CHAPTER REVIEW, ASSESSMENT, AND STANDARDIZED TEST PREPARATION

Online and Technology Resources

Visit go.hrw.com to find a variety of online resources. To access this chapter’s exten-sions, enter the keyword HF6FLUXT and click the “go” button. Click Holt Online Learning for an online edition of this textbook, and other interactive resources.

Planning Guide

Chapter Openerpp. 272 – 273 CD Visual Concepts, Chapter 8 b

OSP Lesson PlansEXT Integrating Astronomy Plasmas gEXT Integrating Biology How Fish Maintain

Neutral Buoyancy g TR 31 Displaced Volume of a Fluid TR 32 Buoyant Force TR 27A Densities of Some Common Substances

TE Demonstration Volume of Liquids and Gases, p. 274 g

TE Demonstration Buoyant Force, p. 275 a TE Demonstration Float an Egg, p. 277 g

OSP Lesson PlansEXT Integrating Technology Hydraulic Lift Force

g

TE Demonstration Defining Pressure, p. 280 g

272A Chapter 8 Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics To shorten instruction because of time limitations, omit the opener, Advanced sections, and the review.

Compression Guide

CHAPTER 8

pp. 280 – 283 Advanced LevelPACING • 45 min

PACING • 45 min

SE Chapter Highlights, p. 287 SE Chapter Review, pp. 288 – 291 SE Graphing Calculator Practice, p. 291 g SE Alternative Assessment, p. 291 a SE Standardized Test Prep, pp. 292 – 293 g SE Appendix D: Equations, p. 858 SE Appendix I: Additional Problems, p. 887ANC Study Guide Worksheet Mixed Review* gANC Chapter Test A* gANC Chapter Test B* a OSP Test Generator

PACING • 90 min

Section 2 Fluid Pressure• Calculate the pressure exerted by a fluid.• Calculate how pressure varies with depth in a fluid.

pp. 284 – 286 Advanced LevelPACING • 45 min OSP Lesson Plans TR 33 The Continuity Equation and Bernoulli’s

Principle

TE Demonstration Fluid Flow Around a Table-Tennis Ball, p. 284 g

TE Demonstration Fluid Flow Between Two Cans, p. 284 g

Section 3 Fluids in Motion• Examine the motion of a fluid using the continuity equation.• Recognize the effects of Bernoulli’s principle on fluid motion.

pp. 274 – 279 Advanced LevelPACING • 45 minSection 1 Fluids and Buoyant Force• Define a fluid.• Distinguish a gas from a liquid.• Determine the magnitude of the buoyant force exerted on a

floating object or a submerged object.• Explain why some objects float and some objects sink.

OBJECTIVES LABS, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND ACTIVITIES TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES

• Holt Calendar Planner• Customizable Lesson Plans• Editable Worksheets• ExamView® Version 6

Assessment Suite

• Interactive Teacher’s Edition• Holt PuzzlePro®

• Holt PowerPoint® Resources

• MindPoint® Quiz Show

This DVD package includes:

www.scilinks.orgMaintained by the National Science Teachers Association.

Topic: ArchimedesSciLinks Code: HF60093Topic: BuoyancySciLinks Code: HF60201

Topic: Atmospheric Pressure

SciLinks Code: HF60114

SE Sample Set A Buoyant Force, pp. 278 – 279 g TE Classroom Practice, p. 278 gANC Problem Workbook Sample Set A* gOSP Problem Bank Sample Set A g SE Appendix J: Advanced Topics Properties of Gases, pp. 908 – 909

a

SE Section Review, p. 279 gANC Study Guide Worksheet Section 1* gANC Quiz Section 1* g

SE Section Review, p. 283 gANC Study Guide Worksheet Section 2* gANC Quiz Section 2* g

Chapter 8 Planning Guide 272B

SE Sample Set B Pressure, pp. 281– 282 g TE Classroom Practice, p. 281 gANC Problem Workbook Sample Set B* gOSP Problem Bank Sample Set B g SE Appendix J: Advanced Topics Fluid Pressure, pp. 910 – 911 aEXT Practice Problems Pressure as a Function of Depth g

SE Section Review, p. 286 gANC Study Guide Worksheet Section 3* gANC Quiz Section 3* g

SKILLS DEVELOPMENT RESOURCES REVIEW AND ASSESSMENT CORRELATIONS

KEY SE Student Edition TE Teacher Edition ANC Ancillary Worksheet

OSP One-Stop Planner CD CD or CD-ROM TR Teaching Transparencies

EXT Online Extension * Also on One-Stop Planner ◆ Requires advance prep

• Guided Reading Audio Program• Student One Stop• Virtual Investigations• Visual Concepts

Search for any lab by topic, standard, difficulty level, or time. Edit any lab to fit your needs, or create your own labs. Use the Lab Materials QuickList software to customize your lab materials list.

ClassroomCD-ROMs

National ScienceEducation Standards

UCP 1, 2, 3, 4, 5ST 2HNS 1, 3PS 2e

UCP 1, 2, 3, 4, 5SAI 1, 2ST 1, 2SPSP 5

UCP 1, 2, 3, 4, 5SAI 1, 2ST 1, 2SPSP 1, 5

272

Section 1 defines ideal fluids,calculates buoyant force, andexplains why objects float or sink.

Section 2 calculates pressurestransferred by a fluid in ahydraulic lift and explains howhydrostatic pressure varies withdepth.

Section 3 introduces the equa-tion of continuity and appliesBernoulli’s equation to solveproblems of fluids in motion.

About the IllustrationThis kayaker is hurtling overRainbow Falls, on the south forkof the Tuolumne River, in north-ern California. The Tuolumne is afavorite river among advancedkayakers and rafters, prized for itsexciting rapids and waterfalls.

CHAPTER 8Overview

In-Depth Physics ContentYour students can visit go.hrw.comfor an online chapter that integratesmore in-depth development of theconcepts covered here.

Keyword HF6FLUX

273273

Kayakers know that if their weight (Fg) exceeds theupward, buoyant force (FB) that causes them to float, theyare sunk—literally! For an object, such as a kayak, that isimmersed in a fluid, buoyant force equals the weight of thefluid that the object displaces. Buoyant force causes a kayakto pop to the surface after a plunge down a waterfall.

CHAPTER 8

FB

Fg

Fluid Mechanics Knowledge to Review

✔ Forces can cause changes inan object’s motion or in itsshape.

✔ Energy can be kinetic energyor potential energy.

✔ In the absence of friction,the total mechanical energyof a system is constant. Thetotal mass of a closed systemis constant.

Items to Probe✔ Operational understanding

of the concepts of area andvolume: Ask students tocompare the volume of con-tainers of different shapes(with approximately thesame capacity).

✔ Ability to relate density,mass, and volume in ameaningful way: Ask stu-dents to calculate m, given rand V, using correct units.

Tapping PriorKnowledge

WHAT TO EXPECTIn this chapter, you will learn about buoyantforce, fluid pressure, and the basic equationsthat govern the behavior of fluids. This chapterwill also introduce moving fluids and the conti-nuity equation.

Why it Matters

Many kinds of hydraulic devices, such as thebrakes in a car and the lifts that move heavyequipment, make use of the properties of fluids.An understanding of the properties of fluids isneeded to design such devices.

CHAPTER PREVIEW

1 Fluids and Buoyant ForceDefining a FluidDensity and Buoyant Force

2 Fluid PressurePressure

3 Fluids in MotionFluid FlowPrinciples of Fluid Flow

274

Fluids and Buoyant ForceSECTION 1Advanced Level SECTION 1

DEFINING A FLUID

Matter is normally classified as being in one of three states—solid, liquid, or

gaseous. Up to this point, this book’s discussion of motion and the causes of

motion has dealt primarily with the behavior of solid objects. This chapter

concerns the mechanics of liquids and gases.

Figure 1(a) is a photo of a liquid; Figure 1(b) shows an example of a gas.

Pause for a moment and see if you can identify a common trait between them.

One property they have in common is the ability to flow and to alter their

shape in the process. Materials that exhibit these properties are called

Solid objects are not considered to be fluids because they cannot flow and

therefore have a definite shape.

Liquids have a definite volume; gases do not

Even though both gases and liquids are fluids, there is a difference between

them: one has a definite volume, and the other does not. Liquids, like solids,

have a definite volume, but unlike solids, they do not have a definite shape.

Imagine filling the tank of a lawn mower with gasoline. The gasoline, a liquid,

changes its shape from that of its original container to that of the tank. If

there is a gallon of gasoline in the container before you pour, there will be

a gallon in the tank after you pour. Gases, on the other hand, have neither a

definite volume nor a definite shape. When a gas is poured from a smaller

container into a larger one, the gas not only changes its shape to fit the new

container but also spreads out and changes its volume within the container.

fluids.

Chapter 8274

SECTION OBJECTIVES

■ Define a fluid.

■ Distinguish a gas from a liquid.

■ Determine the magnitude of the buoyant force exertedon a floating object or a submerged object.

■ Explain why some objectsfloat and some objects sink.

fluid

a nonsolid state of matter inwhich the atoms or molecules arefree to move past each other, asin a gas or a liquid

ADVANCED TOPICS

See “Properties of Gases” inAppendix J: Advanced Topicsto learn more about how gasesbehave.

Figure 1Both (a) liquids and (b) gases areconsidered fluids because they canflow and change shape.

(a) (b)

Demonstration

Volume of Liquids and GasesPurpose Demonstrate that,unlike gases, liquids have a defi-nite volume and cannot be signi-ficantly compressed.Materials large syringe, largeeyedropper or turkey basterProcedure Pull the piston of thesyringe to about half the tube’slength, letting air into thesyringe. Then, hold your fingertightly over the opening and pullthe piston back as far as possible.Read the volume of air inside thesyringe. Without removing yourfinger, push the piston in as far aspossible. Have a student recordthe air volume on the board foreach case. Point out that no airhas been let into or out of thesyringe tube, but the sameamount of air occupies all thespace that is available. Next, fillthe syringe halfway with onlywater, and repeat the demonstra-tion. Let a student in class try tocompress it.

Tightly cover the opening ofthe eyedropper and squeeze thebulb to show that the volume ofair that equals that of the bulband the pipe can easily bereduced. Fill the eyedropperhalfway with water, and note thewater level. Hold the end sealedand squeeze the bulb to demon-strate that the air volume can bereduced but the water level willremain the same.

GENERAL

Integrating AstronomyVisit go.hrw.com for the activity“Plasmas.”

Keyword HF6FLUX

275

SECTION 1DENSITY AND BUOYANT FORCE

Have you ever felt confined in a crowded elevator? You probably felt that way

because there were too many people in the elevator for the amount of space

available. In other words, the density of people was too high. In general, den-

sity is a measure of a quantity in a given space. The quantity can be anything

from people or trees to mass or energy.

Mass density is mass per unit volume of a substance

When the word density is used to describe a fluid, what is really being meas-

ured is the fluid’s Mass density is the mass per unit volume of a

substance. It is often represented by the Greek letter r (rho).

The SI unit of mass density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). In this

book we will follow the convention of using the word density to refer to mass

density. Table 1 lists the densities of some fluids and a few important solids.

Solids and liquids tend to be almost incompressible, meaning that their

density changes very little with changes in pressure. Thus, the densities listed

in Table 1 for solids and liquids are approximately independent of pressure.

Gases, on the other hand, are compressible and can have densities over a wide

range of values. Thus, there is not a standard density for a gas, as there is for

solids and liquids. The densities listed for gases in Table 1 are the values of the

density at a stated temperature and pressure. For deviations of temperature

and pressure from these values, the density of the gas will vary significantly.

Buoyant forces can keep objects afloat

Have you ever wondered why things feel lighter underwater than they do in air?

The reason is that a fluid exerts an upward force on objects that are partially or

completely submerged in it. This upward force is called a If

you have ever rested on an air mattress in a swimming pool, you have experi-

enced a buoyant force. The buoyant force kept you and the mattress afloat.

Because the buoyant force acts in a direction opposite the force of gravity,

the net force acting on an object submerged in a fluid, such as water, is small-

er than the object’s weight. Thus, the object appears to weigh less in water

than it does in air. The weight of an object immersed in a fluid is the object’s

apparent weight. In the case of a heavy object, such as a brick, its apparent

weight is less in water than its actual weight is in air, but it may still sink in

water because the buoyant force is not enough to keep it afloat.

buoyant force.

MASS DENSITY

r = ⎯m

V⎯⎯

mass density = ⎯vo

m

lu

as

m

s

e⎯

mass density.

275Fluid Mechanics

Demonstration

Buoyant ForcePurpose Show the relationshipbetween buoyant force and sub-merged volume.Materials large spring scale, sev-eral cylinders of the same size butof different materials (preferablyof low density), a clear containerpartially filled with waterProcedure Point out that all ofthe cylinders have the same vol-ume. Measure this volume using agraduated cylinder or by the over-flow method. Hang a cylinder onthe scale, read the weight, andslowly lower the cylinder into thewater. Students should observethat the scale’s reading drops con-tinuously as more of the cylinderis submerged. Explain that thewater is exerting an upward forceon the cylinder. Have a studentrecord the scale’s reading beforethe cylinder’s immersion, midwaythrough its immersion, and whenit is completely submerged.Repeat with the other cylinders.Examining all of the data willshow that for the same volumesubmerged, the buoyant force is the same, regardless of thecylinder’s weight.

Table 1Densities of Some Common Substances*

Substance r (kg/m3)

Hydrogen 0.0899

Helium 0.179

Steam ( 100°C) 0.598

Air 1.29

Oxygen 1.43

Carbon dioxide 1.98

Ethanol 0.806 × 103

Ice 0.917 × 103

Fresh water (4°C) 1.00 × 103

Sea water ( 15°C) 1.025 × 103

Iron 7.86 × 103

Mercury 13.6 × 103

Gold 19.3 × 103

*All densities are measured at 0°C and 1 atm unless otherwise noted.

mass density

the concentration of matter of anobject, measured as the massper unit volume of a substance

buoyant force

the upward force exerted by a liquid on an object immersed inor floating on the liquid

276

SECTION 1

Archimedes’ principle describes the magnitude of a buoyant forceImagine that you submerge a brick in a container of water, as shown in

Figure 2. A spout on the side of the container at the water’s surface allows

water to flow out of the container. As the brick sinks, the water level rises and

water flows through the spout into a smaller container. The total volume of

water that collects in the smaller container is the displaced volume of water

from the large container. The displaced volume of water is equal to the vol-

ume of the portion of the brick that is underwater.

The magnitude of the buoyant force acting on the brick at any given time

can be calculated by using a rule known as Archimedes’ principle. This princi-

ple can be stated as follows: Any object completely or partially submerged in a

fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal in magnitude to the weight of

the fluid displaced by the object. Everyone has experienced Archimedes’ princi-

ple. For example, recall that it is relatively easy to lift someone if you are both

standing in a swimming pool, even if lifting that same person on dry land

would be difficult.

Using mf to represent the mass of the displaced fluid, Archimedes’ princi-

ple can be written symbolically as follows:

Whether an object will float or sink depends on the net force acting on it. This

net force is the object’s apparent weight and can be calculated as follows:

Fnet = FB − Fg (object)

Now we can apply Archimedes’ principle, using mo to represent the mass of

the submerged object.

Fnet = mfg − mog

Remember that m = rV, so the expression can be rewritten as follows:

Fnet = (rfVf − roVo)g

Note that in this expression, the fluid quantities refer to the displaced fluid.

BUOYANT FORCE

FB = Fg (displaced fluid) = mfg

magnitude of buoyant force = weight of fluid displaced

The Languageof PhysicsStudents may need help inter-preting all the symbols in theequations and relating them toprior knowledge. It may be help-ful to remind students that g isfree-fall acceleration, with a valueof 9.81 m/s2, which allows themto find an object’s weight in new-tons when its mass is known inkilograms.

MisconceptionAlert

Students may wonder why thebuoyant force, FB, is treated likeweight (mg) even though it pushesupward. By carefully reading thestatement of Archimedes’ princi-ple, they may realize that the magnitude of that force equals the weight of the fluid that wouldotherwise occupy the space takenup by the submerged object.

STOP

GENERAL

Chapter 8276

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2(a) A brick is being lowered into acontainer of water. (b) The brickdisplaces water, causing the waterto flow into a smaller container.(c) When the brick is completelysubmerged, the volume of the dis-placed water (d) is equal to the vol-ume of the brick.

Archimedes was a Greek math-ematician who was born in Syra-cuse, a city on the island of Sicily.According to legend, the king ofSyracuse suspected that a certaingolden crown was not pure gold.While bathing, Archimedes figuredout how to test the crown’s authen-ticity when he discovered the buoy-ancy principle. He is reported tohave then exclaimed,“Eureka!”meaning “I’ve found it!”

Did you know?

Integrating BiologyVisit go.hrw.com for the activity“How Fish Maintain Neutral Buoyancy.”

Keyword HF6FLUX

www.scilinks.orgTopic: ArchimedesCode: HF60093

277

SECTION 1For a floating object, the buoyant force equals the object’s weight

Imagine a cargo-filled raft floating on a lake. There are two forces acting on the

raft and its cargo: the downward force of gravity and the upward buoyant

force of the water. Because the raft is floating in the water, the raft is in equilib-

rium and the two forces are balanced, as shown in Figure 3. For floating

objects, the buoyant force and the weight of the object are equal in magnitude.

Notice that Archimedes’ principle is not required to find the buoyant force

on a floating object if the weight of the object is known.

The apparent weight of a submerged object depends on density

Imagine that a hole is accidentally punched in the raft shown in Figure 3 and

that the raft begins to sink. The cargo and raft eventually sink below the water’s

surface, as shown in Figure 4. The net force on the raft and cargo is the

vector sum of the buoyant force and the weight of the raft and cargo. As the

volume of the raft decreases, the volume of water displaced by the raft and

cargo also decreases, as does the magnitude of the buoyant force. This can be

written by using the expression for the net force:

Fnet = (rfVf − roVo)g

Because the raft and cargo are completely submerged, Vf and Vo are equal:

Fnet = (rf − ro)Vg

Notice that both the direction and the magnitude of the net force depend

on the difference between the density of the object and the density of the fluid

in which it is immersed. If the object’s density is greater than the fluid density,

the net force is negative (downward) and the object sinks. If the object’s den-

sity is less than the fluid density, the net force is positive (upward) and the

object rises to the surface and floats. If the densities are the same, the object

hangs suspended underwater.

A simple relationship between the weight of a submerged object and the

buoyant force on the object can be found by considering their ratio as follows:

⎯Fg(o

F

b

B

ject)⎯ = ⎯

rr

o

f–V

–V

–

–

–g

–g⎯

⎯Fg(o

F

b

B

ject)⎯ = ⎯

rr

o

f⎯

This last expression is often useful in solving buoyancy problems.

BUOYANT FORCE ON FLOATING OBJECTS

FB = Fg (object) = mog

buoyant force = weight of floating object

277Fluid Mechanics

FB

Fg

Figure 3The raft and cargo are floatingbecause their weight and the buoy-ant force are balanced.

Demonstration

Float an EggPurpose Demonstrate the effectof liquid density on the buoyantforce.Materials uncooked egg, demon-stration scale, glass jar, water,table salt, measuring spoon,stirring stickProcedure Measure the egg’sweight and record it on theboard. Fill the glass jar abouttwo-thirds full with water.Demonstrate that the egg sinks inthe water. Is a buoyant force act-ing on it? (yes, but less than theegg’s weight) Explain that addingsalt to the water will increase thedensity of the water. Have theclass watch the egg as you stir onespoonful of salt at a time into thewater. The egg will start to floatbut will remain submerged. Askstudents to estimate the buoyantforce (same as the egg’s weight).Keep adding salt until the eggfloats partially above water. Againask students to estimate thebuoyant force (same as the egg’sweight). Explain that the buoyantforce balances the egg’s weight inboth cases, but as the density ofthe water increases, the volume of the egg that is immerseddecreases.

GENERAL

Fg

FB

Figure 4The raft and cargo sink becausetheir density is greater than thedensity of water.

www.scilinks.orgTopic: BuoyancyCode: HF60201

278

SECTION 1

Alternative Problem-Solving Approach

FB = Factual − Fapparent

FB = 7.84 N − 6.86 N = 0.98 N

FB = rfluidVg

V =

V = 0.00010 m3

This volume of gold shouldweigh 18.9 N (0.00010 m3 ×9.81 m/s2 × density of gold),which is much greater than the 7.84 N weight given in theproblem.

0.98 N⎯⎯⎯⎯(1.00 × 103 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)

Chapter 8278

SAMPLE PROBLEM A

Buoyant Force

P R O B L E MA bargain hunter purchases a “gold” crown at a flea market.After she gets home, she hangs the crown from a scale and findsits weight to be 7.84 N. She then weighs the crown while it isimmersed in water, and the scale reads 6.86 N. Is the crownmade of pure gold? Explain.

S O L U T I O NGiven: Fg = 7.84 N apparent weight = 6.86 N

rf = rwater = 1.00 × 103 kg/m3

Unknown: ro = ?

Diagram:

Choose an equation or situation:Because the object is completely submerged, consider the ratio of the weight

to the buoyant force.

Fg − FB = apparent weight

=

Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown:

FB = Fg − (apparent weight)

ro = rf

Substitute the values into the equation and solve:

FB = 7.84 N − 6.86 N = 0.98 N

ro = rf = (1.00 × 103 kg/m3)

From Table 1, the density of gold is 19.3 × 103 kg/m3. Because

8.0 × 103 kg/m3 < 19.3 × 103 kg/m3, the crown cannot be pure gold.

ro = 8.0 × 103 kg/m3

7.84 N⎯0.98 N

Fg⎯FB

Fg⎯FB

ro⎯rf

Fg⎯FB

Fg

FT,1

Fg

FT,2FB

In air In water

7.84 N 6.86 N

1. DEFINE

2. PLAN

3. CALCULATE

4. EVALUATE

The use of a diagram can helpclarify a problem and the vari-ables involved. In this diagram,FT,1 equals the actual weight ofthe crown, and FT,2 is the appar-ent weight of the crown whenimmersed in water.

Buoyant ForceCalculate the actual weight,the buoyant force, and the apparent weight of a 5.00 × 10−5 m3 iron ball floatingat rest in mercury.

Answer3.86 N, 3.86 N, 0.00 N

How much of the ball’s volume isimmersed in mercury?

Answer2.89 × 10−5 m3

279

SECTION 1

279Fluid Mechanics

PRACTICE A

Buoyant Force

1. A piece of metal weighs 50.0 N in air, 36.0 N in water, and 41.0 N in an

unknown liquid. Find the densities of the following:

a. the metal

b. the unknown liquid

2. A 2.8 kg rectangular air mattress is 2.00 m long, 0.500 m wide, and

0.100 m thick. What mass can it support in water before sinking?

3. A ferry boat is 4.0 m wide and 6.0 m long. When a truck pulls onto it, the

boat sinks 4.00 cm in the water. What is the weight of the truck?

4. An empty rubber balloon has a mass of 0.0120 kg. The balloon is filled

with helium at 0°C, 1 atm pressure, and a density of 0.179 kg/m3. The

filled balloon has a radius of 0.500 m.

a. What is the magnitude of the buoyant force acting on the balloon?

(Hint: See Table 1 for the density of air.)

b. What is the magnitude of the net force acting on the balloon?

SECTION REVIEW

1. What is the difference between a solid and a fluid? What is the difference

between a gas and a liquid?

2. Which of the following objects will float in a tub of mercury?

a. a solid gold bead

b. an ice cube

c. an iron bolt

d. 5 mL of water

3. A 650 kg weather balloon is designed to lift a 4600 kg package. What volume

should the balloon have after being inflated with helium at 0°C and 1 atm

pressure to lift the total load? (Hint: Use the density values in Table 1.)

4. A submerged submarine alters its buoyancy so that it initially accelerates

upward at 0.325 m/s2. What is the submarine’s average density at this time?

(Hint: the density of sea water is 1.025 × 103 kg/m3.)

5. Critical Thinking Many kayaks are made of plastics and other

composite materials that are denser than water. How are such kayaks able

to float in water?

PROBLEM GUIDE A

Solving for:

Use this guide to assign problems.SE = Student Edition TextbookPW = Problem WorkbookPB = Problem Bank on the

One-Stop Planner (OSP)

*Challenging ProblemConsult the printed Solutions Manual or the OSP for detailed solutions.

r SE Sample, 1;Ch. Rvw. 8–9

PW 6–8PB 5–7

m SE 2, 3; Ch. Rvw. 23PW Sample, 1–3PB 8–10

FB SE 4; Ch. Rvw. 24*, 25*,26*, 29*, 30*, 32*,34*, 35*

PW 4–5PB Sample, 1–4

ANSWERS

Practice A1. a. 3.57 × 103 kg/m3

b. 6.4 × 102 kg/m3

2. 97 kg

3. 9.4 × 103 N

4. a. 6.63 Nb. 5.59 N

1. A solid has a definite shape,while a fluid does not; a liq-uid has a definite volume,while a gas does not.

2. b, c, and d

3. 4.7 × 103 m3

4. 9.92 × 102 kg/m3

5. The kayak’s effective densityincludes the material of andthe air within the kayak and isless than water’s density.

SECTION REVIEWANSWERS

280

Fluid PressureSECTION 2Advanced Level SECTION 2

PRESSURE

Deep-sea explorers wear atmospheric diving suits like the one shown in

Figure 5 to resist the forces exerted by water in the depths of the ocean. You

experience the effects of similar forces on your ears when you dive to the bot-

tom of a swimming pool, drive up a mountain, or ride in an airplane.

Pressure is force per unit area

In the examples above, the fluids exert on your eardrums. Pressure is

a measure of how much force is applied over a given area. It can be written as

follows:

The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is equal to 1 N/m2. The pascal

is a small unit of pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is about

1.01 × 105 Pa. This amount of air pressure under normal conditions is the

basis for another unit, the atmosphere (atm). For the purpose of calculating

pressure, 105 Pa is about the same as 1 atm. The absolute air pressure inside a

typical automobile tire is about 3 × 105 Pa, or 3 atm.

Applied pressure is transmitted equally throughout a fluid

When you pump a bicycle tire, you apply a force on the pump that in turn

exerts a force on the air inside the tire. The air responds by pushing not only

against the pump but also against the walls of the tire. As a result, the pressure

increases by an equal amount throughout the tire.

In general, if the pressure in a fluid is increased at any point in a container

(such as at the valve of the tire), the pressure increases at all points inside the

container by exactly the same amount. Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) noted this

fact in what is now called Pascal’s principle (or Pascal’s law):

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

Pressure applied to a fluid in a closed container is transmitted equally to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

PRESSURE

P = ⎯A

F⎯

pressure = ⎯f

a

o

r

r

e

c

a

e⎯

pressure

Chapter 8280

SECTION OBJECTIVES

■ Calculate the pressure exerted by a fluid.

■ Calculate how pressurevaries with depth in a fluid.

pressure

the magnitude of the force on asurface per unit area

Figure 5Atmospheric diving suits allowdivers to withstand the pressureexerted by the fluid in the ocean at depths of up to 6 10 m.

Demonstration

Defining PressurePurpose Relate pressure and thearea on which a force is exerted.Materials flat foam pad, brick orother box-shaped object, demon-stration scaleProcedure Measure and recordthe weight of the brick and itsdimensions. Place the brick onthe pad, large side down. Havestudents notice the deformationof the pad. Ask how much forcethe brick exerts on the pad (sameas the brick’s weight). Over howmany square centimeters is thisforce distributed? (area of con-tact) Now place the brick on thepad with its smaller face downand raise the same questions.Students will observe a deeperdeformation. Discuss how thisdemonstration relates to the

definition of pressure as P = ⎯A

F⎯.

GENERAL

ADVANCED TOPICS

See “Fluid Pressure” in Appendix J: Advanced Topicsto learn more about other prop-erties of fluids.

MisconceptionAlert

Students may confuse the pressureincrease in Pascal’s principle withthe pressure of the fluid itself.While an increase in pressure istransmitted equally throughout afluid, the total pressure at differentpoints in the fluid may vary, forexample, with depth.

STOP

281

SECTION 2A hydraulic lift, such as the one shown in Figure 6, makes use of Pascal’s

principle. A small force F1 applied to a small piston of area A1 causes a pressure

increase in a fluid, such as oil. According to Pascal’s principle, this increase in

pressure, Pinc, is transmitted to a larger piston of area A2 and the fluid exerts a

force F2 on this piston. Applying Pascal’s principle and the definition of pres-

sure gives the following equation:

Pinc = =

Rearranging this equation to solve for F2 produces the following:

F2 = F1

This second equation shows that the

output force, F2, is larger than the input

force, F1, by a factor equal to the ratio of

the areas of the two pistons. However,

the input force must be applied over a

longer distance; the work required to

lift the truck is not reduced by the use of

a hydraulic lift.

A2⎯A1

F2⎯A2

F1⎯A1

281Fluid Mechanics

SAMPLE PROBLEM B

Pressure

P R O B L E MThe small piston of a hydraulic lift has an area of 0.20 m2. A car weighing1.20 � 104 N sits on a rack mounted on the large piston. The large piston hasan area of 0.90 m2. How large a force must be applied to the small piston tosupport the car?

S O L U T I O NGiven: A1 = 0.20 m2 A2 = 0.90 m2

F2 = 1.20 × 104 N

Unknown: F1 = ?

Use the equation for pressure and apply Pascal’s principle.

=

F1 = � �F2 = � �(1.20 × 104 N)

F1 = 2.7 × 103 N

0.20 m2

⎯0.90 m2

A1⎯A2

F2⎯A2

F1⎯A1

F1

F2A2

A1

Figure 6The pressure is the same on bothsides of the enclosed fluid, allowinga small force to lift a heavy object.

PressureIn a hydraulic lift, a 620 N force isexerted on a 0.20 m2 piston inorder to support a weight that isplaced on a 2.0 m2 piston. Howmuch pressure is exerted on thenarrow piston? How much weightcan the wide piston lift?

Answer3.1 × 103 Pa; 6.2 × 103 N

Teaching TipA woman wearing snowshoesstands safely in the snow. If sheremoves her snowshoes, shequickly begins to sink. Explainwhat happens in terms of forceand pressure.With snowshoes, her weight isapplied over a larger area, so thepressure is small. Without snow-shoes, her weight is applied overa smaller area, so the pressure islarge.

Integrating TechnologyVisit go.hrw.com for the activity“Hydraulic Lift Force.”

Keyword HF6FLUX

282

SECTION 2

Chapter 8282

PRACTICE B

Pressure

1. In a car lift, compressed air exerts a force on a piston with a radius of 5.00 cm.

This pressure is transmitted to a second piston with a radius of 15.0 cm.

a. How large a force must the compressed air exert to lift a 1.33 × 104 N car?

b. What pressure produces this force? Neglect the weight of the pistons.

2. A 1.5 m wide by 2.5 m long water bed weighs 1025 N. Find the pressure

that the water bed exerts on the floor. Assume that the entire lower sur-

face of the bed makes contact with the floor.

3. A person rides up a lift to a mountaintop, but the person’s ears fail to

“pop”—that is, the pressure of the inner ear does not equalize with the

outside atmosphere. The radius of each eardrum is 0.40 cm. The pressure

of the atmosphere drops from 1.010 × 105 Pa at the bottom of the lift to

0.998 × 105 Pa at the top.

a. What is the pressure difference between the inner and outer ear at the

top of the mountain?

b. What is the magnitude of the net force on each eardrum?

ANSWERS

Practice B1. a. 1.48 × 103 N

b. 1.88 × 105 Pa

2. 2.7 × 102 Pa

3. a. 1.2 × 103 Pab. 6.0 × 10−2 N

Teaching TipAsk students why the roof of abuilding does not collapse underthe tremendous pressure exertedby our atmosphere.The pressure inside the buildingis approximately equal to thepressure outside the building.

Pressure varies with depth in a fluid

As a submarine dives deeper in the water, the pressure of the water against the

hull of the submarine increases, so the hull must be strong enough to withstand

large pressures. Water pressure increases with depth because the water at a given

depth must support the weight of the water above it.

Imagine a small area on the hull of a submarine. The weight of the entire

column of water above that area exerts a force on the area. The column of

water has a volume equal to Ah, where A is the cross-sectional area of the col-

umn and h is its height. Hence the mass of this column of water is m = rV =rAh. Using the definitions of density and pressure, the pressure at this depth

due to the weight of the column of water can be calculated as follows:

P = ⎯A

F⎯ = ⎯

m

A

g⎯ = ⎯

rA

Vg⎯ = ⎯

rA

A

hg⎯ = rhg

This equation is valid only if the density is the same throughout the fluid.

The pressure in the equation above is referred to as gauge pressure. It is not

the total pressure at this depth because the atmosphere itself also exerts a

pressure at the surface. Thus, the gauge pressure is actually the total pressure

minus the atmospheric pressure. By using the symbol P0 for the atmospheric

pressure at the surface, we can express the total pressure, or absolute pressure,

at a given depth in a fluid of uniform density r as follows:

F SE Sample, 1a, 3b;Ch. Rvw. 14–16, 21

PW Sample, 1–2PB 5–7

P SE 1b, 2, 3a; Ch. Rvw. 22,27, 33*

PW 6–7PB 8–10

A PW 3–5PB Sample, 1–4

PROBLEM GUIDE B

Solving for:

Use this guide to assign problems.SE = Student Edition TextbookPW = Problem WorkbookPB = Problem Bank on the

One-Stop Planner (OSP)

*Challenging ProblemConsult the printed Solutions Manual or the OSP for detailed solutions.

www.scilinks.orgTopic: Atmospheric PressureCode: HF60114

283

SECTION 2

This expression for pressure in a fluid can be used to help understand

buoyant forces. Consider a rectangular box submerged in a container of water,

as shown in Figure 7. The water pressure at the top of the box is −(P0 + rgh1),

and the water pressure at the bottom of the box is P0 + rgh2. From the defini-

tion of pressure, we know that the downward force on the box is −A(P0 +rgh1), where A is the area of the top of the box. The upward force on the box

is A(P0 + rgh2). The net force on the box is the sum of these two forces.

Fnet = A(P0 + rgh2) – A(P0 + rgh1) = rg(h2 − h1)A = rgV = mfg

Note that this is an expression of Archimedes’ principle. In general, we can say

that buoyant forces arise from the differences in fluid pressure between the

top and the bottom of an immersed object.

FLUID PRESSURE AS A FUNCTION OF DEPTH

P = P0 + rgh

absolute pressure =atmospheric pressure + (density × free-fall acceleration × depth)

283Fluid Mechanics

Visual Strategy

Figure 7Point out that the fluid exertsforce in all directions because ofthe pressure. Pressure against thesides of the box also increaseswith depth.

Suppose the box in the dia-gram is immersed in water

and L = 2.0 m. How does pres-sure on the box’s sides 1.0 mfrom its top compare with pres-sure on the sides near the top andnear the bottom?

ΔP = rgΔh =(1.00 × 103 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)

(1.0 m) = 9800 Pa. This meansthat the pressure on the middlearea of the sides of the box is9800 Pa higher than the pressurenear the top and 9800 Pa lowerthan the pressure near the bot-tom of the box.

A

Q

L

AP0

A(P0 + gh1)ρ

A(P0 + gh2)ρ

Figure 7The fluid pressure at the bottom ofthe box is greater than the fluidpressure at the top of the box.

SECTION REVIEW

1. Which of the following exerts the most pressure while resting on a floor?

a. a 25 N cube with 1.5 m sides

b. a 15 N cylinder with a base radius of 1.0 m

c. a 25 N cube with 2.0 m sides

d. a 25 N cylinder with a base radius of 1.0 m

2. Water is to be pumped to the top of the Empire State Building, which is

366 m high. What gauge pressure is needed in the water line at the base

of the building to raise the water to this height? (Hint: See Table 1 for the

density of water.)

3. When a submarine dives to a depth of 5.0 × 102 m, how much pressure, in

Pa, must its hull be able to withstand? How many times larger is this pres-

sure than the pressure at the surface? (Hint: See Table 1 for the density of

sea water.)

4. Critical Thinking Calculate the depth in the ocean at which the

pressure is three times atmospheric pressure. (Hint: Use the value for the

density of sea water given in Table 1.)

1. a

2. 3.59 × 106 Pa

3. 5. × 106 Pa; 5.0 × 101

4. 20.1 m

SECTION REVIEWANSWERS

Practice ProblemsVisit go.hrw.com to find a sampleand practice problems for pressureas a function of depth.

Keyword HF6FLUX

284

Fluids in MotionSECTION 3Advanced Level SECTION 3

FLUID FLOW

Have you ever gone canoeing or rafting down a river? If so, you may have

noticed that part of the river flowed smoothly, allowing you to float

calmly or to simply paddle along. At other places in the river, there may have

been rocks or dramatic bends that created foamy whitewater rapids.

When a fluid, such as river water, is in motion, the flow can be character-

ized in one of two ways. The flow is said to be laminar if every particle that

passes a particular point moves along the same smooth path trav-

eled by the particles that passed that point earlier. The smooth

stretches of a river are regions of laminar flow.

In contrast, the flow of a fluid becomes irregular, or turbulent,

above a certain velocity or under conditions that can cause abrupt

changes in velocity, such as where there are obstacles or sharp turns in

a river. Irregular motions of the fluid, called eddy currents, are charac-

teristic of turbulent flow.

Figure 8 shows a photograph of water flowing past a cylinder.

Hydrogen bubbles were added to the water to make the streamlines

and the eddy currents visible. Notice the dramatic difference in flow

patterns between the laminar flow and the turbulent flow. Laminar

flow is much easier to model because it is predictable. Turbulent

flow is extremely chaotic and unpredictable.

The ideal fluid model simplifies fluid-flow analysis

Many features of fluid motion can be understood by considering the behavior

of an Although no real fluid has all the properties of an ideal

fluid, the ideal fluid model does help explain many properties of real fluids, so

the model is a useful tool for analysis. While discussing density and buoyancy,

we assumed all of the fluids used in problems were practically incompressible.

A fluid is incompressible if the density of the fluid always remains constant.

The term viscosity refers to the amount of internal friction within a fluid. A

fluid with a high viscosity flows more slowly than does a fluid with a low viscos-

ity. As a viscous fluid flows, part of the kinetic energy of the fluid is transformed

into internal energy due to the friction of the fluid particles sliding past each

other. Ideal fluids are considered nonviscous, so they lose no kinetic energy due

to friction as they flow. Ideal fluids are also characterized by a steady flow. In

other words, the velocity, density, and pressure at each point in the fluid are

constant. Ideal flow of an ideal fluid is also nonturbulent, which means that

there are no eddy currents in the moving fluid.

ideal fluid.

Chapter 8284

SECTION OBJECTIVES

■ Examine the motion of afluid using the continuityequation.

■ Recognize the effects ofBernoulli’s principle on fluidmotion.

Figure 8The water flowing around this cylinder exhibitslaminar flow and turbulent flow.

ideal fluid

a fluid that has no internal friction or viscosity and is incompressible

Demonstration

Fluid Flow Around aTable-Tennis BallPurpose Introduce students tosome of the interesting effects of fluid flow and Bernoulli’sprinciple.Materials table-tennis ball gluedto the end of a piece of light-weight string, water faucetProcedure Tell the class that thissection covers the surprising phenomena of fluids in motion“sucking in” things around them.

Hold the end of the string sothat the ball is suspended a fewcentimeters below the faucet butaway from the stream path.When you turn on the faucet, theball moves toward the water.

Demonstration

Fluid Flow Between Two CansPurpose Further demonstratethe effects of fluid flow andBernoulli’s principle.Materials two empty soda cans,flat surfaceProcedure Lay the soda cans ontheir sides approximately 2 cmapart on a table or other flat sur-face. Ask students what wouldhappen if you were to blow airbetween the two cans. Ask a stu-dent volunteer to blow betweenthe cans. The cans will movetoward each other. Explain thatthe air moves faster between thecans, lowering the pressurebetween them and drawing them together.

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

285

SECTION 3PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW

Fluid behavior is often very complex. Several general principles describing the

flow of fluids can be derived relatively easily from basic physical laws.

The continuity equation results from mass conservation

Imagine that an ideal fluid flows into one end of a pipe and out the other end,

as shown in Figure 9. The diameter of the pipe is different at each end. How

does the speed of fluid flow change as the fluid passes through the pipe?

Because mass is conserved and because the fluid is incompressible, we

know that the mass flowing into the bottom of the pipe, m1, must equal the

mass flowing out of the top of the pipe, m2, during any given time interval:

m1 = m2

This simple equation can be expanded by recalling that m = rV and by

using the formula for the volume of a cylinder, V = AΔx.

r1V1 = r2V2

r1A1Δx1 = r2A2Δx2

The length of the cylinder, Δx, is also the distance the fluid travels, which is

equal to the speed of flow multiplied by the time interval (Δx = vΔt).

r1A1v1Δt = r2A2v2Δt

The time interval and, for an ideal fluid, the density are the same on each side

of the equation, so they cancel each other out. The resulting equation is called

the continuity equation:

The speed of fluid flow depends on cross-sectional area

Note in the continuity equation that A1 and A2 can represent any two differ-

ent cross-sectional areas of the pipe, not just the ends. This equation implies

that the fluid speed is faster where the pipe is narrow and slower where the

pipe is wide. The product Av, which has units of volume per unit time, is

called the flow rate. The flow rate is constant throughout the pipe.

The continuity equation explains an effect you may have observed as water

flows slowly from a faucet, as shown in Figure 10. Because the water speeds

up due to gravity as it falls, the stream narrows, satisfying the continuity equa-

tion. The continuity equation also explains why a river tends to flow more

rapidly in places where the river is shallow or narrow than in places where the

river is deep and wide.

CONTINUITY EQUATION

A1v1 = A2v2

area � speed in region 1 � area � speed in region 2

Teaching TipThe viscosity index on motor oilcans consists of a Society of Auto-motive Engineers (SAE) number(typically from 5 to 50) followedby the letter W. The higher theSAE number, the more viscousthe oil is. Low-viscosity oils aremeant for use in severe winter cli-mates because low-viscosity oilsflow more easily in cold tempera-tures. For hot or high-speed dri-ving conditions, a high-viscosityoil can be used because the exces-sive heat effectively thins the oil.

Visual Strategy

Figure 9Point out that the volumes of thetwo shaded sections of the pipemust be equal in order for thecontinuity equation to apply.

Assume A1 is smaller thanpictured in Figure 9. Would

Δx1 need to be longer or shorterfor the mass of liquid in each sec-tion to still be equal?

longerA

Q

GENERAL

285Fluid Mechanics

v2

v1

A2

A1

Δx2

Δx1

Figure 9The mass flowing into the pipe mustequal the mass flowing out of thepipe in the same time interval.

Figure 10The width of a stream of water narrows as the water falls andspeed up.

286

SECTION 3The pressure in a fluid is related to the speed of flow

Suppose there is a water-logged leaf carried along by the water in a drainage pipe,

as shown in Figure 11. The continuity equation shows that the water moves faster

through the narrow part of the tube than through the wider part of the tube.

Therefore, as the water carries the leaf into the constriction, the leaf speeds up.

If the water and the leaf are accelerating as they enter the constriction, an

unbalanced force must be causing the acceleration, according to Newton’s sec-

ond law. This unbalanced force is a result of the fact that the water pressure in

front of the leaf is less than the water pressure behind the leaf. The pressure

difference causes the leaf and the water around it to accelerate as it enters the

narrow part of the tube. This behavior illustrates a general principle known as

Bernoulli’s principle, which can be stated as follows:

The lift on an airplane wing can be explained, in part, with Bernoulli’sprinciple. As an airplane flies, air flows around the wings and body of the

plane, as shown in Figure 12. Airplane wings are designed to direct the flow of

air so that the air speed above the wing is greater than the air speed below the

wing. Therefore, the air pressure above the wing is less than the pressure

below, and there is a net upward force on the wing, called lift. The tilt of an

airplane wing also adds to the lift on the plane. The front of the wing is tilted

upward so that air striking the bottom of the wing is deflected downward.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE

The pressure in a fluid decreases as the fluid’s velocity increases.

MisconceptionAlert

One might think that the watercoming out of the hose is at ahigher pressure than the water inthe hose, but the opposite is true.The pressure outside the hose isatmospheric pressure, while thepressure inside the hose is higherthan atmospheric pressure. Infact, the water flows out of thehose because the greater pressurein the hose results in a net forceon the water at the end of thehose, which pushes the water out.

STOP

Chapter 8286

P1

P2

v1

v2

a

Figure 11A leaf speeds up as it passes into aconstriction in a drainage pipe. Thewater pressure on the right is lessthan the pressure on the left.

F

Figure 12As air flows around an airplane wing,the air above the wing moves fasterthan the air below, producing lift.

SECTION REVIEW

1. Water at a pressure of 3.00 × 105 Pa flows through a horizontal pipe at a

speed of 1.00 m/s. The pipe narrows to one-fourth its original diameter.

What is the speed of the flow in the narrow section?

2. A 2.0 cm diameter faucet tap fills a 2.5 × 10−2 m3 container in 30.0 s.

What is the speed at which the water leaves the faucet?

3. Critical Thinking The time required to fill a glass with water from

a large container with a spigot is 30.0 s. If you replace the spigot with a

smaller one so that the speed of the water leaving the nozzle doubles,

how long does it take to fill the glass?

4. Interpreting Graphics For this problem, refer back to Figure 9.Assume that the cross-sectional area, A2, in the tube is increased. Would

the length, Δx2, need to be longer or shorter for the mass of liquid in

both sections to still be equal?

1. 16.0 m/s

2. 2.7 m/s

3. 30.0 s, because the volumerate of flow is constant

4. shorter

SECTION REVIEWANSWERS

KEY IDEAS

Section 1 Fluids and Buoyant Force• Force is a vector quantity that causes changes in motion.

• A fluid is a material that can flow, and thus it has no definite shape. Both

gases and liquids are fluids.

• Buoyant force is an upward force exerted by a fluid on an object floating

on or submerged in the fluid.

• The magnitude of a buoyant force for a submerged object is determined

by Archimedes’ principle and is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

• The magnitude of a buoyant force for a floating object is equal to the

weight of the object because the object is in equilibrium.

Section 2 Fluid Pressure• Pressure is a measure of how much force is exerted over a given area.

• According to Pascal’s principle, pressure applied to a fluid in a closed con-

tainer is transmitted equally to every point of the fluid and to the walls of

the container.

• The pressure in a fluid increases with depth.

Section 3 Fluids in Motion• Moving fluids can exhibit laminar (smooth) flow or turbulent flow.

• An ideal fluid is incompressible, nonviscous, and, when undergoing ideal

flow, nonturbulent.

• The continuity equation is derived from the fact that the amount of fluid

leaving a pipe during some time interval equals the amount entering the

pipe during that same time interval.

• According to Bernoulli’s principle, swift-moving fluids exert less pressure

than slower-moving fluids.

KEY TERMS

fluid (p. 274)

mass density (p. 275)

buoyant force (p. 275)

pressure (p. 280)

ideal fluid (p. 284)

287

CHAPTER 8

Highlights

Teaching TipAsk students to prepare a conceptmap of the chapter. The conceptmap should include most of thevocabulary terms, along withother integral terms or concepts.

GENERAL

HighlightsCHAPTER 8

287Fluid Mechanics

Variable Symbols

Quantities Units Conversions

r density kg/m3 kilogram per = 10–3 g/cm3

meter3

P pressure Pa pascal = N/m2

= 10−5 atm

PROBLEM SOLVING

See Appendix D: Equations for a summary of the equationsintroduced in this chapter. Ifyou need more problem-solvingpractice, see Appendix I: Additional Problems.

In-Depth Physics ContentYour students can visit go.hrw.comfor an online chapter that integratesmore in-depth development of theconcepts covered here.

Keyword HF6FLUX

CHAPTER 8

288

ReviewReview

CHAPTER 8

ANSWERS1. Buoyant force opposes and so

reduces the effect of weight.

2. the object’s weight

3. The weight of the water dis-placed is greater than theweight of the ball.

4. The level falls because rice < rwater .

5. in the ocean; Because rsea water > rfresh water , less seawater must be displaced.

6. because the average density ofthe boat, including air insidethe hollow hull, is less than thedensity of the water

7. The amount of the block thatis submerged will decrease.The volume of water displacedremains the same when theblock is inverted. When theblock is inverted, the steeloccupies some of the dis-placed volume. Thus, theamount of wood submerged isless than half the block.

8. a. 6.3 × 103 kg/m3

b. 9.2 × 102 kg/m3

9. 2.1 × 103 kg/m3

10. no; A force on a small area canproduce a large pressure.

11. the pascal; 1 pascal (1 Pa) =1 N/m2

12. The force opposing Fg isspread out over a large num-ber of nails, so no single nailexerts very much pressure.

13. No, there would be no way toreduce the pressure in yourmouth below the zero atmos-pheric pressure outside theliquid.

14. 1.9 × 104 N

DENSITY AND BUOYANCY

Review Questions

1. How is weight affected by buoyant force?

2. Buoyant force equals what for any floating object?

Conceptual Questions

3. If an inflated beach ball is placed beneath the sur-face of a pool of water and released, the ball shootsupward. Why?

4. An ice cube is submerged in a glass of water. Whathappens to the level of the water as the ice melts?

5. Will a ship ride higher in an inland freshwater lakeor in the ocean? Why?

6. Steel is much denser than water. How, then, do steelboats float?

7. A small piece of steel is tied to a block of wood.When the wood is placed in a tub of water with thesteel on top, half of the block is submerged. If theblock is inverted so that the steel is underwater, willthe amount of the wooden block that is submergedincrease, decrease, or remain the same?

Practice Problems

For problems 8–9, see Sample Problem A.

8. An object weighs 315 N in air. When tied to a string,connected to a balance, and immersed in water, itweighs 265 N. When it is immersed in oil, it weighs269 N. Find the following:

a. the density of the objectb. the density of the oil

9. A sample of an unknown material weighs 300.0 Nin air and 200.0 N when submerged in an alcoholsolution with a density of 0.70 × 103 kg/m3. What isthe density of the material?

PRESSURE

Review Questions

10. Is a large amount of pressure always caused by alarge force? Explain your answer.

11. What is the SI unit of pressure? What is it equal to,in terms of other SI units?

Conceptual Questions

12. After a long class, a physics teacher stretches out fora nap on a bed of nails. How is this possible?

13. When drinking through a straw, you reduce the pres-sure in your mouth and the atmosphere moves theliquid. Could you use a straw to drink on the moon?

Practice Problems

For problems 14–16, see Sample Problem B.

14. The four tires of an automobile are inflated to anabsolute pressure of 2.0 × 105 Pa. Each tire has anarea of 0.024 m2 in contact with the ground. Deter-mine the weight of the automobile.

15. A pipe contains water at 5.00 × 105 Pa above atmos-pheric pressure. If you patch a 4.00 mm diameterhole in the pipe with a piece of bubble gum, howmuch force must the gum be able to withstand?

16. A piston, A, as shownat right, has a diameterof 0.64 cm. A secondpiston, B, has a diame-ter of 3.8 cm. Deter-mine the force, F,necessary to supportthe 500.0 N weight inthe absence of friction.

Chapter 8288

F

A

B

500.0 N

289

8 REVIEW

15. 6.28 N

16. 14 N downward

17. The air flow causes the pres-sure over the entrance in themound to be lower than thepressure over the otherentrance. Thus, air is pushedthrough the mound by thehigher-pressure area.

18. The water at the ground floorhas less potential energy rela-tive to the reservoir than thewater at the higher floor does.Because energy is conserved,the water flowing to the lowerfaucet has greater kinetic ener-gy and thus greater velocitythan the water flowing to thehigher faucet does.

19. The moving air above the ballcreates a low pressure area sothat the air below the ballexerts a force that is equal andopposite Fg.

20. 3.4 × 10−5 m3

21. 1.01 × 1011 N

22. 5.9 × 105 Pa

23. 6.11 × 10−1 kg

24. 4.0 × 103 m2

25. 17 N, 31 N

26. 6.3 × 10−2 m

27. a. 1.0 × 103 kg/m3

b. 3.5 × 102 Pac. 2.1 × 103 Pa

28. 31.6 m/s

29. 1.7 × 10−2 m

30. the one that holds back water20 m deep, because pressureincreases with increasingdepth

FLUID FLOW

Conceptual Questions

17. Prairie dogs live in underground burrows with atleast two entrances. They ventilate their burrows bybuilding a mound around one entrance, which isopen to a stream of air. A second entrance atground level is open to almost stagnant air. UseBernoulli’s principle to explain how this construc-tion creates air flow through the burrow.

18. Municipal water supplies are often provided byreservoirs built on high ground. Why does waterfrom such a reservoir flow more rapidly out of afaucet on the ground floor of a building than out ofan identical faucet on a higher floor?

19. If air from a hair dryer is blown over the top of atable-tennis ball, the ball can be suspended in air.Explain how this suspension is possible.

MIXED REVIEW

20. An engineer weighs a sample of mercury (r = 13.6 ×103 kg/m3) and finds that the weight of the sample is4.5 N. What is the sample’s volume?

21. About how much force is exerted by the atmosphereon 1.00 km2 of land at sea level?

22. A 70.0 kg man sits in a 5.0 kg chair so that hisweight is evenly distributed on the legs of the chair.Assume that each leg makes contact with the floorover a circular area with a radius of 1.0 cm. What isthe pressure exerted on the floor by each leg?

23. A frog in a hemispherical bowl, as shown below, justfloats in a fluid with a density of 1.35 × 103 kg/m3. Ifthe bowl has a radius of 6.00 cm and negligiblemass, what is the mass of the frog?

24. When a load of 1.0 × 106 N is placed on a battleship,the ship sinks only 2.5 cm in the water. Estimate thecross-sectional area of the ship at water level. (Hint:See Table 1 for the density of sea water.)

25. A 1.0 kg beaker contain-ing 2.0 kg of oil with adensity of 916 kg/m3 restson a scale. A 2.0 kg blockof iron is suspended froma spring scale and com-pletely submerged in theoil, as shown at right. Findthe equilibrium readingsof both scales. (Hint: SeeTable 1 for the density ofiron.)

26. A raft is constructed of wood having a density of600.0 kg/m3. The surface area of the bottom of theraft is 5.7 m2, and the volume of the raft is0.60 m3. When the raft is placed in fresh waterhaving a density of 1.0 × 103 kg/m3, how deep isthe bottom of the raft below water level?

27. A physics book has a height of 26 cm, a width of21 cm, and a thickness of 3.5 cm.

a. What is the density of the physics book if itweighs 19 N?

b. Find the pressure that the physics book exertson a desktop when the book lies face up.

c. Find the pressure that the physics book exertson the surface of a desktop when the book isbalanced on its spine.

28. A natural-gas pipeline with a diameter of 0.250 mdelivers 1.55 m3 of gas per second. What is the flowspeed of the gas?

29. A 2.0 cm thick bar of soap is floating in water, with1.5 cm of the bar underwater. Bath oil with a den-sity of 900.0 kg/m3 is added and floats on top of thewater. How high on the side of the bar will the oilreach when the soap is floating in only the oil?

30. Which dam must be stronger, one that holds back1.0 × 105 m3 of water 10 m deep or one that holdsback 1.0 × 103 m3 of water 20 m deep?

289Fluid Mechanics

290

8 REVIEW

31. 0.605 m

32. a. 84 g/sb. 2.8 × 10−2 cm/s

33. 6.3 m

34. 21 Pa

35. a. 0.48 m/s2

b. 4.0 s

36. disagree; because the buoyantforce is also proportional to g

37. 1.7 × 10−3 m

38. The buoyant force causes thenet force on the astronaut tobe close to zero. In space, theastronauts accelerate at thesame rate as the craft, so theyfeel as if they have no net forceacting on them.

39. Helium is less dense than airand therefore floats in air.

31. A light spring with a spring constant of 90.0 N/mrests vertically on a table, as shown in (a) below. A2.00 g balloon is filled with helium (0°C and 1 atmpressure) to a volume of 5.00 m3 and connected tothe spring, causing the spring to stretch, as shownin (b). How much does the spring stretch when thesystem is in equilibrium? (Hint: See Table 1 for thedensity of helium. The magnitude of the spring forceequals kΔx.)

32. The aorta in an average adult has a cross-sectionalarea of 2.0 cm2.

a. Calculate the flow rate (in grams per second)of blood (r = 1.0 g/cm3) in the aorta if the flowspeed is 42 cm/s.

b. Assume that the aorta branches to form alarge number of capillaries with a combinedcross-sectional area of 3.0 × 103 cm2. What isthe flow speed in the capillaries?

33. A 1.0 kg hollow ball with a radius of 0.10 m is filledwith air and is released from rest at the bottom ofa 2.0 m deep pool of water. How high above the surface of the water does the ball rise? Disregardfriction and the ball’s motion when the ball is onlypartially submerged.

34. In testing a new material for shielding spacecraft,150 ball bearings each moving at a supersonic speedof 400.0 m/s collide head-on and elastically with thematerial during a 1.00 min interval. If the ballbearings each have a mass of 8.0 g and the area ofthe tested material is 0.75 m2, what is the pressureexerted on the material?

35. A thin, rigid, spherical shell with a mass of 4.00 kgand diameter of 0.200 m is filled with helium(adding negligible mass) at 0°C and 1 atm pressure.It is then released from rest on the bottom of a poolof water that is 4.00 m deep.

a. Determine the upward acceleration of the shell.b. How long will it take for the top of the shell to

reach the surface? Disregard frictional effects.

36. A student claims that if the strength of Earth’s grav-ity doubled, people would be unable to float onwater. Do you agree or disagree with this statement?Why?

37. A light spring with a spring constant of 16.0 N/mrests vertically on the bottom of a large beaker ofwater, as shown in (a) below. A 5.00 × 10−3 kg blockof wood with a density of 650.0 kg/m3 is connectedto the spring, and the mass-spring system is allowedto come to static equilibrium, as shown in (b)below. How much does the spring stretch?

38. Astronauts sometimes train underwater to simulateconditions in space. Explain why.

39. Explain why balloonists use helium instead of air inballoons.

k

(b)(a)

Δx

k

m

Chapter 8290

�x

k

k

(b)(a)

291

8 REVIEW

291Fluid Mechanics

1. Build a hydrometer from a long test tube with some

sand at the bottom and a stopper. Adjust the

amount of sand as needed so that the tube floats in

most liquids. Calibrate it, and place a label with

markings on the tube. Measure the densities of the

following liquid foods: skim milk, whole milk, veg-

etable oil, pancake syrup, and molasses. Summarize

your findings in a chart or table.

2. The owner of a fleet of tractor-trailers has contact-

ed you after a series of accidents involving tractor-

trailers passing each other on the highway. The

owner wants to know how drivers can minimize the

pull exerted as one tractor-trailer passes another

going in the same direction. Should the passing

tractor-trailer try to pass as quickly as possible or as

slowly as possible? Design experiments to deter-

mine the answer by using model motor boats in a

swimming pool. Indicate exactly what you will

measure and how. If your teacher approves your

plan and you are able to locate the necessary equip-

ment, perform the experiment.

3. Record any examples of pumps in the tools,

machines, and appliances you encounter in one

week, and briefly describe the appearance and func-

tion of each pump. Research how one of these

pumps works, and evaluate the explanation of the

pump’s operation for strengths and weaknesses.

Share your findings in a group meeting and create a

presentation, model, or diagram that summarizes

the group’s findings.

Alternative Assessment Alternative AssessmentANSWERS

1. Students should realize thatthe higher the tube floats(more buoyant force), thegreater the fluid’s density.

2. Student plans should be safeand should measure force oracceleration perpendicular tothe motion. When boats ortrucks pass, the speed of thefluid between them increases(as in a narrow pipe), andpressure drops.

3. Student answers should rec-ognize that pumps use pres-sure differences to movefluids. Possible answersinclude air pump for tires, gaspump, or vacuum cleaner.

Graphing Calculator PracticeVisit go.hrw.com for answers to thisGraphing Calculator activity.

Keyword HF6FLUXT

You will use this equation to study the flow rates

(Y1) for various hose diameters (X) and flow speeds

(V). The calculator will produce a table of flow rates

in cubic centimeters per second versus hose diame-

ters in centimeters.

In this graphing calculator activity, you will learn

how to read a table on the calculator and to use that

table to make predictions about flow rates.

Visit go.hrw.com and enter the keyword

HF6FLUX to find this graphing calculator activity.

Refer to Appendix B for instructions on download-

ing the program for this activity.

Flow RatesFlow rate, as you learned earlier in this chapter, is

described by the following equation:

flow rate = Av

Flow rate is a measure of the volume of a fluid that

passes through a tube per unit time. A is the cross-

sectional area of the tube, and v is the flow speed of

the fluid. If A has units of centimeters squared and

v has units of centimeters per second, flow rate will

have units of cubic centimeters per second.

The graphing calculator will use the following

equation to determine flow rate.

Y1 = p *V(X/2)2

CHAPTER 8

292

ANSWERS

1. C

2. G

3. B

4. J

5. A

6. J

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following is the correct equation forthe net force acting on a submerged object?

A. Fnet = 0B. Fnet = (robject − rfluid)gVobjectC. Fnet = (rfluid − robject)gVobjectD. Fnet = (rfluid + robject)gVobject

2. How many times greater than the lifting forcemust the force applied to a hydraulic lift be if theratio of the area where pressure is applied to thelifted area is ⎯1

7⎯?

F. ⎯4

1

9⎯

G. ⎯1

7⎯

H. 7J. 49

3. A typical silo on a farm has many bands wrappedaround its perimeter, as shown in the figure below.Why is the spacing between successive bandssmaller toward the bottom?

A. to provide support for the silo’s sides abovethem

B. to resist the increasing pressure that the grainsexert with increasing depth

C. to resist the increasing pressure that theatmosphere exerts with increasing depth

D. to make access to smaller quantities of grainnear the ground possible

4. A fish rests on the bottom of a bucket of waterwhile the bucket is being weighed. When the fishbegins to swim around in the bucket, how does thereading on the scale change?

F. The motion of the fish causes the scale readingto increase.

G. The motion of the fish causes the scale readingto decrease.

H. The buoyant force on the fish is exerted down-ward on the bucket, causing the scale readingto increase.

J. The mass of the system, and so the scale read-ing, will remain unchanged.

Use the passage below to answer questions 5–6.

A metal block (r = 7900 kg/m3) is connected to aspring scale by a string 5 cm in length. The block’sweight in air is recorded. A second reading is recordedwhen the block is placed in a tank of fluid and the sur-face of the fluid is 3 cm below the scale.

5. If the fluid is oil (r < 1000 kg/m3), which of thefollowing must be true?

A. The first scale reading is larger than the secondreading.

B. The second scale reading is larger than the firstreading.

C. The two scale readings are identical.D. The second scale reading is zero.

6. If the fluid is mercury (r = 13 600 kg/m3), whichof the following must be true?

F. The first scale reading is larger than the secondreading.

G. The second scale reading is larger than the firstreading.

H. The two scale readings are identical.J. The second scale reading is zero.

Chapter 8292

Standardized Test PrepStandardized Test Prep

293

7. B

8. H

9. mercury; because the densityof mercury is greater thanthat of water

10. 2.5 × 1010 capillaries

11. 6.0 N

12. FB,oil + FB,water = Fg,block

13. y =

14. 1.71 × 10−2 m

(rblock − roil)h⎯⎯(rwater − roil)

Use the passage below to answer questions 7–8.

Water flows through a pipe of varying width at a con-stant mass flow rate. At point A the diameter of thepipe is dA and at point B the diameter of the pipe is dB.

7. Which of the following equations describes therelationship between the water speed at point A,vA, and the water speed at point B, vA?

A. dAvA = dBvB

B. d2AvA = d2

BvBC. dAdB = vAvB

D. ⎯1

2⎯dAv2

A = ⎯1

2⎯dBv2

B

8. If the cross-sectional area of point A is 2.5 m2 andthe cross-sectional area of point B is 5.0 m2, howmany times faster does the water flow at point Athan at point B?

F. ⎯1

4⎯

G. ⎯1

2⎯

H. 2J. 4

SHORT RESPONSE

9. Will an ice cube float higher in water or in mer-cury? Explain your answer.

10. The approximate inside diameter of the aorta is1.6 cm, and that of a capillary is 1.0 × 10−6 m. Theaverage flow speed is about 1.0 m/s in the aortaand 1.0 cm/s in the capillaries. If all the blood inthe aorta eventually flows through the capillaries,estimate the number of capillaries.

11. A hydraulic brake system is shown below. The areaof the piston in the master cylinder is 6.40 cm2,and the area of the piston in the brake cylinder is1.75 cm2. The coefficient of friction between thebrake shoe and wheel drum is 0.50. What is thefrictional force between the brake shoe and wheeldrum when a force of 44 N is exerted on the pedal?

EXTENDED RESPONSE

Base your answers to questions 12–14 on the informa-tion below.

Oil, which has a density of 930.0 kg/m3, floats onwater. A rectangular block of wood with a height, h, of4.00 cm and a density of 960.0 kg/m3 floats partly inthe water, and the rest floats completely under the oillayer.

12. What is the balanced force equation for this situation?

13. What is the equation that describes y, the thick-ness of the part of the block that is submerged in water?

14. What is the value for y?

Wheel drum

PedalBrake shoe

Master cylinderBrake cylinder

293Fluid Mechanics

For problems involving severalforces, write down equations showing how the forcesinteract.

294

1721 – JohannSebastian Bachcompletes the sixBrandenburg Concertos.

1715 (approx.) –Chinese writer Ts’aoHsüeh-ch’inis born.The book TheDream of the RedChamber, attributed tohim and anotherwriter, is widelyregarded today as thegreatest Chinese novel.

Physics and Its World Timeline 1690–1785

1738

P + 12

rv2 + rgh = constant

Daniel Bernoulli’s Hydrodynamics, whichincludes his research on the mechanicalbehavior of fluids, is published.

1738 – Under the leadership of Nadir Shah,the Persian Empire expands into India as theMoghul Empire enters a stage of decline.

1735 – John Harrisonconstructs the first of fourchronometers that willallow navigators toaccurately determine aship’s longitude.

1698 – The Ashanti empire, the last of the majorAfrican kingdoms, emerges in what is now Ghana.The Ashanti’s strong centralized government andeffective bureaucracy enable them to control theregion for nearly two centuries.

1712

eff =

Thomas Newcomeninvents the first practicalsteam engine. Over 50 yearslater, James Watt makessignificant improvements tothe Newcomen engine.

Wnet

Qh

Timeline294

•••••

1690•••••••••

1700•••••••••

1710•••••••••

1720•••••••••

1730•••••••••

1740•••

Physics and

Timeline 1690-1785Its World

295

1747 – Contrary to the favored idea that heat isa fluid, Russian chemist Mikhail V. Lomonosovpublishes his hypothesis that heat is the result ofmotion. Several years later, Lomonosov formulatesconservation laws for mass and energy.

1785Felectric = kC

Charles Augustin de Coulomb publishes theresults of experiments that will systematically andconclusively prove the inverse-square law for electricforce.The law has been suggested for over 30 yearsby other scientists, such as Daniel Bernoulli,Joseph Priestly, and Henry Cavendish.

1752

Benjamin Franklin performsthe dangerous “kiteexperiment,” in which hedemonstrates that lightningconsists of electric charge. Hewould build on the first studiesof electricity performed earlierin the century by describingelectricity as having positiveand negative charge.

1756 – The Seven Year’sWar begins. British generalJames Wolfe leads thecapture of Fort Louisburg,in Canada, in 1758.

1757 – German musician WilliamHerschel emigrates to England toavoid fighting in the Seven Year’s War.Over the next 60 years, he pursuesastronomy, constructing the largestreflecting telescopes of the era anddiscovering new objects, such asbinary stars and the planet Uranus.

1770 – AntoineLaurent Lavoisierbegins his research on chemical reactions,notably oxidation andcombustion.

1772 – Caroline Herschel, sister ofastronomer William Herschel, joins herbrother in England. She compiles the mostcomprehensive star catalog of the era anddiscovers several nebulae—regions of glowing gas—within our galaxy.

1775 – The American Revolution begins.

−++ +

q1q2

r2( )

295Physics and Its World 1690–1785

•••••

1740•••••••••

1750•••••••••

1760•••••••••

1770•••••••••

1780•••••••••

1790•••