the main battle area, its ver-satility also provides earthmoving, pavement-breaking, and chain sawcapability for general engineer tasks.

BASIS OF ISSUE: Excavators will be fielded at one per squad, in theEngineer Company, Engineer Battalion, Infantry Division; the CombatEngineer Company, Division 86; and the Combat Engineer Company,Light Infantry Division. The SEE will also replace the John Deere 410excavator on a one-for-one basis in Corps Engineer Battalions.

140 APPENDIX

FM 5-104

DESCRIPTION: The M915 series of vehicles consists of six differentvehicles (M915-M920) which use the same power train, axles, and chassiswith different body configurations. The M917, M919, M920 (see page 142)are equipped with a pusher axle for equalizing the load on the rear axles.The M915 is a line-haul tractor used primarily in transportation units. TheM916 through M920 are used predominantly in engineer units. The M916and M920 truck tractors are used to tow compatible semitrailers, low bedtype (M172A1, 25-ton payload and M870, 40-ton payload). The M917 is a20-ton, 12-cubic yard dump truck. The M918 is a 1,500-gallon bituminousdistributor equipped with a hydrostatically-driven bituminous pump andspray bar. The M919 is a concrete mobile mixer with the capability totransport dry concrete ingredients and water, mix the ingredients invarious proportions and discharge mixed concrete directly into forms orother handling equipment.

EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The general mission of engineer unitsauthorized M916-M920 vehicles is to provide construction, rehabilitation,and maintenance of LOCs/MSRs and for all types of facilities (horizontaland vertical) in a Theater of Operations. The family of vehicles enablesEngineer Combat and Construction Support units to perform combatengineering and construction tasks in support of unit missions.

BASIS OF ISSUE: The truck tractors (M916 and M920) are employed atthe platoon level in essentially all engineer TOEs except ABN/AMBL. TheM917, M918, and M919 vehicles are authorized in Corps units, primarily theConstruction and Combat Support Companies and the Combat HeavyBattalions.

APPENDIX 141

FM 5-104

THE M916

THE M919

THE M917

THE M920

142 APPENDIX

FM 5-104

ReferencesRELATED REFERENCES

Related publications are sources of additional information. They are notrequired for understanding this publication.

50-6190-11

405-10415-30

420-43420-46420-70420-90

420-2738-750

3-53-87

3-1005-15-345-355-365-1005-1015-1035-1055-1665-3125-5419-69-3827-1055-2055-5055-6055-7090-390-590-690-14

Army Regulations (AR)Chemical Surety ProgramPhysical Security of Arms, Ammunition, andExplosivesAcquisition of Real Property and Interests ThereinTroop Construction and Support of the Air ForceOverseasElectrical ServicesWater and SewageBuildings and StructuresFire Protection

Department of the Army Pamphlets (DA Pam)Management of Fire Protection and PreventionThe Army Maintenance Management System (TAMMS)

Field Manuals (FM)NBC DecontaminationNuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC)Reconnaissance and Decontamination Operations (Howto Fight)NBC OperationsEngineer Troop Organizations and OperationsEngineer Field DataEngineer’s Reference and Logistical DataRoute Reconnaissance and ClassificationEngineer Combat OperationsMobilitySurvivabilityTopographic Support OperationsWell Drilling OperationsMilitary Fixed BridgesMilitary Soils EngineeringAmmunition Service in the Theater of OperationsConventional Ammunition Unit OperationsThe Law of Land WarfareArmy Rail Transport Operations and UnitsArmy Water Transport OperationsArmy Terminal OperationsArmy Transportation Container OperationsDesert Operations (How to Fight)Jungle Operations (How to Fight)Mountain Operations (How to Fight)Rear Battle

REFERENCES 1

FM 5-104

100-10100-15100-16101-10-1

3

5-2105-2325-2335-2355-3005-301-1

5-301-2

5-301-3

5-301-4

5-302: 1-55-303

5-3045-3125-315

5-330

5-331 A-E5-3335-3375-3435-3605-3705-610

5-6235-6245-6275-6345-665

5-666

Combat Service SupportLarger Unit OperationsSupport Operations: Echelons Above CorpsStaff Officers’ Field Manual: Organizational, Technical,and Logistical Data (Unclassified Data)

Joint Chiefs of Staff PublicationJoint Logistics and Personnel Policy and Guidance

Technical Manuals (TM)Military Floating Bridge EquipmentElements of SurveyingConstruction SurveyingSpecial SurveysReal Estate Operations in Oversea CommandsArmy Facilities Components System—Planning(Temperate)Army Facilities Components System—Planning(Tropical)Army Facilities Components System—Planning(Frigid)Army Facilities Components System—Planning(Desert)Army Facilities Components System: DesignArmy Facilities Components System-Logistic Data andBills of MaterielArmy Facilities Components System: User GuideMilitary Fixed BridgesFirefighting and Rescue Procedures in the Theater ofOperationsPlanning and Design of Roads, Airbases, and Heliportsin the Theater of OperationsUtilization of Engineer Construction EquipmentConstruction ManagementPaving and Surfacing OperationsMilitary Petroleum Pipeline SystemsPort Construction and RehabilitationRailroad ConstructionPreventive Maintenance: Facilities Engineering,Buildings, and StructuresPavement Maintenance ManagementMaintenance and Repair of Surface AreasMaintenance of TrackageRefuse Collection and Disposal: Repairs and UtilitiesOperations and Maintenance of Domestic andIndustrial Wastewater SystemsInspections and Preventive Maintenance Services,Sewage Treatment Plants and Sewer Systems at FixedInstallations

2 REFERENCES

FM 5-104

5-6835-6845-7005-820-2

5-820-3

5-822-45-830-25-830-35-830-4

5-850-19-1300-20610-277

55-204

Facilities Engineering: Electrical Interior FacilitiesFacilities Engineering: Electrical Exterior FacilitiesField Water SupplyDrainage and Erosion Control: Subsurface DrainageFacilities for AirfieldsDrainage and Erosion-Control Structures for Airfieldsand HeliportsSoil Stabilization for PavementsEstablishment of Herbaceous Ground CoverDust ControlEngineering and Design: Planting and Maintenance ofTrees, Shrubs, Ground Covers, and VinesEngineering and Design of Military PortsAmmunition and Explosives StandardsChemical, Toxicological, and Missile Fuel HandlersProtective ClothingMaintenance of Railroad Way and Structures

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONSAir Force Troop Construction and Support of the Air ForceRegulation 90-3 Overseas

Air Force Planning and Design of Theater of Operations AirManual 86-3 Bases

Barber-Greene Co., Inc. The Bituminous Construction Handbook. Barber-Greene. Aurora, Illinois. 1963.

REFERENCES 3

FM 5-104

IndexThis index is organized by topic and subtopicwithin topic. Topics and subtopics are identifiedby page number. Illustrations are shown in bold-face type.

ADC. See Area Damage ControlADC units

planning responsibilities, 116resource identification by, 117

ADR. See Airfield Damage RepairAerial photography, 40AFCS. See Army Facilities Components SystemAircraft

airfield approach zone requirements of, 23combinations, 18, 19fixed-wing, 18, 19rotary-wing, 18survivability enhancement of, 24

Airfield Damage RepairAir Force capability to perform, 26planning for, 20priorities for tasks in, 26specialized materials for, 26types of damage, 25

Airfieldsairfield classification system, 18area classification of, 18construction of, 21-24construction standards for, 24design of, 20existing, adaptation of, 24-25facilities, 20factors in planning, 19-20heliport classification system, 18mission classification of, 18, 19reconnaissance for, 22repair. See Airfield Damage Repairsite selection, 19, 22-23

American Railway Engineering Association(AREA), 51

Ammunition storage facilitiesclimate conditions and, 84design factors in, 82-83drainage, 82engineer responsibility for, 82facility protection measures, 83,fire prevention measures, 82-84layout of, 83location for, 64,81-83LOTS sites, 64

INDEX 1

FM 5-104

Area Damage Control. see also ADC units; AirfieldDamage Repair; Decontamination operationsengineer planning for, 118engineer tasks, 118-119expected types of damage, 113host nation support to, 113, 115repair priorities, 118responsibilities for, 113-118utilities, 119

Army Engineer Real Estate Teams, 103Army Facilities Components System

airfield facilities in, 24described, 5enemy prisoner of war facilities in, 127fixed bridging sets in, 39medical treatment facilities in, 124railroad bridge sets in, 42sources for, 5

Army Real Estate Programobjectives, 101policies, 101-102

Asphalt plant with trailer-mountedelements, 11

Asphalt production, 11-12

Bailey bridge span over demolished masonryarch bridge, 39

Borrow pits, 8-9Bridge. See Bridge classification; Bridges, fixed;Bridges, float; Bridges, railroad; see also Detoursand bypasses

Bridge classificationcivil-constructed bridges, 44correlation curves, use of in, 44-45engineer reconnaissance data for, 43-44engineer responsibility for, 45

Bridges, fixedadvantages of reinforcing, 45-46design elements of, 41existing, 39military load classifications for, 43-45overweight loads on, 43-44repair of, 46standard military fixed bridges, 39types of, 39types of labor needed to construct, 41-42

Bridges, float, 42Bridges, railroad. see also Detours and bypasses

construction of, 43, 51conversion to highway bridges, 43site selection for, 43

Bulk petroleum distribution system, 88

2 INDEX

FM 5-104

Causeways, 62Chief of Engineers, 102Contract labor. See LaborConstruction criteria, 3Construction materials

asphalt, 11-12borrow pits, 8-9crushed rock, 10-11locally procured, adaptation to, 8military logistical supply of, 8portland cement concrete, 13-14ports, 74quarries, 9-10railroads, 53-54topographical support for location of, 8

Construction proceduresairfields, phased, 21-22pipelines, 91ports, 71, 73-74, 76-77railroads, 54

Containerized shippingLOTS terminals, 63-64ports, 66, 74-75water depth required for, 75

Crushed rock, 10-11

Decontamination operationsdecontamination units, 120engineer support to, 120, 122individual unit responsibility for, 119NBC conditions, 119site management, 120-121

DeLong pier. See PiersDeLong pier, 73Detours and bypasses, 47Diver support

LOTS, 60port operations, 69-70Quartermaster Corps, 60

Drainageairfields, 22, 23ammunition storage facilities, 82during road construction, 35natural patterns of, 33rail routes, 53surface ditching system, 36temporary measures, 35

Dust control. See Soil Stabilization

Earthmovingairfield construction, 23minimization of, 33road construction, 33-34

INDEX 3

FM 5-104

Electric power supplymaintenance of, 108-109emergency repair of, 119

Enemy Prisoners of Waremployment policies concerning, 128evacuation policies governing, 126internment facilities, 127PERSCOM responsibilities, 126-127

Engineer BattalionsPOL construction support, 87water supply responsibilities, 96

Engineer Dredge Team, 70Engineer Pipeline Support Company

LOTS support, 60POL facility support, 87potable water pipeline support, 97

Engineer Port Construction CompanyLOTS, support to, 60,62POL facility support, 87port construction tasks performed by, 68,69

Engineer Port Construction Companyport construction, 69support to water supply, 97

Engineer support priorities in the Theater ofOperations, 6

Engineer support to Air Force bases, 17Engineer support to area damage control,

114Engineer support to LOTS operations, 59Engineer support to POL facilitiesconstruction, 86

Engineer support to port construction/rehabilitation, 67

Engineer support to railroad construction,49

Engineer Terrain Analysis Teams, 98Existing facilities

advantages of, 105disadvantages of, 105

Expedient surfacing, 62

Fire protectionammunition supply and storage areas, 82-84equipment, 110individual unit responsibilities for, 119logistical facilities, 110

The 5-ton dump truck, 137Forward Combat Zone (FCZ), 28, 35

General engineer missionscoordination of, in COMMZ, 2joint service operations, 2low-intensity conflict, 1

4 INDEX

FM 5-104

mid- to high-intensity conflict, 1prioritization of, 1, 5-6units tasked to perform, 1

Grader, road, motorized, heavy, 132

Health service support, 125Helicopter. See Rotary-wing aircraftHeliports. See AirfieldsHost nation support (HNS)

Area Damage Control, 115bridge classification, 44construction materials, 8railroads, 49real estate agreements, 101Theater of Operations development, 2

Joint Chiefs of Staffreal estate planning by, 104Theater of Operations planning by, 3

Joint service operationsAir Force/Army Engineer operations, 16Engineer support to, 2LOTS development, 61pipelines, 86port operations, 66-67

Laborcontract labor, 2enemy prisoner of war, 128military manpower, 4port construction requirements, 70types required for bridge construction, 41-42railroad construction, 49, 51

Logistic installations. see also Medical TreatmentFacilities; Enemy Prisoner of War Facilities;Ammunition Storage Facilitiesengineer responsibility for, 79, 82facility protection, 80, 83, 84reconnaissance for, 79repairs to, 109-110site selection, 79-80types, 79

Logistics Over the Shore (LOTS)engineer responsibility for, 58-60importance of, 57marshaling areas, 63-64Navy and, 61reconnaissance for, 61site layout, 61Transportation Corps functions, 58, 61

Lumber production, 10

INDEX 5

FM 5-104

The M916, 142The M917, 142The M918, 141The M919, 142M919 Concrete Mobile, 13The M920, 142Medical Treatment Facilities

facility protection, 124site selection 124-125types, 124

Mission Classification Data for Fixed-WingAircraft, 19

Nation-building missions, 1Nuclear, biological, chemical (NBC) substances.see also Decontamination operationsenvironmental effects, 119storage of, 122

Pavementairfield, 23airfield damage repair, 25flexible, 37

Pavement Damage Categories, 25Petroleum, oil, and lubricants. See POL supplyPetroleum storage facilities

bolted steel tanks, 89collapsible tanks, 89engineer construction support to, 87, 88tactical petroleum terminals, 89

Piersconventional, 61, 72DeLong pier, 62, 74new construction methods for, 73-74strength required to support containerizedshipping, 74

Pipeline Design Teams, 88Pipelines

construction of, 91engineer construction support to, 87-88inland petroleum distribution system (IPDS), 89IPDS pipe, 89-90maintenance of, 91pump stations, 90route selection for, 90-91testing of, 91underwater, 89

Pneumatic tool and compressor outfit, 139POL supply. see also Pipelines

engineer responsibility for, 86-87joint service operations for, 86military bulk petroleum distribution systems,88-90

pipeline construction, 90-91pipeline maintenance, 91

6 INDEX

FM 5-104

Portland cement concrete, 13-14Ports

capacity of, 71-72dredging, 70, 75engineer construction group, 69engineer responsibilities, 66, 67joint service responsibilities, 66, 67Quartermaster Corps responsibilities, 70repairs to, 76support facilities, 74-75sweeping, 75Transportation Command responsibilities, 66,67, 70, 71, 74

Prioritiesairfield construction tasks, 22airfield damage repair tasks, 26Area Damage Control, 117detour and bypass use, 47war-essential general engineering missions, 6theater commander, to be set by, 5

Quarries, 9-10Quartermaster Corps

LOTS operations, 60, 64port operations, 70

Radiographic Weld Inspection Teams, 88Railroad construction

auxiliary facilities, 54-55design, 51highway and rail crossing at grade, 54schedule for, 53standard sequence for, 54

Railroads, militaryadvantages of, 48American Railway Engineering Associationand, 51

bridging for, 51construction materials for, 51construction procedures, 54construction standards, 51desirable route characteristics, 51-53engineer responsibility, 49highway crossings, 54local labor and, 49, 51servicing operations, 55sidings, 54Transportation Corps responsibilities, 49, 50, 54vulnerability of, 48, 55wyes, 54-55

Real Estateacquisition, 101-102, 105Army Engineer Real Estate Teams, 103combat zone policies, 104

INDEX 7

FM 5-104

command responsibilities for, 102Department of the Army policies concerning,

101-102engineer responsibilities for, 102-103local government relationships, 101-105requisition of, 104seizure of, 104

Real Property Maintenance Activities, 108Reconnaissance

airfields, 22air reconnaissance, 32area reconnaissance, 32deliberate route reconnaissance, 29existing fixed bridges, 39-40ground reconnaissance, 33hasty route reconnaissance, 29railroads, 49, 52-53roads, 29-30specific reconnaissance, 32

Road maintenance, 30-32Roads. see also Road maintenance; Roads,existing; Roads, newclassification, 28engineer responsibility for, 28planning factors for, 28-29reconnaissance of, 29-30, 32-33standards for, 28

Roads, existingobstructions on, 29-30reconnaissance of, 29-30upgrading, 30

Roads, newreconnaissance, 32-33site selection, 33-34

Rotary-wing aircraft, 18

Sample integrated priority list for generalengineering tasks, 6

Schematic of a container marshaling yard,63

Scoop loaders, 133Site selection

airfields, 19bridges, 40railroads, 51-53roads, 33-34

Small emplacement excavator (SEE), 140Soil stabilization

airfields, 23materials for, 37

8 INDEX

FM 5-104

methods, 37LOTS sites, 62

Standard asphalt travel plant, 12Standardization. see also Army FacilitiesComponents Systemstandard plans, 5value of, 4

Subgrade drainage to lower water table, 35Surfacing. See PavementSurvey

airfields, 23fixed bridge sites, 41roads, 34-35

Topographic supportaerial photography as a source of, 40bridge reconnaissance, 40water detection, 98

Tractor, backhoe/loader JD 410, 134Tractor, full track, low speed, medium andheavy drawbar pull, 135

Tractor-scraper, 14 to 18 cubic yards, 136Traffic

density, effect on railroad design, 52double flow traffic, 29loads on bridges, 41, 43-44oversize and overweight loads, 43-44single flow traffic, 29

Transportation Corpsmilitary railroad responsibilities, 49, 51, 54port operations responsibilities, 66-67, 70, 71

Transportation railway serviceorganization, 50

The 20-ton dump truck, 138The 2½-ton dump truck, 138Typical decontamination station, 121Typical LOTS site, 61Typical quarry layout, 9

United States Air Force. see also Airfield DamageRepair; Joint service operationsairfield reconnaissance by, 24data for airfield planning, 20engineer tasks performed by, 16missions, 15

United States Coast Guard, 66United States-host nation interface for reararea protection, 115

United States Marine Corps, 28United States Navy, 61, 66, 67, 68

INDEX 9

FM 5-104

War-essential missions, 5-6Waste management. see also Decontaminationoperationshazardous waste, 111medical treatment facilities, 123-124refuse collection, 110water, 109

Water Detection Response Teams, 98Water supply

climatic effects on, 94-96concrete production, 13decontamination operations, 121engineer support to, 93, 96-99importation of, 93, 97logging operations, 10NBC conditions, 94pipelines for, 97-98Quartermaster Corps, 93waste collection and treatment, 109

Wharfs. See PiersWheel- and crawler-mounted cranes, 130

10 INDEX

FM 5-10412 NOVEMBER 1986

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

JOHN A. WICKHAM, JR.General, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:

R. L. DILWORTHBrigadier General, United States Army

The Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, UASR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 A, Require-ments for General Engineering (Qty rqr block no. 750); Engineer Troop Organization and Operations(Qty rqr block no. 18); and Engineer Construction and Construction Support Units (Qty rqr block no. 33)

u. s . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1994 0 - 300-421 (02233)

FM 5-104 General Engineering

Documents

Transcript of FM 5-104 General Engineering