FLOWS: Impact of local welfare systems on female labour force … · 2014. 8. 28. · The FLOWS...

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FLOWS WORKING PAPER

SERIES

NO. 24/2014

Théodora Allard, Monique Bigoteau, Pascal Caillaud, Béatrice Chaudet and Annie Dussuet

Local Production Systems in Nantes, France

FLOWS: Impact of local welfare systems on female labour force participation and social cohesion

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FLOWS Working Paper Editor: Per H. Jensen E-mail: [email protected] www.flows-eu.eu Working papers may be ordered from: Inge Merete Ejsing-Duun Fibigerstræde 1 9220 Aalborg Ø E-mail: [email protected] Tlf: (+45) 99 40 82 18 Fax: (+45) 98 15 53 46 Aalborg 2014 ISSN 2246-4840

http://www.flows-eu.eu/

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About the FLOWS project: The FLOWS project has been funded under the EU FP7 program, grant Agreement no: 266806. The project started January 1 2011 and ended April 30 2014. The FLOWS project analyses the causes and effects of women’s labour market integration, which is an issue that represents a major challenge for the European Union and its member states, and is supposedly also a precondition for the sustainability of the European social model. The overall aim is to analyse (1) how local welfare systems support women’s labour market participation, as well as (2) the extent to which (and under which conditions) female labour market integration has contributed to the strengthening social cohesion. The project focuses on how public and private welfare services such as care and lifelong learning intended to support women’s labour market integration have been designed; on how women of different classes, qualifications, ethnicities, and geographical locations have grasped and made use of such policies, and on how the increase in women’s labour market integration has affected structures of inequality and social cohesion. The study is based on in-depth analysis of eleven cities, i.e. one city in eleven different countries. The cities/countries are: Brno/Czech Republic, Aalborg/Denmark, Tartu/Estonia, Jyväskylä/Finland, Nantes/France, Hamburg/Germany, Székesfehérvar/Hungary, Dublin/Ireland, Bologna/Italy, Terrassa/Spain, and Leeds/UK. The FLOWS project is composed by 6 academic work packages: WP 1: Degree and structures of women's labour market integration WP 2: Local production systems WP 3: The local welfare system WP 4: Local policy formation/local political actors WP 5: Survey questionnaire WP 6: Women’s decision making WP 7: Social structures: cohesion or cleavages and segregation This working paper series reports work conducted in the seven work packages.

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FP7-SSH 266806 / FLOWS

Confidential

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Table of Contents

1. URBAN PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE LABOUR MARKET

2. HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SEX SEGREGATION

3. FORMS OF LOCAL COORDINATION OF THE LABOUR MARKET

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

5. ANNEX OF TABLES

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1. Urban pattern of development and structure of the labour market (approx. 2500 words)

General research questions. Please answer to each specific question:

1) Over the last 15 years, what has been the growth rate in the local production system and

the most important transformations in the sectors of specialization of the local economy?

a. Please specify the peculiarity of your city in comparison with the national and regional/land/provincial context

French city of the West of France, Nantes is located at 50 km of the Atlantic Ocean. Nantes is the 6th town of France, with a population of 283025 inhabitants (52.7% women). Its population is in constant increase since 1982. Nantes is:

- the principal city of the “Communauté urbaine Nantes Metropole” (24 cities - 580,502 inhabitants),

- the capital of the “Département Loire-Atlantique” (1,246,803 inhabitants) - the capital of the Region “Pays de la Loire”” (5 departments - 3,482,587 inhabitants).

The city counts 47,000 students including 34,000 at the University of Nantes, created in 1961. In 2007, the immigrant population of Nantes was 20507 (7.25%), 8.33% for the whole of France. (Source: INSEE, RP2007 principal exploitation) The GDP of the Nantes urban area in 2007 is about 30 billion euros. On January 1th, 2009, Nantes counted 22062 companies and establishments: 72% in the trade, transport and services, 19% in the public administration, health, teaching and social action, 5% in the construction and 4% in industry. The working population of Nantes is estimated at 199379 people (68.9% of the total population). 9.3% of the working population is unemployed. The female activity rate is of 65,6% ; 9,2% are unemployed (Insee; 2010).

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GDP NUTS 0 - France

Indicators Measures 1995 2005 2008 Trend in gdp per inhabitant

Euro (current price)

20 200 27400 30 400

Trend in gdp per employed


Nd* 68928 Nd*

Nd. No data

NUTS 2. – Regional



18 000 24800 27 400



47 448 66 441 66441

NUTS 3 – Departement



19500 27300 30 500



nd 65 842 Nd

Nd. No data

NB. GDP per inhabitants and GDP per employed are not available at local scale

b. Please provide more detailed information about particular sub-sectors

characterizing the economy of the city (e.g. ICT, design, finance, etc) Nantes knew the phenomenon of deindustrialization observed on all the national territory. The progressive disappearance of heavy industry is compensated by the development of economy service and new technologies. The urban area of Nantes is at the 1st French rank for the agri- foodstuffs, 2nd aeronautical pole national as well as the 2nd financial place in French Regions. Nantes hosts 2,000 researchers within 200 research laboratories. 92% of the active workers are employed: 30% are intermediate occupations, 29% are employees, 22% are executives and higher professions, 13% are blue-collar workers. 4% are independent (craftspeople, tradesmen, entrepreneurs and farmers).

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Indicators Measures 1999(1) 2007(2) Agriculture 0.7 0.2 Industry 15.8 6.8

Trends in employment per macro-economic sector

NUTS 0 - France

Indicators Measures 1995 2008 Agriculture

Taux / Rate

4.1 3 Industry 19.4 14.7 Constructions 6.4 6.9 Advance services and finance 70.1 75.4 other services (sale and retail, turism, health and education)

nd Nd

Nd. No data. - Source Eurastat

NUTS 2. – Region Pays de la Loire


Taux / Rate

7 4.9 Industry 23.1 18.7 Constructions 6.9 8.1 Advance services and finance 63 68.2 other services (sale and retail, turism, health and education)

nd Nd

Nd. No data - Source Eurostat

NUTS 3 – Departement Loire-Atlantique


Taux / Rate

4.1 3.1 Industry 19.1 14.9 Constructions 6.8 7.7 Advance services and finance 70 74.3 other services (sale and retail, turism, health and education)

Nd nd

Nd. No data - Source Eurostat

Urban Community of Nantes (Nantes Metropole) Indicators Measures 1999(1) 2007(2)

Agriculture

Taux / Rate

nd 0.5 Industry Nd 11.2 Constructions Nd 5.7 Advance services and finance nd 51.9 other services (sale and retail, turism, health and education)

Nd 30.7

Source INSEE

Nantes (Town)

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Constructions Taux / Rate Nd 4 Advance services and finance 83.7 52.6 other services (sale and retail, turism, health and education)

Nd 36.3

Source INSEE - Nd. No data

(1). National data in 1995 are not available, the earliest available data are the 1999. The employment per macro economic sector in 1999 are subdivided into 3 sectors : primary sector, secondary sector and tertiary sector. (2) National data in 2008 are not available, the earliest available data at local scale are the 2007 In 2007, the employment per macro economic sector correspond to WP2 sectors

2) What have been the main impacts of these transformations on the employment opportunities for women?

Trends in

NUTS 0 - National FRANCE Indicators Measures 1999 2007

Women Men Women Men Employment full time

Rate 58,6 67,9

Employment part time 36,9 6,8 Unemployment 15,7 11,6 12,9 10,2 Participation in labour market 67,3 75,6 Temporary employment 14,8 12

Self employment 8,4 14,9 Source EUrostat

NUTS 2. – Region PAYS DE LA LOIRE

Indicators Measures 1999 2007 Women Men Women Men

Employment full time Rate

62 70,8 Employment part time 34,6 6,2 Unemployment 14,1 8,6 10,8 7,6 Participation in labour market 69,5 76,7 Temporary employment 15,8 12,6

Self employment 8,5 15 Source Eurostat

NUTS 3 – Departement LOIRE-ATLANTIQUE



61,7 69,5 Employment part time 36,9 6,8 Unemployment 15,5 10,2 10,6 8,1 Participation in labour market 69 75,7 Temporary employment 15,3 12,7

Self employment 7,8 13,7 Source Eurostat

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Urban Community of Nantes – Nantes Metropole Indicators Measures 1999 2007

Women Men Women Hommes Men


60,1 66,3 Employment part time 34,4 8,6 Unemployment 15,7 12,4 11,2 10,1 Participation in labour market 67,7 73,8 Temporary employment 15,7 13,7

Self employment 6,7 11,6

NANTES (Town)



67,8 88,9 Employment part time 32,2 11,1 Unemployment 19 16,7 14 13,1 Participation in labour market 65,6 72,5 Temporary employment 19,3 17,6

Self employment 7,3 12,6 Source INSEE Formes et conditions d’emploi (ACT T2 ACT T3) / Emploi et population active (EMP T2 T4) Notes. The rate of full-time employment corresponds to 100 %. The rate of employment in temporay employment corresponds to the sum of the temporay employment, Interim, State - helped employment and training/work-experience contract. The independent rate of employment corresponds to the sum of Independent, to employers and to home helps or live in caregivers.

a. Female participation in the labour market (activity rate) At the national level, in France, the participation of women in the labour market is old and

strong. Even in years of “baby-boom”, characterized by the importance of the stay-at-home mother model, this participation remained high, with low use of part-time, compared to other European countries. In addition, it has grown steadily since the mid-1960s until today, due mainly to the sharp increase in the activity of mothers of young children. The employment crisis starting from the mid- 1970s and the sharp rise of unemployment did not affect this movement. This is probably explained by the decline in fertility which also intervenes from the 1960s ; but this explanation is not sufficient because they are precisely women in charge of family who changed their behavior. In France, the stay-at-home mother model was gradually abandoned to give way to a “cumul” model in which women are at the same time and at the same period in their life, mother and worker. So, it is a real “swing of the social norms” (Maruani, 2000). Activity rates of men and women then approached, since the male strongly dropped while the female increased.

For Pays de la Pays de la Loire Region, these characteristics are the same. Activity rate of women aged 15 to 64 years is steadily increasing since 1975: from 53% in 1975, it rose to 60% in 1990 and 69,5% in 2007. At the same time, male activity rate strongly decreased, from 87% in

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1975 to 76,7% in 2007, due to the shortening of the working life (longer studies and lowering of retirement age).

As at the national level, female activity rate especially increased in intermediate ages, the majority of the women do not cease more their occupation when they have children. “From now on, only 11 women of the Region on 100, from 25 to 49 years old, do not have an occupation or do not seek any, against 21 in 1990. Female activity ratio in this age group is thus 3.5 points higher than the average of France; it remains nevertheless 8.5 points lower than men in the Region” (INSEE Pays de la Pays de la Loire Region, 2008).

In the Region, female activity ratio is thus today higher than national averages for all the age groups up to 50 years, especially for young people. But oldest leave activity earlier than in the rest of country, like the men. These features can be explained primarily by the importance of training at the regional level, then by “the high proportion of industrial employment in the region, which involves early departures for retirement or anticipated retirement at younger ages. Beyond 60 years old, the activity ratios for men and women are very close (respectively 8,8% and 8,4%).” (INSEE Pays de la Pays de la Loire Region, 2008).

In the town of Nantes, which corresponds to the center of the urban area, these features are reversed: young women are less often active (activity rate is 35,2% between 15 and 24 years, against 41.6% in the Region), undoubtedly because they are pursuing studies and oldest remain longer in activity: 44,5% between 55 and 64 years old, compared with 35,5% at the regional level. These last figures reflect the fact that women of this generation have, more than men, stopped their career. They are therefore required to work longer, when their health allows, in order to profit from sufficient retirements to live.

b. Employment

In Pays de la Loire, female employment rate is very high, approaching that of men: 62% of women between 15 and 64 have an employment. This female employment rate is above the national average in France, only female inhabitants of “Ile de France” have a higher employment rate. In the Region, "the 60% target set for 2010 at the Lisbon European Council is already outdated. Female employment has increased by 15% between 1999 and 2005, reaching 600,000 jobs (INSEE Pays de la Loire, 2008). In Nantes (town), the employment rate is quite lower, only 56.4% of women aged 15 to 64 were employed in 2007. This is mainly due to the presence of students, far more numerous in the central city : 28.1% of young women aged 15 to 24 years are in employment, against 32.9% in the Region, but the 25-54 years also have an employment rate below the regional rate, 74.7% against 79.6%. More women are so out employment in Nantes Town.

c. Unemployment In the Region, as at national level, women have, higher rate of unemployment than men. It has declined since the late 1990s, and the gap with male unemployment rate has also decreased but remains important, especially for young people.

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In particular, women remain unemployed longer. Long-term unemployment, longer than one year, is higher for women than for men. “In 2006, they account for 53,4% of the job-seekers registered in ANPE category 1130 since more than one year, while their weight in all the applicants of this category amounted to 51,7%. A little more than one quarter of the women job- seekers in this category are thus are registered for over one year: it is 1.8 point higher than men. The proportion of long term job-seekers nevertheless declined significantly since 2001. It is moreover lower than the national average in 2006: 26,5% against 28,0%. The phenomenon of long-term unemployment touches mainly the 50 year old or more applicants: it is the case for 45% of female job-seekers in this age group and 43% of male ones of the same age. Long-term unemployment is particularly alarming among the registered people of category 2131, where nearly 9 on 10 registered ones are women: nearly half are looking for a job for a year or more.. These claimants are not necessarily listed in this category as long : a good number, were initially registered of category 1 in search of a permanent contract and full-time ; they were then directed by ANPE towards category 2 at the end of a few months, in order to increase their chances to find an employment” (INSEE Pays de la Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). Young women are particularly affected, in spite of their higher education level and academic achievement than in previous female generations. “They must reach the Bac + 2 level, such as BTS or HAD, to have an insertion rate equivalent to that of men.” (INSEE Pays de la Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). But, like men, the least graduate are most affected by unemployment. The diploma thus appears, even more than for men, a protection against unemployment. One explanation of this higher unemployment rate is that job applications from women are concentrated in a few occupations, primarily employees positions in services or sale, and characterized by the low level of qualification required for exercise: only 17 trades gather half of female job applications, while half of applications from men are distributed in 37 different trades. These trades are often precarious and corresponding vacancies are relatively few. "For their part, men jobseekers prefer building trades, transport and logistics or mechanics, where jobs are plentiful, and where women are still underrepresented. Thus there are five occupations in tension among their 17 first: on-road driving, cooking, masonry, welding, mounting plate fixtures” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). Job seekers also have the opportunity to attend training. Under certain conditions, they may receive compensation as part of vocational training: the allocation of re-employment Training (AREF). Women represent 59% of job seekers in this situation in the Region.

130 Category 1: people without employment, immediately available, held to achieve positive acts of job search, in search of full-time employment for unlimited duration. 131 Category 2: people without employment, immediately available, held to achieve positive acts of job search, in

search of part-time employment for unlimited duration.

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d. Share of part-time jobs. As at national levels, women occupy much more often than men part-time jobs, but in Pays de la Loire, it is the case of 1/3 of women having an employment, which is the highest rate of French Regions (it exceeds the national average by 5 points). In contrast, less than 6% of men work part time in 2005. It is between 30 and 44 years, i.e. when they are often responsible for young children, that women work part-time. "This phenomenon is to be connected to the very high female activity rates of women and to its maintenance in about 90% among women from 25 to 49 years, despite the high regional fertility rate " (INSEE Pays de la Loire, 2008) . One could therefore speak about "chosen part-time" for reasons of "conciliation with family responsibilities" if other elements did not invite to relativize interpretation. Indeed the development of part-time was very irregular in France and strongly correlated with the incentives of national public policies. Almost non-existent until the 1970s, it appears only in a crisis situation, during a time when companies seek to increase employment flexibility (Maruani, 2000). It progresses in the 1980s, then rose sharply in the early 1990s with the introduction, in 1992, of a reduction of employer contributions on part-time employment in the private sector. Then it declined between 1998 and 2001, due to the implementation of the reduction of working time with the law on 35h. In addition, it affects very differently the various industries and professions.

Rate of part-time female employment in France (Maruani, 2000)

En % 1975 16,4 1980 17,2 1985 21,8 1990 23,6 1995 28,9 1997 30,9

"In Pays de la Loire, the use of part-time culminates in personal services, education, health, social and trade: nearly half jobs held by women are part-time. In the personal services sector, constrained part-time is very present. In industry, however, part-time work is less common: it affects only 22% of female jobs. Part-time work primarily concerns the positions of employees, affecting 45% of them. In other occupational categories, about one third of the positions are part-time. "(INSEE Pays de la Loire, 2008). So, it can be argued that the high level of part-time employment is primarily due to a strong supply of part-time jobs, in sectors where the organization of work requires the presence of employees at specified times, making it more difficult to establish full-time schedules. The less qualified women are thus often forced to accept, if nothing else, these conditions of employment. The most graduate women are less often part-time in the Region, 1/6 teacher women and a quarter of the technical or administrative. Presumably, as these women have both higher wages

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and are more intrinsic interest in their work, they tend to prefer other arrangements than part- time to support the care of their children, even when those are very young. For some of them, these part-time employments represent an important form of precariousness for the women. Indeed, much of them are forced to accept this employment which however does not bring to them sufficient incomes to live in an autonomous way, but which are current in the “female” sectors traditionally, like education, health and the social action or the personal and domestic services. They then often cumulate several employments. For example, in the Pays de la Loire, more than 50 000 employees in personal services work exclusively for individuals. Over 95% of them are women and the precariousness of their jobs "is linked to the weakness of their part-time and to the multiplicity of their employers. 4/5 of maternal assistants and half of the other employees in personal services working directly for individuals have at least two employers in the Region. Compared to the level of its population, the region of Pays de la Loire has a higher number of employees in personal services working exclusively for private individuals, remunerated for much of them through the “Universal Employment Services check” (CESU), than the national average: 15 per 1 000 inhabitants against 13" (Seguin, 2009). Part time is also more widespread in the urban zones of Nantes, where the services jobs are numerous and where many students exert “odd jobs”.

e. Informal employment (please provide estimation).

Informal work is difficult to measure because in France it falls under a number of crimes such as undeclared work, employment of foreign untitled workers, … (Articles L.8111-1, and L8221-3 L8221-5 of the Labour Code) We can establish the following typology of clandestine work under French law. - The partial or total withholding of activity - The partial or total withholding of employee - The presumption of salaried; - False statutes: the false self-help, the false intern, false self-employed,… Convictions for illegal work in 2008 at the national level were:

Undeclared work: 7786 Fraud to Assedic: 331 Employment of untitled foreigners: 1905 Labor leasing: 214 Other offenses: 154

(Other offenses: Bargaining: 90 Lack of information or false advertising: 51, Minor subject to obligatory school 8) - Source:-DACG - April 2010 - Ministry of Justice. Although most French region have rates of fraud between 6 and 11%, fraud is relatively heterogeneous on French territory, rates varying between 3.2% and 22.3% in Auvergne Ile de France. The Pays de Loire display a fraud rate below average with 4.3%. (Source: ACOSS, 2009 Report of fight against illegal work, http://www.travail-emploi- sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/bilan_LCTI_20091.pdf).

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f. Temporary work. Temporary work has grown significantly in the region and at national level, but this form of employment is much more male than female (only 27% of female temporary jobs in the Region).

g. Limited Time Jobs.

Limited time contracts (CDD) have grown significantly in France since the 1980s. They represent a more unstable form of employment, and constitute today the first way of entry in unemployment. In Pays de la Loire, women are in CDD more often than men. "107 000 female employee sare in this position in 2005, representing 18% of all employed women, against 14% of employed men. They thus represent two thirds of employees with fixed term contracts "(INSEE, 2008). This form of contract for concerns young people particularly and it is more developed in the agribusiness industry which employs a significant proportion of women.

h. Helped employment More affected by unemployment, women, young women especially, rely more that men to helped contracts supporting professional insertion and which were developed by the Employment Policies. Women predominate in the contracts offered by the non-profit sector, whereas men are more numerous in the for-profit sector.

i. Self-employment.

As at the national level, women are fewer than men in self-employment, despite repeated governmental incentives to business creation by women. "In 2006, in the Pays de la Loire, 38% of entrepreneurs are women, a rate close to the national level. This percentage progresses however. The sectors where they undertake the most are the domestic and personal services (81% of the creators in this sector are women), health-social action (66%) and retail trade (46%). In contrast, they represent only 5% of entrepreneurs building. Those that do it are on average more educated than men: 51% of them have at least a bachelor's degree, against 45% of men”. This last feature could be explained by the obstacles facing women's careers, which could prompt them to embark on a project to create their own businesses. But it is also noted that "in 2002, 1/5 creative women was without occupation until the establishment against a man on nine. The proportion of unemployed people before starting a business is also slightly higher among women than among men: 38% against 35%” (INSEE Pays de la Loire, 2008). It could thus also be the lack of perspective on the labor market that encourages women to create their own jobs.

3) What have been the most important transformations affecting the supply of female employment over the last two decades, with particular attention paid to:

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a) changes in the educational level; The changes which have affected women's employment in France are essentially former to the 1990s. The critical tipping occurred in the late 1960s.

b) transformations in cultural attitudes; c) changes in the family structure

There has been a weakening of family institution marked by the increase in divorces. This leads to the rise of "single parents" (7.8% of households in 2007 in Nantes), which essentially consist of women without a spouse with their children.

4) Recently, how has the economic-financial crisis affected female and male In France, the crisis has affected mainly male employment. The female activity rate continued to increase, as it has since the 1960s. Female unemployment grew later and less strongly than men. Indeed, the industries were most affected; services and especially non-market services have been less affected. We can see this lesser impact of crisis on female employment as a positive effect of sex horizontal segregation in employment. However, as noted by Françoise Milewski, for women, "the trends are less favorable than it seems at first glance: the adjustment is done at present for women with extension of underemployment (...) Underemployment is massively revealed when we look at the registered unemployed persons who work in restricted activity ". So the impact of the crisis on women's employment must be measured through the expansion of constraint part-time employment more than the increase of unemployment within the meaning of ILO, either nationally or locally.

5) How have all these economic transformations affected the income gap between men/women?

In France, income gap between men and women have declined somewhat, but very slowly. The economic transformations seem to have had very little impact. It can undoubtedly be explained mainly by the persistence of a sexual division of the work which allows few comparisons between the female and male wages.

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2. Horizontal and vertical sex segregation (approx 2500)

Employment at the most detailed level of analysis for subsectors

NUTS 3 – Département

Indicators Measures 2007 Men Women

Scientific and technical activities, administrative and support services

Rate

17 ,4 18,8

Financial and insurance activities 3,1 6 Real estate activities 0,6 1,5 Public administration teaching, human health and social activities

4,8 21,5

Agriculture, Sylviculture, Fishing 0 0 Other business activities 2,8 6,9 Coke and refined petroleum products 0,4 0,1 Trade, automobile motorcycle repair 16,3 20 Construction 15,2 2,8 Mining, energy, water, waste management and remediation activities

1,5 0,5

Production of food, drinks and tobacco products 3 3,2 Manufacture of electric components, electronic, data-processing and manufacture of machines

4 1,3

Manufacture of other industrial products 11,8 5,3 Manufacture of other transport equipements 3,5 0,7 accommodation and food service activities 3,2 5,6 Information and communication 5,1 2,9 Transport and storage 7,4 3 Nd. Non disponible / No data Source Eurostat

Urban Community of Nantes (Nantes Metropole)



Rate

19,2 21,6

Financial and insurance activities 4,5 7,7 Real estate activities 0,9 1,6 Public administration teaching, human health and social activities

5,9 22,3

Agriculture, Sylviculture, Fishing 0 0 Other business activities 3,3 6,9 Coke and refined petroleum products 0 0 Trade, automobile motorcycle repair 18 18,4 Construction 12,1 2,3 Mining, energy, water, waste management and remediation activities

1,3 0,5

Production of food, drinks and tobacco products 1,8 1,6 Manufacture of electric components, electronic, data-processing and manufacture of machines

3,1 0,9

Manufacture of other industrial products 8,9 3,8

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Manufacture of other transport equipements 2,1 0,3 accommodation and food service activities 3,4 4,7 Information and communication 8,3 4,4 Transport and storage 7,3 2,8 Nd. No data- Source INSEE

Nantes (Town)



Rate

24,1 21,3

Financial and insurance activities 8,1 11,2 Real estate activities 1,3 2,1 Public administration teaching, human health and social activities

8,6 26,3

Agriculture, Sylviculture, Fishing 0 0 Other business activities 5,1 9 Coke and refined petroleum products ? ? Trade, automobile motorcycle repair 12,5 13,2 Construction 9,6 1,8 Mining, energy, water, waste management and remediation activities

0,5 0,4

Production of food, drinks and tobacco products 1,3 1,2 Manufacture of electric components, electronic, data-processing and manufacture of machines

2,7 0,5

Manufacture of other industrial products 5,3 2 Manufacture of other transport equipements 0,1 0 accommodation and food service activities 5,3 5 Information and communication 8,9 4 Transport and storage 6,8 1,9 Source INSEE - Nd. No data

Annual Salary amount by gender and by economic sector : no data

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Education level

National - France

Indicators Measures 2007 Women Men

ISCED 0 : any diploma Rate

19,1 18,4 ISCED 1 : Certificat d’études primaires 14,3 9,5 ISCED 2 : BEPC, brevet des collèges 7,5 5,4 ISCED 3C : CAP BEP 19,5 28,9 ISCED 3A + 3B +4 : Baccalaureate ou Brevet professionnel

15,6 15,1

ISCED 5A : Diploma Baccalaureate +2

12,5 9,6

ISCED 5B + 6 : Diploma Baccalaureate +3 and more

11 13

Nuts 3 : Région Pays de la Loire



18,9 16,8 ISCED 1 : Certificat d’études primaires 16,5 10,2 ISCED 2 : BEPC, brevet des collèges 6,9 4,7 ISCED 3C : CAP BEP 22,4 33,8 ISCED 3A + 3B +4 : Baccalaureate or Brevet professionnel

14,8 15,1


12,3 9,7


8,2 9,7

Nuts 2 : Departement Loire-Atlantique




16,,1 16,5


13,8 11,4


10,6 13

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Local : Nantes (town)




16,6 17,1


15,6 13,6


19,2 24,5

Nb : ISCED 0 : according to classification INSEE, any diploma is comparable on the level nursery school.


1) What are the economic sectors more affected by sex horizontal segregation? Please

consider both female (e.g. care provision, retail, education, etc...) and male concentration (e.g. manufacture, constructions, specific professional jobs, etc.).

At the national level, in France, as in the region and in Nantes, few activities are really mixed. Female and male employments remain thus largely differentiated: less executives and blue-collar workers among the women and more employees. The male activity is more diversified in terms of activity sectors, statute and qualification. The men are self employed more often than the women. The women are massively in salaried employment, and a in a limited number of activities and professions. They work especially in the tertiary sector, in particular in the public sector which employs one in three women in the Pays de la Pays de la Loire Region and one in five man. In the Region, the personal and domestic services, the social health-action, education, the public administration and the retail trade gather 55% of female employment in 2005, like in 1999. In comparison, male employments are more dispersed: the five branches of industry employing the most the men account for only 38% in male employment. Employment is particularly feminized in the personal and domestic services, where 95% of the salaried employees are women, like in the social health-action (79%). Contrary, construction remains very male, with nine out of ten jobs held by men.

2) What are the occupations more affected by vertical segregation (male and female)? Please provide information at the most detailed level as possible (for example: Elementary occupation process; Plant and machine operatives; Sales and customer services; Personal services; Skilled trades; Administrative and secretarial; Associate professionals and technical; Professionals; Managers and senior officials)

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This horizontal segregation has effects in terms of vertical segregation. Indeed, in various professions, the “professional trajectories do not proceed in the same way. The nurse or the secretary will not have the same career-advancement opportunities as the technician or the skilled worker.” (Meron, Omalek, 2009). The careers offered by the woman's jobs appear “flatter” that those corresponding to the male professions: more promotions, more possibilities of training and more changes of jobs are offered to the men than to the women. In addition, the employment conditions appear also different, the female connoted employment are more often part-time, at limited duration, and less remunerated. Moreover, Méron and Omalek note that: “the same profession does not fit the same way nor the same moment, in the courses of the men and the women. A salesman does not have the same future as a saleswoman, a woman engineer will not make the same career as a man of the same profession, and this more especially as they do not arrive in the profession at the same ages and do not stay the same time in it”. For example “the professions employing people at the end of their career are of two types: on the one hand, those which offer promotions without changing company are mainly concern men (engineers and managers of industry); in addition, those which are addressed almost exclusively to women result from unemployment or inactivity (services with the person)”. In the Region Pays de la Loire, as at the national level, the women reach with difficulty than the men at the highest levels of the hierarchy of employment. But this vertical segregation is relatively more important in the private sector than in the public sector. The top executives are only 15% in the private sector (and less than 10% in the construction industry) while they reach nearly 20% in the management jobs of the State civil service (fonction publique d‟Etat) and nearly 40% in the hospital civil service. In the Region Pays de la Loire, as at the national level, a woman on two “is employed”, but the proportion of women in managers or intermediate professions is quite lower: 28% compared with 35% for the Metropolitan France. These average and higher categories were nevertheless feminized over the recent period, in Region Pays de la Loire as elsewhere: the proportion of women among the managers increased by 2.3 points between 1999 and 2005 to reach 27,1%; it is 46% in the intermediate professions, in rise of 3.3 points over the same period. In the opposite direction, 21% of the women employees in the Region are workers against 15% at the national level: this situation is related to the strong presence of industry in the Region Pays de la Loire, and in particular agribusiness industry.

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3) Please provide a description of the most important changes in female horizontal and

vertical segregation over the last two decades (typology of economic sectors, typology of occupations, relevance of the concentration, etc.)

In the few feminized sectors, the proportion of women increased between 1999 and 2005. The rise of female employment is more important as that of male employment in some activities where the women are already in majority: retail trade, financial and real estate business. For 30 years, the women have however entered professions until then male professions. Méron, Omalek and Ulrich132 note that “the beginner women, having finished their studies since less than five years, are fewer than their elder in some qualified professions”. The strong rise in the level of the diplomas and the school good performances of the girls explain a part of this phenomenon (Meron, Omalek, 2009). The comparison of the mix of professions according to the passed time since the end of the studies gives a first idea of dynamic in progress. With the generalization of the female activity, employment of the young women is more diversified than before and the parity progressed in certain professions. However, few men are seeking professions seen like “female” in health, individual services and education of the young children. There are very few women workers in the building and automobile repair sectors. Professional polarization between men and women remain strong133, it was even rather accentuated on the side of the less qualified professions. For example, in the sector of health, the proportion of women varies in an opposite direction of the qualification level. In first, one can consider the least qualified employees, “13,000 medical caregivers and 5,500 employees of the hospital services of health care institutions in Pays de la Loire. In these two professions, the proportion of women is the same: 92%. But the percentage of activity is very differentiated by gender: a third of women medical caregivers are in part-time job (against 7% of men caregivers), just like 28% of the women agents of hospital service (for 9% of the men of this profession)” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). More qualified, 79% of the 40,000 paramedic professionals concerned by the Code of Public health are women in the Pays de la Loire as at the national level. This is 2% moreover than in 2000. “The most feminized professions are the midwives (7 men only in the region), the Speech-Language Pathologists and the nurses; only the dispensing optician, the masseur-physiotherapist and the dentists gather more men than women” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). Lastly, if one considers the 9,500 doctors in the Region in 2006, 38% are women against 24% in 1986. “The women are in majority in the general practitioners and the specialists under 40 years. But they represent less than one quarter of the 50 year old general practitioners. (…)In 2006, In Pays de la Loire, the sectors occupied by the women general practitioners are diversified than for their male colleagues: the proportion of independent men general practitioners is 81%, but only one on two women. The women general practitioners are more represented than the men in the health care institutions (21% against 13%), like in the sector of occupational medicine and health at the work, school or university health and the protecting mothers and their children services. This sectorization is less important for the specialised doctors.: approximately a woman on two or a

132 Meron M., Omalek L., Ulrich V. (2009), "Métiers et parcours professionnels des hommes et des femmes", France, portrait social, Insee, http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/donsoc06ya.pdf 133 Meron M., Okba M., Viney X. (2006), "Les femmes et les métiers : vingt ans d‟évolutions contrastées", Données Sociales, Insee, http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/donsoc06ya.pdf

http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/donsoc06ya.pdf


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man on two work in health care institution; 39% of the men are independent and work in cabinet against one on three woman. Lastly, the women are in majority in medical gynecology, occupational medicine, dermatology and pediatry. A contrario, they are only 40% from the psychiatrists, 30% of the anesthetists and 9% of the surgeons” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008).

4) Are women mainly concentrated either in the public sector or in the private sector? Are

they more concentrated either in small-medium size companies or in big firms? In the region Pays de la Loire as at the national level, the women are rather concentrated in the public sector. They occupy 78% of the 42,000 employment of the hospital civil service, in 2005. Some professions are almost exclusively female: more than 90% of the midwives, of administrative staffs, educational and social staffs, caregivers and service employees are women. They are in minority only in the medical professions (36%), management staff (44%) and technical personnel and blue-collar worker (31%). In the territorial public service, the women occupy 62% of the 82,000 employment. In the State civil service, which employs nearly 110,000 people in Region Pays de la Loire, the proportion of women amounts to 55% in 2005, five points moreover than in 1990. Men and women do not occupy same employment and the segregation of employment increases. As at the national level, the 2/3 of the 58,000 teachers was women in 2005, 4 points moreover in 15 years. The women are largely in majority among the civil employees and service agents (82%), the service personnel (73%) and the administrative intermediate professions (67%). Moreover, the feminization of these professions increases. But, even if this part quadrupled in the 15 last years, they represent only one employment on ten of soldier; they occupy 25% of the employment of technical experts (against 10% in 1990) and account for 8% of staffs of police and prisons (against 1% in 1990). In the private sector, in 2005, half of the women are employed, while 56% of the men are blue- collar workers. “Among the blue-collar workers, the disparities of qualification are strong: 86% of the skilled workers are men, but 42% of the unskilled workers are women. The positions as managers are still mainly held by men (73%), especially for the technical functions: less than 6% of the women employees of the private sector are managers in 2005”. The intermediate qualification level positions are more mixed. But men and women have not the same types of profession: the men are rather technicians or supervisors, the women are overrepresented in the intermediate occupations of health and social work.

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5) Are the sectors and occupations where women are particularly concentrated affected by: a) low salaries; b) instability; c) undeclared work conditions?

In the Region Pays de la Loire, as at the national level, the women perceive wages lower than those of the men. That is explained mainly by their stronger presence in the socio-professional groups and activities with weaker remuneration. In industry, they are more often in clothing and food processing industry and, for the tertiary sector, in the retail trade or the personnel services where the wages are less low. Moreover, the proportion of women working part-time being high in the Region, the differences in hourly salaries are amplified when the annual salaries are considered, “more especially as the hourly salary average is weaker for the part-time employees (54 centimes less than full-time)” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). So in the Region, 2/3 of the employees with low wages are women in 2003. For the hourly salaries, 15% of the women perceive wages lower than the first decile, against 6% of the men. At the national level, 21% of the women employees are paid at the minimum wage (SMIC), against 10% of the men in 2002. “Even by isolating the other individual characteristics, the probability for a woman to be paid at the Smic remains much higher. The evolutions of career are less favorable to the women, the differences in wages being accentuated with the age. At the beginning of career, the female hourly salary is thus 7% less low than that of a man. This variation reaches 25% in the end of a career.” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). These wage inequalities are essentially explained, within the same profession, by the lower qualification level of the positions held by the women, compared with those whom the men occupy: “the wages of the women are weakest in sectors using low-skilled labour force and subjected to important competitive constraints: personnel services (7.76 euros), trade (8.42 euros), agri-food businesses (8.45 euros) and consumer industries (8.61 euros).

6) Can you describe the horizontal and vertical segregation of women with respect to a)

immigration status, b) age, c) number of children

In the Pays de la Pays de la Loire Region, the immigrant women are far from numerous: less than 3% of the female population. Their situations are very diversified according to their country of origin. The situation of immigrant European differs a little from non-immigrant situation But the nonEuropean immigrant women encounter particular difficulties. Thus their unemployment rate is very high, 42%, that is to say the double of that of immigrant European. They often occupy unskilled jobs.

7) What are the main factors explaining the horizontal and vertical segregation of women in

specific economic sectors ? Please consider the following possible factors: a) education: level and specialization; b) discrimination for pregnancy c) prejudice (women are not able to do some specific jobs and are better in other kind of jobs..) d) self-exclusion; e) other

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At the national level, in France, as in the Region Pays de la Loire and in Nantes, the horizontal segregation is explained initially by the differentiated training undertaken by the men and the women. Thus, “on the job market, the requests of the employers are confronted with the characteristics of labor available” (Méron et alii, 2009). The duration of studies, observed for the whole population more benefitted the girls, who caught up and then exceeded the education level of the boys. But while girls do better in school than boys on average,, their courses are marked by the gender. “Women and men follow distinct courses of education or training, their choices differ at each stage from orientation (second general and technological, baccalaureat, higher learning” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). The school results of the girls being better, they reach in greater number in second general and technological, succeed better with the baccalaureat and are more frequently registered at the university. They are more to reach the level Baccalaureate + 2. But, the boys, who have less good results, choose a vocational training and are earlier on the job market (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008). With a shorter formation, they however appear prepared better to integrate the job market. Thus, in spite of their school good performances, the girls are auto-excluded from the most selective streams. So their higher level of studies does not profit to them because they do not have the most required diplomas on the job market. The Region Pays de la Loire is in the same logic: “the share of the young girls in the scientific series of the baccalaureate in the region is even lower than the national average. In the short term, the choices made as regards orientation do not seem always favorable to employment in the growth sectors, especially for the least graduate women” (INSEE Pays de la Loire Region, 2008).

An access to more difficult continuing education for the women. The access to vocational training in the company is less easy for the women than for the men, in particular for the workers and employees and in the large companies. As in initial training, the job-seekers concentrate in some specialities of continuing education. Far from catching up a first orientation strongly given by the gender, continuing education thus reproduces overall the same social stereotypes.

The differences of courses are also related to stereotyped representations of the professions and to different motivations. In the vocational streams, these representations determine the choice of the place of formation and the speciality. The men reach vocational trainings more diversified. Thus in the apprenticeship, very developed in the Region Pays de la Loire, the young women limit their choices to some specialities of the services (hairdressing, esthetics, health, accountancy), being excluded from many formations. To the high school as after the baccalaureate, these representations lead also the girls to be oriented massively towards the literary and economic streams, tertiary technologies and life sciences, while the men privilege selective streams like the preparatory classes at the universities, the academic institutes of technology and the trainings of engineer.

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3. Forms of local coordination of the labour market (approx 2000

words)


1) Please provide the description of the typology of work-contracts (permanent, fixed-term

contracts, self-employment etc...) framing the labour market in your country. Describe if there are differences in the work regulation in the public administration in respect of contracts in private companies, in small-medium size companies in respect of big firms

The French system is characterized by differences in forms of employment between the private sector and the public administration.

a) The private sector.

In the private sector, the permanent contract (CDI) is the normal and general form of employment relation. By definition, it does not envisage the date on which it ends. It can be broken on unilateral decision either of the employer (dismissal on personal resasons or economic reasons, retirement), or of the employee (resignation, retirement), or for a cause external with the parts (ex: force majeure). Its rupture can also result from an agreement of the two parts of the contract, by a new device called “conventional rupture” set up by the act n° 2008-596 of June 25th, 2008. The concluding of a fixed term contract (CDD) is only possible for the execution of a precise and temporary task and only in the cases enumerated by the law. It must obligatorily be the object of a writing. Whatever the reason of its conclusion, it cannot durably provide an employment related to a normal and permanent activity of the company. Concluded outside this legal framework, it will then be considered as a permanent contract (CDI). A law of June 25th, 2008 about the modernization of the labour market makes possible the concluding of a fixed term contract, one duration from 18 to 36 months, whose expiry is the realization of a definite object (mission), reserved for the recruitment of engineers and executives (as define by the collective agreements). Since the decree of August 28th, 2006, concerning the “return to employment of the old workers”, a new fixed term contract of 18 months maximum, renewable once, should provide access to employment for the old unemployed, whose chances to find work are very mean, and to supplement their contribution periods to have a retirement with a full pension. The part-time work contract, obligatorily written, is concluded with an employee of which working time is lower than the duration - legal or conventional - practised in the company. A part-time employee may have several employers but the total hours of working times should not exceed the legal maximum durations. Specific dispositons apply when the employee asks to profit from a part time job within the framework of a parental leave of education or for a company creation.

The French labor law does not provide a specific contract according to the size of the companies. Between 2005 and 2008, was created a new contract, called new hearing contract (Contrat nouvelles embauches CNE), a permanent contract, espacially reserved for the companies under

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to 20 employees (96% of the French companies and 29% of the employees). It founded a period of two years, called “consolidation period” which can be broken as well by the employer as by the employee without giving any reason. If the employer broke a CNE during the consolidation period, it must pay to the employee a compensation corresponding to 8% of his total remuneration (against 10% for the interim). This rupture escaped the usual procedure from dismissal: it must only be notified by registered letter with recorded delivery. If the letter mentioned expressly that the deadline to contest the rupture during the consolidation period was one year only, the employee could not dispute the rupture after the expiry of that period. The two principal characteristics of this contract (dismissal without reason and two years consolidation period) had been declared contrary to the international law by the International organization of work (ILO) on November 14th, 2007. Moreover, many french courts requalified the CNE in a normal permanent contract. The CNE was finally repealed by the Act n° 2008-596 of June 25th, 2008 about the “modernization of the labour market”. No CNE can be concluded after this date.

Finally, beside these principal devices, appear various atypical work contracts whose main object is insertion, the social rehabilitation (Contrat unique d‟insertion (CUI), Contrat d‟accompagnement dans l‟emploi (CAE), Contrat initiative-emploi (CIE)) or the vocational training of the worker (professionalisation contract and apprenticeship contract). None of these contracts is addressed specifically to the women.

b) Public administration.

Unlike the “private sector” where the situation of the employee depends on a contract, the workers of the national administrations, territorial authorities and public health and social sector are not recruited by work contract depend on the Labour Code and collective agreements. The civil servant is in a statutory situation, i.e. that their conditions of recruitment, work and remuneration are defined within the framework of a “general status”. Within this framework, under this general status which determines the common principles of working in the public service, each “job” (métier) of the civil service is subject of a “particular status” that determines its place in the hierarchy, the functions to which it corresponds as well as the procedure of recruitment and career. The civil servant subjected to the same statute are said to form a “body” (corps) or, sometimes, a “framework of employment” (cadre d‟emploi). The “general status of the civil servants” is composed of three statutes: the State public service (Fonction publique d‟Etat), the territorial public service (Fonction publique territoriale) and the hospital public service (Fonction publique territoriale). The State, the local authorities, the public hospitals and the public corporations also employ some agents by contract. This contract can be of public law or private law. In 2005, the contract employees were 1,092,000 people, a proportion of 20,5% of the total public agents. Since the Act of July 26th, 2005, the non-permanent civil servants are eligible for a permanent contract: after six years of public contracts (one public contract cannot exceed three years), the public employer must propose a permanent contract. These permanent contracts profit from a quasi-statues, with common rules of recruitment, promotion, professional evolution and mobility similar to the civil servant.

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here are n natio l statist cal data even l ss loca about u ioniza on of w omen. or rece nvestigat ns, o ne c an refer o he res ea rch of Y annic L e Que t ec (L Q uentr ec 2009 ).

c) Self-employed. The self employed must be registered as a company to emit invoices. Some activities have their specific status, but in most case one can choose mainly between two statutes: individual activity or company. Individual activity is simpler to manage than a company, but implies that the self employed must be responsible on his own property for the debts, whereas with a company only the company capital guarantees the debts. The social system of self-employed manages their obligatory social protection: retirement, pension and reimbursement of the health costs. New forms of access to the work contract were recently imagined to give a status for the self- employed. Thus, by the Act on modernization of the labour market, of June 25th, 2008, the Labor Code defines now the “portage salarial” as being a set of contractual relations organized between a company, a carried worker and clients companies to give a status of employee for the carried worker. This new form of contract is mainly addressed to high level professionals as experts, consultants, trainers or service providers, entirely autonomous in their commercial prospection and their interventions in companies.

2) What is the general level of unionization of women and men? Please provide information

about unionization trends (over the last decade): a) in the economic sectors where women are particularly concentrated; b) public/private companies; c) big/medium/small companies

In France, the rate of unionization was 7.7% in 2008 (Source: OECD)

T Time o1999na 2000 i 2001 , 2002 e 2003l, 2004 n2005ti 2006 2007F 2008 nt iFrance io t t 8.2 8.1

k 8 8.2 8

n r 7.8 e

7.8 7.7 , 7.6 7.7

According to this work, the women, account for 28% of adherent from CGT, 44,2% of CFDT, 45% of the CGT-FO, 40% of CFTC, 18.5% of CFE-CGC (Sylvera, 2006) and 32 to 35% for Sud (Trat, Zylberberg-Hocquard, 2000). They animate 40% of the 27,600 “works councils” but primarily in the Works Councils equipped with weak means of action, in the sector of small and medium-sized enterprises, excluding trade- union label. They are 29% of the secretaries of Works Councils elected with trade-union label (Hege, 2001). They are 28% of staff representatives (Délégués du personnel) in 1994 (26% in 1985 - DARES, 1994) and the 21% of the trade-union delegates (Délégués syndicaux) (Hege, 2001). They are almost absent from the EC exchanges of companies and DS exchanges. They cumulate less the internal and external trade-union mandates that the men. In the Conseil de Prud'Hommes (industrial courts), their place increased by 18,5% in 1997 to 24.3% in 2002 (Contrepois, 2006). In the National Commission of Collective Bargaining, the proportion of women is from 20 to 25% for CFE-CGC, CFDT and CFTC whereas it amounts to 66% for FO and CGT. Concerning the economic and social councils (CES), it is necessary to wait until 1999 and the debate on parity to see 44 women named in the CES, but without reaching the threshold of the 20%. The office of the national CES counts only one woman out of 19 members. The share of the women in the regional economic and social councils (CESR) is overall twice less: 9.8% (195 women for

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1998 advisers in 1999). One counts 51 women out of 600 members of the offices and they do not have any presidency of CESR (Cotta, 2000).

At the local level, one can report the initiatives of the trade unions CFTC and CFDT. In December 2005, the CFTC launched the project MEQ, which means Mixité, Egalité, Quality of life with work. The objective of this project is to create a dynamics of change on the ground. For that, CFTC arrange meetings in all France in order to explain diversity and to sensitize the militants with the wage equality, the equality of job access and with the conciliation of the personal life and the professional life. In 2006, CFTC thus trained 2,939 people and 16 projects MEQ came out. CFTC have today a network and a referent in each area which has a plan MEQ. In the meetings, they now have 50% of men. These meetings with the employees also show that solutions exist. 50 proposals were developped, which appear in the work “the statute of the worker”. CFTC also preach that the equality is approached during the obligatory annual collective bargaining. Men and women must seize the subject. Source: interview with Pascale Sauton, vice president CFTC http://www.femmes-emploi.fr/article/entretien-avec-pascale-coton-vice-presidente-de-la-cftc

The CFDT Regional union has, since 2003, the will to act for the professional equality between the women and the men. CFDT launched various actions within partnership and conventions with the public administration of work, employment and vocational training and the public administration of women's rights and equality. Primary goal: to support the development of the collective bargaining on professional equality. The CFDT regional union arranged meetings to inform and sensitize the CFDT union representatives on this topic. It also developed, with the assistance of the training company of the trade union, a training module of three days “To negotiate the professional equality”. At the end of 2006, more than 460 delegates of the region, men and women, had attended the meetings. And 48 delagates, representing 15 local unions, had been trained. These actions allowed the trade- unions delegates but also the elected of works council to obtain reports of comparative situation between the men and the women, in conformity with the law. They also led to creation or the reactivation of the” professional equality” commissions in companies of more than 200 employees. Second line: to sensitize the young or futures employees on the professional equality. The CFDT Regional union requested vocational high schools (Lycées professionnels) in order to work with students. Five vocational high schools accepted and 170 young people are sensitizing on the professional equality. Two high schools even required CFDT to intervene again. On the other hand, no training centre of apprentices answered favourably. Lastly, the last objective was to increase the number of women in various level of responsibility in the regional trade-union structures. For the first time, two women became general secretaries of Departmental unions and one was elected assistant regional secretary. The political secretariat of the Regional union understands from now on 3 women and 3 men. “These results are encouraging and we signed a new agreement for 2007.2008 and 2009. CFDT will pursue their goals and will amplify their actions. CFDT want also develop the diversification of the employment occupied by the women and to support their professional qualification. Within this framework, they wish to meet the employers' organizations to sensitize them with the professional equality. They already were in contact with regional Medef. They besides will

http://www.femmes-emploi.fr/article/entretien-avec-pascale-coton-vice-presidente-de-la-cftc

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check if their members work out a report of compared situation and, if this is not the case, why they do not do it.

Source: interview of Brigitte Ducos, CFDT “Pays of the Loire” http://www.femmes-emploi.fr/article/en-pays-de-la-loire-la-cfdt-s_engage-sur-le-terrain

3) What kinds of social protection are guaranteed to workers in your city? Please consider the following possible benefits and describe: eligibility criteria, level of coverage, adequacy of the benefits in respect of the need, specific forms of limitation or exclusion concerning women: - Minimum wage - Other aspects that are related to the working conditions - Unemployment benefits - Maternal / care leaves

The Social security in France is non local but a national system with four branches:

- The sickness branch manages the risks of disease, maternity, disability and death and, within the framework of a distinct management, the branch accidents at work and occupational disease. One distinguishes three great modes and from many special systems:

the general scheme, covering the majority of employees and other categories of people like students, recipients of certain benefits, residents. This scheme covers 80% of the people in France.

the agricultural scheme which covers all risks but in two separate streams: farmers and agricultural employees

the schemes for self-employed persons: independent old age pension schemes for craft trade workers, traders and manufacturers and the professions, and a sickness insurance scheme.

Special employee schemes, some of which cover all risks and others covering only old age pension insurance (nationals covered under the general scheme for the other risks): sailors, mines, the national railway company SNCF, the subway company RATP, electricity and natural gas companies EDF-GDF, Banque of France, the National Assembly, the Senate, the clerks and employees of notary, the ministers of religion, etc

Within the framework of general scheme, to be entitled to reimbursement of health care during one year, in the event of disease or of maternity, it is necessary to have worked and have subscribed during a minimum of hours. To perceive daily allowances, it is necessary to have worked at least 200 hours during three calendar months or to have subscribed on wages at least equal to 1,015 times the amount of the minimum wage (SMIC) during six months preceding the sick leave.

http://www.femmes-emploi.fr/article/en-pays-de-la-loire-la-cfdt-s_engage-sur-le-terrain

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- The family branch manages various family and social allowances. At the local level, the Family Allowance Funf (CAF) ensure the service of these benefits: family benefits, family assistances, housing benefit, Inclusion income support (RSA), etc… If the family allowances are paid according to the number of children, without conditions of resources, the other family and housing benefits are versed according to a scale of incomes.

- The old age pension branch defines the orientations of old-age and survivors‟ pensions. In France, there are more than 600 systems of basic retirement, and more than 6,000 systems of supplementary pensions. One can distinguish three great modes:

The private sector : the basic pension and additional pensions. Autonomous modes of the craft trade workers, traders and manufacturers and the liberal professions, the agricultural social insurance system

The public sector counts three systems, according to three great groups of employers: territorial and hospital civil services, State civil servants and special systems of retirement in particular plans including the national railway company SNCF, the subway company RATP, electricity and natural gas companies EDF-GDF, reformed in 2007.

Since the reform of retirements, by an Act of December 10th, 2010, the whole of these schemes have the following common points:

statutory age for receiving an old-age pension is set at 62 years (coming into effect in 2018)

the age for retirement at the full rate, even in the event of partial career, will be gradually set at 67 years.

to receive an old-age pension at the full rate, a worker must have accumulated 162 quarters.

- The contribution branch collects the social contributions at a local level by the way of the Social Security and Family Allowance Contribution Collection Offices (Ursaff).

- A fifth branch, relating to the fight against the dependency (National bank of solidarity for the autonomy of the elderly people and of the handicapped people) was created by a law of June 30th, 2004.

- In France, the insurance unemployment exists since 1958 and does not depend formally on the social security. The contractual unemployment insurance scheme is managed by social partners: the Associations for Employment in Industry and Trade (Associations pour l’emploi dans l’industrie et le commerce (Assédic)), and the National Interprofessional Union for employment in Industry and Trade (Union nationale interprofessionnelle pour l’emploi dans l’industrie et le commerce (Unedic)), which are also responsible for collecting contributions. These two organizations amalgamated in only one structure called “Pôle-emploi” in 2008. Every 3 years, the social partners meet to negotiate a new convention whose main aim is to fix the amount of the social security contributions reserved for the Insurance unemployment and the conditions of compensation for the unemployed for the next three years. The financial results of the insurance unemployment are integrated into those of the State. In order to qualify for unemployment benefits, an unemployed worker must produce evidence, at the end of the work contract, that he has been insured under the unemployment insurance scheme:

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- if the employee is old of less than 50 years, the period of affiliation must be at least equal to 122 days (4 months) or 610 hours, during the last 28 months, - if the employee is 50 years old and more, the period of affiliation must be at least equal to 122 days or 610 hours, during the last 36 months.

The employees in total unemployment because of permanent closure of their company are not subjected to these durations of affiliation.

Managed by the local authorities “departments”, the inclusion support income (RSA) is an allowance to guarantee to its recipients, who they are or not in capacity to work, minimum wages. Starting from May 2007, the nclusion income support (RSA) has been introduced on a trial basis in 34 departments for RMI recipients who go back to work and, in some cases, persons working under subsidized contracts. It was generalized with the whole of the national territory starting from June 1st 2009. Until May 2009, there existed in France ten minimum social benefits caters for a specific population group or a particular situation: nine applicable on the whole of the territory and specific to the overseas departments. In June 2009, the reform of the RSA modifies the system: in metropolitan France, the RSA replaces the minimum income benefit (RMI), the single parent allocation (API) and the devices of assistance to returning to work. The RSA is a “hybrid” service, providing at the same time a function of social minimum (RSA base) and complement of income for workers with modest incomes (RSA activity). Its amount rises with 466 euros for a person alone without activity and incomes.

At the national level, by sex:

2009 2010* Numbers % Numbers %

Women 1,156,647 57.6 1,223,408 57.1 woman alones without dependant 306,729 15.3 323,447 15.1 woman alones with 1 dependant 280,650 14.0 289,378 13.5 woman alones with 2 dependants 159,067 7.9 164,700 7.7 woman alones with 3 dependants or + 98,301 4.9 102,578 4.8 women couples some without dependant 61,759 3.1 71,510 3.3 women couples some with 1 dependant 80,602 4.0 89,945 4.2 women couples some with 2 dependants 82,960 4.1 89,008 4.2 women couples some with 3 dependants 49,413 2.5 53,181 2.5 women couples some with 4 dependants or +

37,166

1.8

39,661

1.9

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In department of Loire-Atlantique,

2009 2010* Proportion of

allocatees of the RSA

N° EPD Make out EPD

Total RSA

Total RSA among the elderly population from 15 to 64 years ** (in %)

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Loire-Atlantique

28,479

30,736

3.7

(Source: http://www.sante.gouv.fr/les-minima-sociaux.html)

In 2009, in Nantes, 11826 benefit recipients perceived the RSA.

In this national system of social security, provisions relate to family events and grant advantages either to the women, or with the two parents.

1) The maternity leave includes a prenatal leave (before the supposed date of the childbirth) and a postnatal leave (after the childbirth). Its duration depends on the number of expected children and the number of dependent children. If the legal duration of the leave maternity is fixed by the Labour Code, the national collective agreements or branch agreements can lay down more favorable provisions. The duration of the leave maternity is 16 weeks of which, in principle, 6 weeks before the excepted date of the childbirth and 10 weeks of postnatal leave after the childbirth. If the mother has two children and excepts a third one, the duration of the leave maternity is 26 weeks of 8 weeks of prenatal leave and 18 weeks of postnatal leave. The duration of the leave also varies in the event of multiple pregnancies.

2) The paternity leave applies to the whole of the employees, self-employed, farm workers, civil servants and unemployed. Granted to the father whatever his marital status, it is eleven days consecutive (eighteen in the event of multiple birth) including Saturday, Sunday and bank holidays, to add to the three days granted and paid by the employer within the framework of the Labour Code. The leave paternity must begin in the four months which follows the birth or the adoption of the child.

3) The parental leave of education can be granted to any employee at the time of the birth of his or her child or the adoption of a child of less than 16 years. It is necessary to justify one year of work in the company at the date of birth of the child (or at the date of arrival of an adopted child). The parental leave of education can begin at any time until the third birthday of the child or, in the case of an adoption, until the expiration of a period of three years after the arrival of the child at home. For the duration of parental leave of education, the work contract is suspended.

4) Increase of the retirement pension for family events. The necessary duration of contributions for calculating the pension can be increased in the case of family events: maternity, education and adoption.

- An “maternity” increase of 4 quarters is attributed to the social insured mother for each one of her children to compensate the incidences of maternity on her professional life, in particular of the pregnancy and the childbirth.

http://www.sante.gouv.fr/les-minima-sociaux.html

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- An “education “ increase of 4 quarters maximum by child is attributed to the biological or adoptive mother for the education of the chidl during the 4 years following its birth or its adoption.

- An “adoption” increase of 4 quarters maximum by adopted child during his minority is attributed to the adoptive mother to compensate the incidence on her professional life. Mother benefits of maternity and education increases or adoption and education increases for each child. Parents can choose the recipient of education and adoption increases, or decide to be distributed them. In case of dissension, education increase is attributed to that which principally contributed at the education of the child for the longest period. Otherwise, it is divided per half between the two parents. Increase adoption is attributed to that which assumed the main reception and adoption procedures. Otherwise, it is shared between the parents. - Any person who assumes or assumed a disabled child handicapped child is entitled to an increase of insurance within limit the 8 quarters. - The parents who obtained a parental leave of education are entitled to an increase of duration of insurance equal to the effective duration of this leave. This increase for parental leave of education does not cumulate with three increases of duration of insurance for child: maternity, adoption and education. - Lastly, an increase of 10% of the amount of the retirement pension is granted to the parents who had 3 children or more. It is also granted to the parents who raised three children during 9 years before the 16 years age.

4) Have there been deliberative/neo-corporative processes at the local level aimed at regulating or improving the labour market participation of women and /or their level of social protection? Please provide summary information about the actors involved and evaluate the actual impact of such actions on women employment in your city.

Within the framework of Agenda 21, the Regional Council of Pays de la Loire adopted, in June 2009, a regional action plan “for the equality between the women and the men” 134. It incorporates the question of equality between women and men in a transverse way in all great sectors of competence of the Region. The Region will support structures which act as regards equality woman-men. In the respect of the principle of subsidiarity, the Region may also support projects related by partners outside the field of regional competences. It will be able for example, to accompany the projects by the municipalities or metropole, the associations which have a specific action bound for the women of the districts and women resulting from immigration. If certain measurements are addressed to the women, to answer in a targeted way to situations of permanent inequalities, the objective of the regional action plan and the action of the Regional Commission of Equality is to include the men in the evolution of this regional culture of equality.

134 http://www.paysdelaloire.fr/uploads/tx_oxcsnewsfiles/Plan_egalite_femmes_hommes.pdf

http://www.paysdelaloire.fr/uploads/tx_oxcsnewsfiles/Plan_egalite_femmes_hommes.pdf

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It will thus be a question of promoting the role of the fathers, of sensitizing the boys and the girls to the mutual respect...

The main axes of this first action plan are: - to associate and inform the actors; - to be an exemplary local authority; - to promote the inclusion of equality in the educational actions and to promote diversity; - to promote the employability and professional insertion of the women and to promote the female entrepreneurship; - to promote the access to housing; - to ensure the access to sexual health; - to develop the knowledge of the inequalities by the production of gender specific data; - to promote the major events for the women's rights.

In order to promote the professional insertion of the women and to promote the women‟s entrepreneurship, the Region wishes to develop targeted tools, to answer specific situations. Among them, banking exclusion is a factor of social exclusion: not only the eligibility criteria set by the banks are cured but also the banking world is sometimes a tendency to stigmatize some people in trouble, considering them unreliable. Also, the Region proposes to study the possibility of supporting the implementation of a regional micro device specifically designed for women. The Region also contributes to the dissemination of innovative practices in promoting employability of women by facilitating the extension of experimental projects to accompany the women. Finally, it proposes projects for the mentorship of (future) entrepreneurs.

In addition, many institutions take part in the implementation of the regional public policies. The Region will request these organizations to produce data which evaluate the use of regional aid. A clause about production of gender-specific data will be inserted in conventions with the organizations partners. This action will involve economic development, training and learning as well as higher education and research. The priority given to these fields and questions comes from the low diversity in some sectors and an unequal use of certain devices: devices to assist the creation, support schemes for research ( Doctoral and welcoming new researchers), training devices and learning.

In 2010, the General Council of Loire-Atlantique adopted a plan “Loire-Atlantique parity 2010- 2012”135. This plan covers all the fields of competence of the Department : political and democratic community, employer, client, actor of solidarity engaged in sustainable development and a partner of the international cooperation. Behind each of the 6 axes of the plan, 68 commitments will be declined to make progress the parity and the equality. For example, the General Council will study its services contracts or its calls for tender and correct them so that they are not discriminating (ex: hours of cleaning for the buildings of the General Council). For the childcare, the General Council wants to develop an offer of quality childcare in all the departmental territory by:

135 http://www.loire-atlantique.fr/upload/docs/application/pdf/2011-03/8mars_charteparite_140x200.pdf

http://www.loire-atlantique.fr/upload/docs/application/pdf/2011-03/8mars_charteparite_140x200.pdf

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- giving a special attention to emergency access to services of childcare, - finding solutions adapted to the reception of the children with disabilities in order to allow the two parents to practice their professional activity; - intervening in the care and the education of those children ; - sensitizing the staffs of the departmental childhood services and others local authorities which manage equipment for children (nurseries, kindergartens and primary schools, recreation centers ...) to recognize a full place for the fathers in the education of the children.

Concerning the care with the other dependants, the General Council undertakes to disseminate information and training to caregivers to allow them to be more at ease in the assistance to a person of their entourage confronted with the loss of autonomy.

Also note “Atlantic Pionnières”, a structure aimed to encourage the emergence of innovative projects by women. It provides services specifically dedicated to the innovating women entrepreneurs. It accompanies the action of ATLANPOLE, the technopolis of the economic and university basin of Nantes Atlantique, supported by the Regional Council of the Pays de la Loire, the General Council of Loire-Atlantique, Nantes Métropole, the Chamber of Commerce of Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, the University of Nantes,…

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4. Bibliography Battagliola F. (2000), Histoire du travail des femmes, Paris, La Découverte.

Bel G. (2008), "Les femmes face au travail à temps partiel", Conseil économique et social.

Berger E., Chauffaud D., Olm C., Simon M.-O. (2006), "Les bénéficiaires du Complément de libre choix d‟activité : une diversité de profils", Etudes et Résultats, n° 510.

Bigoteau M., Garat I., Moreau G. (2009), Les jeunes dans la ville. Atlas social de Nantes Métropole, Rennes, PUR, 117 p.

Coenen-Huther J. (2004), Femmes au travail, femmes au chômage, Paris, L'Harmattan. Contrepois S. (2006), « France : un accès encore inégal aux différentes sphères de la représentation syndicale » in Recherches féministes, Femmes et syndicalisme , vol. 19, n°1, 25-45.

Cotta M. (2000), « Femmes dans les lieux de décision », Avis et rapports du Conseil économique et social.

Cousin O. (2007), "La construction des inégalites hommes-femmes dans l'entreprise. Une analyse de cas dans la metallurgie", Sociologie du Travail, n° 2, pp. 195-219.

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Daune-Richard A.-M. (2001), "Hommes et femmes devant le travail et l'emploi", in La dialectique des rapports hommes-femmes, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France.

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Downs L.L. (2006), "Salaires et valeur du travail", Travail, genre et sociétés, n° 15, pp. 31-49. Dussuet A. (1998), "Les rapports sur l'égalité professionnelle des entreprises de Loire- Atlantique", Nantes, DDTEFP Loire-Atlantique.

Dussuet A. (2001), "Les emplois familiaux, une forme "féminine" de précarité", pp. 53-66 in Nouvelles dimensions de la précarité, Del Sol M., Eydoux A., Gouzien A., Merle P., Turquet P., Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes.

England P., Budig M., Folbre N. (2002), "Wages of Virtue: The Relative Pay of Care Work", Social Problems, n° 4, pp. 455-473.

Garat I., Pottier P., Guineberteau T., Jousseaume V., Madoré F. (2005), Nantes. De la belle endormie au nouvel Eden de l’Ouest, Paris, Economica, 179 p.

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Gadrey N. (1992), Hommes et femmes au travail : inégalités, différences, identités, Paris, L'Harmattan.

Hardarson O. (2006), "Personnes hors du marché du travail: baisse du taux d'inactivité des femmes", Statistiques en bref, n° 18.

Hege, Adelheid, Dufour, Christian, Nunes, Catherine, « Les femmes secrétaires de comités

Insee Pays de la Loire (2008), "Femmes en Pays de la Loire, regards sur la parité".

Kergoat D.,(1984), Les femmes et le travail à temps partiel, Paris, La Documentation française. Lanquetin M.-T. (2006), "Chronique juridique des inégalités de salaires entre les femmes et les hommes", Travail, genre et sociétés, n° 15, pp. 69 - 82.

Lapeyre N., Le Feuvre N. (2004), "Concilier l'inconciable ? Le rapport des femmes à la notion de "conciliation travail-famille" dans les professions libérales en France", Nouvelles Questions Féministes, n° 23-3, pp. 42-58.

Le Quentrec (2009), « Militantes syndicales : une égalité à faire vivre » in Sens Public, n° spécial « Les femmes dans l‟action militante, syndicale et revendicative de 1945 à nos jours », Article publié en ligne : 2009/05 http://www.sens-public.org/article.php3?id_article=675

Marical F. (2007), "Réduire son activité pour garder son enfant : les effets de la PAJE", Recherches et Prévisions, n° 88, pp. 21-33.

Maruani M. (2000), Travail et emploi des femmes, Paris, Éditions La Découverte.

Méda D. (2001), Le temps des femmes : pour un nouveau partage des rôles, Paris, Flammarion.

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Meron M., Omalek L., Ulrich V. (2009), "Métiers et parcours professionnels des hommes et des femmes", France, portrait social, pp., http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/donsoc06ya.pdf.

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Seguin S., « L‟empreinte des contrats courts ou à temps partiel dans l‟emploi des Pays de la Loire », Insee Pays de la Loire, Décembre 2009.

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5. Annex of Tables

Annexe 1.

1999 2007

Indicateurs unit é

France NUTS0

Pays de la Loire NUTS2

Loire

Atlantique NUTS3

Nantes

Commune

Fance

NUTS0

Pays de la Loire

NUTS2

Loire

Atlantique NUTS3

Nantes

Commune

par habitants 1995 et 2008 € 20200 18000 19500 nd 30400 27400 30500 nd

par emploi 1995 -2008 € nd 47448 nd nd 68928 (05) 66441 65842 (05) nd

Services et finance 1995-2008 % 70.1 63 70 83.7 (99) 75.4 68.2 74.3 52.6(07)

Autres services % 36.3 industrie1995-2008 % 19.4 23.1 19.1 15.8 14.7 18.7 14.9 6.8 Construction 1995-2008 % 6.4 6.9 6.8 6.9 8.1 7.7 4

Agriculture 1995-2008 % 4.1 7 4.1 0.7 3 4.9 3.1 0.2

Temps complet - Femmes % 68,9 62,8 59.9 63,8 71.4 66.4 64 66.5

Temps complet - Hommes % 94,1 94,4 94.0 92,8 93.3 33.6 93.5 91.6

Temps partiel - Femmes % 31 ,1 37,2 40.1 36,2 28.6 94.1 36 33.5

Temps partiel - Hommes % 5 ,9 5,6 6.0 7,2 6.7 5.9 6.5 8.4

Chômage - Femmes % 15.1 14.1 15.5 19 12.3 10.8 10.6 14

Chômage - Hommes % 11 8.6 10.2 16.7 9.8 7.6 8.1 13.1

Taux d’activité - Femmes % 63.1 64.2 63 60.9 67.5 69.5 69 65.6

Taux d’activité - Hommes % 74.9 75.1 74.1 70 75.8 76.7 75.7 72.5

CDD - Femmes % 9.2 11 16.7 9.9 10.6 11.6 5.5 10.4

CDD - Hommes % 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.1 6.4 5.6 5.5 6.8

Emploi indépendant - Femmes % 4.7 3.9 5.1 2.5 4.4 4.4 4 4.8

Emploi indépendant - Hommes % 7.3 7.9 6.5 4.4 7.2 7.3 6.2 2.9

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Annex 2 : Tables at regional level (in French)

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