Introduction

A flood is a relatively high flow whichovertakes the natural channel provided for therunoff Chow (1964), Rostvedt et al. (1968), Ward(1978). Floods are recurrent features in India,which extensively affecting crop production,damages the life and property. It may be rightlystated that such types of natural calamities leavebehind a story of death, hunger, epidemic and massdestruction. Flood is a natural phenomenon, whoseroots are in monsoonal rainfall. Of the total annualrainfall in the country, 75% is concentrated over ashort period of time, i.e., three to four months. Asa result, there is a large amount of discharge fromthe river during the monsoon period causing floods.Flood disasters are among the world’s most

frequent and damaging types of disaster IFRCS(1998). They have been the most common typeof geophysical disaster in the latter half of thetwentieth century, generating an estimate more than30% of all disasters between 1945 and 1986 (Shah,1983; Glickman et al. 1992).

The recurrences of flood in the Gandak Riverare one of the biggest disasters in recent years.The silt load carried from the hilly area gets droppedas the river flows through the plains resulting inthe tendency to spill its banks and to shift itscourses. Because of excessive deposition of silt,the river bed is aggregating and thus the bankfulcapacity of the river is progressively reduced.There are many shoals and island formations inthe bed of the river. Even the river course has

Flood Frequency Analysis of LowerGandak River Basin, Bihar

JITENDRA RISHIDEO & S. C. RAI*

ABSTRACT

Gandak River in north Bihar presents a challenge in terms of long and recurring flood. Recurring floods ofvarious magnitudes play havoc with the lives and property of the people. Despite a long history of floodcontrol management in this region, river continues to bring a lot of misery through extensive flooding.Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to analyze the magnitude and trends of flood events andfrequency in the Gandak River. Flood frequency analysis follows Weibull’s Plotting Position Method andGumble’s Extreme Distribution Method. These methods interpret a past record of 21 years flood events topredict the future probability of occurrence. The higher flood magnitude is associated with the lower probabilityor the recurrence chances, whereas lower magnitude of flood probability becomes higher. Gandak River showshigh discharge variability and sediment flux from an uplifting hinterland. Annual peak discharges often exceedthe mean annual flood and the low-lying tracts of the alluvial plains are extensively inundated year after year.The study further suggests that flood events have increased in the region over a period of time. It is thereforesuggested that indigenous flood mitigating strategies need to be well recognised and emphasized via properexecution in flood affected area.

Key Words: Annual peak discharge, Flood probability, Gumbel’s extreme distribution, Mitigation, Weibull’splotting position.

Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika (Dec., 2015), Vol. 45(2) : 01-10ISSN 0042-1618

RESEARCH ARTICLE

been shifting towards the right, i.e., the westernbank. The lower reaches, however, can beconsidered to be practically in a stable regime. Onthe contrary, in the upper reaches, the river is notso stable and goes on changing its course regularly.The erosive action, which quite often endangersthe embankment, is not confined to any fixed pointbut keeps on shifting from year to year. In thisprocess, the river induced serious erosion problemat different sites. The problem of erosion in thewestern bank of the river is more serious than theeastern bank. In the event of further shift of theriver, there is a great chance of avulsion of mainflow of the Gandak River (GFCC, 2004). Erectionof civil engineering structures in the Gandak Plainarea is now questioned and our preparedness toface such events seems to be inadequate. The main

aim of the present study is to analyses themagnitude and frequency of flood in the area.

The Lower Gandak River

The Gandak River in India (also known asthe Narayani in southern Nepal) is one of the majorrivers of Nepal and a left bank tributary of theriver Ganga. Gandak has built an immense megafancomprising Eastern Uttar Pradesh and NorthWestern Bihar in the Middle Gangetic Plains. Themegafan consists of sediments eroded from therapidly-uplifting Himalaya. The river’s course overthis structure is constantly shifting. It is said thatthe river has shifted 80 km to the east due totectonic tilting in the last 5000 years (UpdatedComprehensive Plan of Management of GandakRiver, 2004). The overall effect of frequently

Fig. 1: Location of Lower Gandak river basin

changing river course is the formation of chars ordiara lands between marginal embankments andthe present course of the river, which at someplaces extend to over six miles. The creation ofthese diaras is an interesting example of soilformation.

The area includes the Lower Gandak Basinbelow Valmikinagar barrage at Tribeni in PaschimChamparan district of Bihar state.

This area of the erosion is almost elongated.The extent of the basin is 25º21’23” to 27º26’54”Nand is 83º49’00’’ to 85º15’52”E (Fig.-1). Thecomplete area under study contributes 7370 km²,out of which 968 km² lies in Uttar Pradesh and6402 km² in Bihar. Gandak River rises from analtitude of 7620 m to the north of Dhaulagiri inTibet near Nepal boundary (GFCC, 2004). TheUpper Himalaya catchment area under Nepalterritory is 38430 km². Combining both upper andlower, it is 45800 km². One sixth of the total areaof entire catchment is under perennial snow cover.

Methods

The average length of time between the eventsof a certain magnitude is called recurrence intervalor return period of that event. Historical data ofsuch events help in analyzing the recurrence (aswell as the magnitude) of extreme events such aslarge floods. The techniques involve usingobserved annual peak discharge data for a numberof years to calculate recurrence intervals. The peakdischarge data from 1970 to 2002 at the sites ofLalganj, Dumariaghat and Treveni has beenanalyzed and presented through diagramsseparately. Magnitude and frequency of flood for21 years (1982-2002), has been analyzed throughthe Weibull’s Plotting Positions and Gumbel’sExtreme Value Distribution Methods.

Flood Frequency Analysis

Magnitude of flood differs from year to yearand the relationship between the magnitude of flood

and recurrence interval is positive. It is observedfact that flood of given magnitude occurred aftera definite interval. For a comparative investigationof changes in hydrologic regime, data of all thethree sites (Lalganj, Dumariaghat and Tribeni) areanalysed for 21 years (1982 to 2002).

A method dealing with the peak runoffdirectly is called the flood frequency method. Thismethod, however, does not give a shape of uniformhydrograph but gives only a highest discharge in365 days of known value. To find out the floodmagnitude for return period less than the observedrecord, it is reliable to estimate flood frequencyjust by interpolating the figures. However, whenfloods approaching the observed maximum ofrecords are to be taken into consideration, itbecomes necessary to have the understanding ofthe exact nature of peak distribution.

Frequency of floods occurring can be plottedon probability paper against the periodically, withwhich they have been equaled to or exceeded.Thus, fitting of a smooth curve based on the plottedpositions helps and it is assumed as an exemplaryof future possibilities. It is simple and straight-forward process to calculate the requiredprobabilities. On the basis of the recorded annualpeak discharge, a number of methods can beapplied to get the probabilities which are groupedinto two: (i) straight forward plotting techniquesfor the cumulative distribution, and (ii) thestatistical consideration of frequency factors. Inthis study Gumbel’s Extreme Value Distributionand Weibull’s Plotting Position Analysis is usedfor analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Characteristics of Discharge

The Gandak River cause havoc due toseverity of floods every year. The damages causedby floods to crop, private properties, public utilitiesand the loss of life are enormous in the region.

The peak discharge is extremely varies from yearto year (Fig. 2). The variability of annual peakdischarge was observed in Lalganj (1970-2000),Tribeni (1970-2000) and Dumariaghat (1981-1999) stations. At Tribeni, extraordinarily highvalues of 14,000- 21,000 cumecs in 1974 and 1970correspond to two most severe flood events inthe Gandak basin. Lalganj, recorded high valuesof 10,000 and 14,000 cumecs in 1979 and 1975showed two most severe flood events in theGandak basin, while Dumariaghat, the same valueof severe flood correspond in 1985 and 1982.Tribeni observed higher peak discharge variabilitywhere as peak discharge variability at Lalganj andDumariaghat is relatively lower. Further, insightto flood frequency is provided by the return periodanalysis using Weibull’s and Gumbel’s probabilitydistribution. It was observed that the upstreamstation (Tribeni) shows higher peak discharges incomparison to downstream stations (Dumariaghatand Lalganj) for the same return period. Thepossible reasons for this are the diversion of waterfor irrigation (Gandak Canal System) and also theembanking of the river, which prevents thetributaries from joining the Gandak.

The average annual discharge of the Gandakat Lalganj, Tribeni and Dumariaghat is 4623.293,9000.067 and 8315.892 cumecs, respectively.Figure 2a&b show that high peak discharge in1974-1975 has frequently exceeded the mean.Figure 2 revealed a typical monsoonal pattern ofmonthly discharge for the period 1975-1994,which generally starts to peak in the month ofJune, with the maximum in the month of August/September. The average monsoon discharge ismuch higher than the non-monsoon discharge.Such large difference between monsoonal and non-monsoonal discharge makes the river vulnerableto flooding as the shallow river sections cannotaccommodate the excess discharge.

Hence, Fig. 2 shows that there is no distinctrelationship in pattern or range of variation betweenthe upstream and downstream stations. The peak

discharge at downstream station is higher duringthe period 1978-1983 after which it is more orless equal to that of upstream station. Further, ithas been observed that the peak discharge mostlyoccurs in the month of August but the precisedate varies by weeks between upstream anddownstream stations in some year. It seems thatthe peak discharge at a particular station is afunction of local flood waves created by tributariesapart from the monsoonal rains in the plains.

A perusal of the gauge and historical recordsclearly shows that severe floods do not occuraccording to any particular pattern (Rao, 1975).Preliminary indications from historical data andfrom surveys of paleoflood sites indicate a possiblemodern increase in the incidence of large floods(Puri and Ravishankar 1983: Ely et al. 1995; Kaleet al. 1996). This absorption is also supported bythe general increase in the area affected by floodsin the Upper Ganga Basin (Chaphekar and Mahatra1985). The frequency, duration, and magnitudeof floods vary between and within drainage basinbecause of variability in basin and drainagenetwork characteristics. Coleman (1969), Pal andBagchi (1975) and Goswami (1985) described thenature and affects of monsoon floods onBhrahmaputra River.

Linsley (1986) discussed the accuracy offlood estimates. Flood frequencies were estimatedby using observed or simulated rainfall data withvalid watershed models. Using rainfall data to obtainflood frequency was tested as early as 1957.Alexander (1972) discussed the method of stormtransposition to estimate the rare floods. Fleming& Franz (1971) compared different methods ofestimation of flood frequencies. They concludedthat the Hydrocomp Simulation Program was mostsuccessful in reproducing flood frequency curvesdetermined from historic stream flow records. Thedistribution of simulated floods matched that ofobserved floods.

Fig. 2: Variations of peak discharge through the years; (a) Lalganj, (b) Tribeniand (c) Dumariaghat of Lower Gandakriver

Weibull’s Plotting Position Analysis

The flood frequency analysis of the GandakRiver at Lalganj, Dumariaghat and Tribeni has beenpresented by using of Weibull’s Plotting PositionMethod (Fig. 3). The observation reveals that there

are a large number of discharge data below themean discharge of 4623.31, 8315.89 and 9000.06cumecs, respectively. Hence, the plotting of return-years or the probability values against the dischargedata on the semi- log graph does not be a straightline curve but the line bends off towards the tails

of the data given a skew curve. The plottingpositions are located against the discharge data(Fig. 3). If we draw a straight line on plottedpoints, inspection shows that except the twelveranked discharge data in Fig. 3a, the plotted pointslie near to a straight line. But in Fig. 3b&3c, noplotted points lie near a straight line and a line drawnin by eye has to be acceptable, otherwise werequire the use of the second approach of carryingout the Gumbel’s extreme value distributionanalysis through the use of frequency factors.

The flood frequency analysis by Weibull,adopted in this study indicates that the maximumdischarge (9967.67 cumecs) at Lalganj Site,(13745.02 cumecs) at Dumariaghat and (15200.00cumecs) at Tribeni may occur after 22 years andsecond highest discharge (9417 cumecs), (11500cumecs) and 14950 cumecs) may occur after11years. While 519 cumecs, 4440 cumecs and4050 cumecs discharge will occur every year. Inthis way Weibull’s plotting position gives the ideaabout flood occurrence.

Gumbel’s Extreme Value Distribution

The flood frequency analysis of the Gandakriver at Lalganj, Dumariaghat and Tribeni stationshas been illustrated in the Fig.4. The computationof the magnitude of flood is in relation to therecurrence interval or the return periods stated inyears. The data for these sites are for 21 years(from 1982 to 2002). It is apparent that higherflood magnitude associated with the lowerprobability or the recurrence chances, whereasfor lower range of the magnitude of floodprobability becomes higher. It is the basic principleof the peak discharge and its probability.

The average peak discharge of the period atLalganj, Dumariaghat and Tribeni stations were4623.29, 8315.89 and 9000.06 cumecs,respectively. Quite a number of years were abovethe bank full stage at all sites. It had been estimatedthat a flow of 9967.67, 9417.28, 9047.44, 7980.00and 6534.44 cumecs will return in 11.63, 9.7, 8.6,

6.1 and 3.9 years at Lalganj. About 13745 cumecswill return in 12.12 years and 8424 cumecs willreturn in 2.32 years at Dumariaghat. About 15200cumecs will return in 22.57 years and 9290cumecs will back in 2.54 years at Tribeni. Otherpeak discharges were also estimated and illustratedin Fig. 4. However, it is important to note that allsuch recurrence intervals of geomorphic processesare simply averages and do not indicate when anevent of a particular magnitude will occur. Also, itis often very difficult to accurately estimate therecurrence interval of an extreme and rare eventdue to lack of temporal data. Basin scale in floodpeak distribution was represented by using a lognormal model by Smith (1992). Gupta et al. (1994)used the multi-scaling theory of floods for regionalquantile analysis.

The hydrological system as a linking elementbetween mountains and plains is very sensitive tounsustainable and unaccepted anthropogenicactivities in the highlands as well as in the lowlands.Subsequently, natural disasters cause great dealof harm and damage every year and it has generallyincreased over the last decade. In India, disastersare events that lead to life and property loss andrequire help from outside the community. Differentplaces are affected by different magnitude of flooddisasters. It is important for the planners to preparecommunity-based mitigation plan to reduce theimpact of disaster.

From the adoption of National FloodProgramme in 1974 flood continued its annualvisitation in Northern Bihar. The failure of our floodcontrol system largely the consequence ofcontinued neglect of the natural drainagemechanism which is the product of the particularconfiguration of the land, replacing it with a systemof dams and embankments, largely impending thenatural flow of surface water. However, it isimportant to note that natural events like floodsare far more diverse and complex, and the realhydrological process cannot be expressed in termsof simple.

Fig. 3: Flood Frequency Analysis; Peak discharge Values have been plottedagainst Return Period on probability scale; (a) Lalganj,

(b) Dumariaghat and (c) Tribeni.

Conclusion

An examination of the long term flood dataof Lower Gandak River suggests that there is astrong need to include the geomorphologic

parameters of the river basin in flood analysis, asthese parameters govern the hydrological responseof the river basin. However, some recent workshave incorporated geomorphic parameters in flood

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analysis. More work on this aspect is requiredparticularly on the Indian rivers for betterunderstanding of flood processes. A properintegration of fluvial geomorphology and riverengineering is the need of the hour to understandthe flood behavior of Gandak River basin. Completeunderstanding of related fluvial processes such aslateral shifting by avulsion and cutoffs would beextremely desirable to plan the flood controlstrategy in the Gandak River. The frequency ofover bank flooding is too rapid and extent so severethat they are indeed the most important ‘fluvialhazard’ in the area. Finally, the study recommendsthat in flood mitigation procedure, geomorphologicfactors should be taken into account to derive long-term management plan. The study further suggeststhat the implementation of additional measures suchas the cultivation of flood-resistant crop varietiesand off-farm employment opportunities to makethe farmers more resilient towards the floodhazards.

Alexander, G. N. (1972) Using the probability ofstorm transportation for estimating thefrequency of rare floods, J. Hydrol., 9: 322-373.

Chow, V. T. (1964) Handbook of Applied Hydrology,McGraw- Hill.

Chapekar, S. B. & Mahatre, G.N. (1985) HumanImpact on Ganga River Ecosystem, ConceptPublishing Company, New Delhi.

Coleman, J. M. (1969) Brahmaputa river: channelprocesses and sedimentation, SedimentGeol., 8: 129- 239.

Ely, L. L., Enzel, Y., Baker, V.R. & Kale, V. S. (1995)Palaeo flood evidences of a recent upsurgein the magnitude and frequency of floodson rivers in monsoonal control India(Abstract), International Association ofGeomorphology, S E Asia Conference,Singapore.

Fleming, G. & Franz, D.D. (1971) Flood frequencyestimation for small watersheds, Journal of

Hydraulics Div,ASCE, 1441-1460.Ganga Flood Control Commission. Patna (2004)

Updated Comprehensive Plan of FloodManagement of Gandak River System, Ministryof Water Resources, Government of India,1- 10.

Goswami, D. C. (1985) Brahmaputra river, Assam,India: physiography, basin denudation andchannel aggradations, Water ResourceResearch, 81: 959- 978.

Glickman, T. S., Golding, D. & Silverman, E. D.(1992) Acts of God and acts of man: recenttrends in natural disasters and majorindustrial accidents, Discussion Paper,Center for risk management, Washington,DC: Resources for the future, 92-102.

Gumbel, E.J. (1941) The return period of floodflows, The Annals of Mathematical Statistics,12 (2): 163-190.

Gupta, V. K., Duckestin, L. & Peebles, R.W. (1994)On the joint distribution of the largest floodand its time of occurrence, Water Resour.Research, 30 (12): 3405- 3421.

International Federation of Red Crescent Societies.(1998) World Disasters Report 1998, OxfordUniversity Press.

Kale, V. S., Ely, Enzel, Y. & Baker, V.R. (1996)Palaeo and historical flood hydrology.Indian Peninsula, in: Global ContinentalChange: the Context of Palaeohydrology, (eds.Barson, J., Brown, A. G. and Gregory, K. J.),Geological Society Special Publication, 115,155- 163.

Linsley, R. K. (1986) Flood estimates: how goodare they?, Water Resources Research, 22 (9):1595- 1645.

Pal, S.K. (1998) Statistics for Geoscientists Techniquesand Applications, Concept PublishingCompany, New Delhi.

Pal, S. K. & Bagchi, K. (1975) Recurrence of floodsin Brahmaputra and Kosi River basins: astudy in climatic geomorphology.Geographical Review of India, 37 (3): 242- 248.

Puri, S. R. & Ravishankar, A. D. (1983)Uncommon floods of Orissa in 1982,in: Proceedings of Seminar on Hydrology, (ed.Sharma, V. V. J.), Osamania University,Hyderabad, 57-64.

* Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi- 110007, Email:raisc1958@rediffmail.com, Corresponding Author

Rao, K.L. (1975) India’s Water Wealth. OrientLongman, New Delhi.

Rostvedt, J.O. (1968) Summary of floods in theUnited States during 1963, USGS Wat. Sup.

Pap. 1830- B.Shah, B. Y. (1983) Is the environment becoming

more hazardous?, A Global Survey from1947 to 1980. Disasters, 7 (3): 202- 209.

Smith, J.A. (1992) Representation of basin scale

in flood peak distributions, Water ResourceResearch, 23 (8): 1657- 1666.

Ward, R. (1978) Floods: A Geographical Perspective,London: Macmillan.

Weibull, W. (1939) A Statistical Theory of theStrength of Materials, Ing. Vet. Ak. Handl.,151, generalstabens litografiska Anstale,Forlag, Stockholm, Weeden.

Introduction

The Ganga plain is an important componentof the Indo-Gangetic plain consisting of one ofthe largest Quaternary deposits. It occupies acentral position in the Indo-Gangetic plain andforms the main physiographic division of India.The Ganga plain extends from Aravalli-Delhi ridgein the west to Rajmahal hills in the east, SiwalikHills in the north and Bundelkhand-Vindhyan-Hazaribagh Plateau in the south (Singh, 1992). Thelength of the Ganga Plain is about 1000 km andthe width ranges from 200-450 km. It exhibitsmicro geomorphic features such as upland terracesurface, marginal plain, upland surface, megafansurface, river valley terrace surface, piedmont fansurface, and active flood plain surface on theregional scale (Singh, 1992). The Ganga Plain isdrained by important rivers such as Ganga,Yamuna, Ghaghara and their dense network of

Drainage Basin Parameters of a Plain-fedRiver System and its Implications

Study on Ami River Basin, Ganga Plain, India

NARENDRA KUMAR RANA* & NEHA SINGH**

ABSTRACT

Hydromorphological mapping and morphometry analysis are important tools for basin characterization.Quantitative assessment of various basin parameters have been carried out for the Ami River Basin. The basinis a plain fed river system having dendritic type drainage network, which indicates homogeneity in texture andlack of structural control. The basin has fifth order stream having moderate density. The bifurcation ratio ofthe basin falls within the normal range implying that the drainage are natural and not much influenced bygeological structure. The study observed that Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System can beappropriately used for calculation and delineation of the morphometric parameters of the basin. The result ofthis analysis would be useful base line information in river basin management, pollution control and riverrestoration works.

Key words: Morphometry, Basic parameters, Derived parameters, Shape parameters, HydromorphologicalInferences.

tributaries and distributaries.

Classical literature on Ganga plain and its riversystems shows the plain as monotonous and riversystems as homogeneous one. However, recentstudies revealed that the area is marked withgeomorphic diversity and fluvial heterogeneity.There exist different classes of river system thatexhibit distinctive morphological, hydrological andsediment transport characteristics (Sinha andFriend, 1994). One of the important functionalclassification is based on their source area; namely,mountain-fed, foothills-fed and plains-fed riversystems. These differ significantly in morpholo-gical, hydrological and sediment transportcharacteristics. The mountain-fed rivers aregenerally multi-channel, braided systems,characterized by many times higher discharge andsediment load in comparison to the single channel,sinuous foothills-fed and plains-fed river systems

Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika (Dec., 2015), Vol. 45(2) : 11-21ISSN 0042-1618

RESEARCH ARTICLE

(Jain and Sinha, 2003). The mountain fed riverssuch as the Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghra, Gandak andthe Kosi have large basin area, high average annualdischarge and transfer great quantity of sedimentfrom their source area marked by high relief. Thefoothills and plains-fed rivers have comparativelymedium and small source area, low average annualdischarge. Some important plains-fed rivers areGomti, Chhoti Gandak, Ami, Kuwano etc. Theyare Plains-fed as their source area are within theplains and entirely dependent upon rainfall andground water for their survival. These basins areadversely affected by flooding and continuousdepletion of groundwater. The mitigation of theseproblems has socio-economic significance as it isone of the major contributors to the national foodgrain stock (Singh and Awasthi, 2011). Acute riverpollution and degradation of river ecosystem isanother serious hazard facing the river basins(Bhardwaj, Singh, and Singh, 2010a, 2010b).

The Ami is a plains-fed river; its discharge isin direct response to the rainfall in the catchmentarea and recharge of ground water. Due tourbanization and accompanied industrial activitiesthe river becoming grossly polluted (Vishwakarmaand Pandey, 2013). Prajapati (2010) has studiedthe degraded river ecology of Ami and outlinedsome management principles to be adopted.However, no attention has been paid for themorphometeric analysis of the plains-fed rivers ofthe Ganga plain in general and Ami river in particular.

Understanding drainage basin parametersthrough morphometric analysis is one of the mostimportant tool and technique to determine andevaluate the drainage basin responses to climatechange, drainage characteristics (Mesa, 2006),flash flood hazard (Angillieri, 2008), and hydrologicprocesses (Eze and Efiong, 2010). There is a strongneed to include the geomorphological parametersof the river basin in flood analysis as theseparameters govern the hydrological response ofthe river basin (Sinha and Jain, 1998).

In the present study morphometric analysiswas carried out to evaluate the drainage parametersand basin characteris-tics, which have directimplication for river restoration (EnvironmentAgency, 2003), flood management and rechargingof groundwater.

Study Area

The Ami river basin is located in the MiddleGanga Plain in the interfluve region of the Ghaghrariver and the Rapti river (Fig-1). The basin extendedbetween 260 29' to 270 09' N latitudes and 820 37' to830 26' E longitudes. The river traverses a totaldistance of about 223 kilometer and drains acatchment area of about 1528 square kilometer havingan elongated shape trending in NW-SE direction.

The river originates from Sikhara Tal nearDumariaganj of Siddharth Nagar district andconfluence into the Rapti near Sohgaura inGorakhpur district. The place of origin is locatedadjacent to the bank of river Rapti. The river Amiflows through the districts of Basti, SiddharthNagar, Sant Kabir Nagar, and Gorakhpur of UttarPradesh and it makes the district boundary betweenGorakhpur and Sant Kabir Nagar; Siddharth Nagarand Basti; Important urban centers situated alongthe river include Maghar, Gorakhpur IndustrialDevelopent Authority (GIDA), Khalilabad, Basti,Mehdawal, Bansgaon, Dumariaganj and Sahjanwa.

The study area is characterized bysubtropical monsoon climate. The region receivesmoderate to high rainfall (100-160 cm) and 80-85% of the total rainfall is received during themonsoon season (June to September). Thegroundwater hydro-logy of this region ischaracterized by unconfined and semi confinedaquifers at shallow depth (10-16 m). Thegroundwater is the main source for domestic,agricul-ture, and industrial uses. The area is severelyaffected by pollution due to dumping of industrialwastages and over exploitation of ground water.The middle and lower part of the basin is affected

by flooding during high discharge period and bylateral erosion during low discharge.

Materials and Methods

The study isbased on primary as well assecondary data that performed in two stages (a)field work and (b) laboratory work. Field workwas carried out along the entire course of AmiRiver to document the data pertaining to drainagebasin characteristics. The basic input datanecessary for morphometric analysis were carriedout with the help of LANDSAT TM data andtopographical sheets of Survey of India (SOI)(Table-1). Geomorphological and drainage map ofthe area was prepared using these data. The SOItopographical sheets and digital satellite data were

geometrically rectified and georeferenced by takingground control points(GCPs) by using UTMprojection and WGS 84 datum. Besides, allgeocoded images were mosaic using Erdas Imagine9.2 image processing software. Drainage basin,perimeter, basin length, and water divide weremeasured and delineated using ARC-Map 10.2. Thestage of landscape evolution, tilting of the basin,stream power of denudation and migrationoftheAmi River basin were determined by morpho-metric analysis. Drainage network was analyzedaccording to Horton’s laws (Horton, 1945) andstream orders were defined (Strahler, 1964).Various basic, derived, and shape parameters werecalculated using standard methods (Kale and Gupta,2001).

Fig.1: Ami river basin in the Ganga Plain

Sl. No. Data Characteristics Sources

1. Landsat TM Path/row: 142/41 U.S.G.S LibraryDate: 18 February, 2010

2. Survey of India (SOI) 63 J/13, 63 N/1 (G44L1), Survey of India,Topographical sheets 63 N/2 (G44L2), 63 I/2 Govt. of India

(G44E12), 63 I/16 (G44E16),63 N/6Scale 1:50,000

Observations

The morphometric parameters of the Amiriver basin were calculated under three differentheadings: (i) basic parameters, (ii) derivedparameters, and (iii) shape parameters, thatprovided information regarding the river and itsbasin characteristics.

Basic Parameters

The river Ami is a fifth order river basin withdominance of lower order streams (Fig. 1). Thearea of the basin is about 1528 square kilometerand perimeter is about 255 km. Basin length (L) is106km, i.e.maximum length of the basin parallelto the main meandering belt from origin to theconfluence (end point) of the river. The height ismaximum towards north-east in the proximal part(95 m msl) and minimum near its confluence withRapti river in distal part (70 m msl). Basicparameters of the drainage basin are mainly relatedto the drainage pattern and its topology. It includesstream order (Nu), stream length (Lu), and slopegradient (Sb) (Table-2).

Stream Order (Su)

Stream ordering is the first step of quantitativeanalysis of the basin. The stream ordering systemshas first advocated by Horton (1945), but Strahler(1953) has proposed this ordering system withsome modifications. In the present study streamordering is based on the method proposed by

Strahler. It has observed that the maximum orderof stream is 5th one (Table-2 and Fig.3).

Stream Number(Nu)

Stream number (Nu) is defined on the basisof number and type of tributary junctions. Thetotal of order wise stream segments is known asstream number. It is a useful indicator of streamsize, discharge, and drainage area (Strahler, 1964).Total stream number (N) of each stream order (u)is given in table-2. Stream parameters verifyHorton’s first law (stream number) which, showsthat a simple geometric relationship exists betweenthe order of the stream on one hand and the number,average length, channel slope and average basinarea of each order on the other. The relationshipshow that for streams of increasing order theaverage length and average drainage area of streamsof each order increases, but the number andchannelgradient decreases. The inverse geometricrelationship is displayed as a straight line when‘log Nu’ is plotted against stream order (Nu) (Fig.3). The number of first order streams (261)indicates mature stage of topography. Inthe maturestage, river widens its valley.

Stream length (Lu)

Stream length is measured for different orderof streams (Table-2). The stream length (Lu) ofparticular order (u) and total stream length (Lt) ofthe basin confirm Horton’s second law, (law of

Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters

Nu1

261 Rb1

4.42 Re 0.2Nu

259 Rb

23.93 Rc 0.29

Nu3

15 Rb3

5Nu

43 Rb

43

Nu5

1 Rb 4.08Lu

1(in Km)416.75 R

L2-11.8

Lu2 (in Km)

175.71 RL3-2

3.0Lu

3 (in Km)134.41 R

L4-30.9

Lu4(in Km)

245.39 RL5-4

16.0Lu

5 (in Km)159.95 R

L5.4

L (in Km) 106 RHO 1.32H (in m) 95 Fs 0.22h (in m) 71 Dd 0.59Sb 0.23 T 0.13

1/Dd 1.7

Source: Calculated by the author.Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Ami River Basin: Stream Order (Su), Stream Number (Nu), Stream Length (Lu), BasinLength (L), Bifurcation ratio (Rb), Stream length (R

L), RHO coefficient (RHO), Stream frequency (Fs), Drainage density (Dd),

Drainage texture (T), Elongation ratio (Re), Circulatory index (Rc).

y = ­0.603x + 3.56

R² = 0.996

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

0 1 2 3 4 5

Log

Nu

Stream order

Fig. 2: ‘log Nu’ plot against Stream order (Nu) (Horton’s first law)

stream length). It says that average length of streamof each different order in a drainage basin tendsclosely to approximate a direct geometric series inwhich the first term is average length of streamsof the first order. The cumulative mean lengths ofstream segments of successively higher order tend

to form a geometric progression beginning withthe cumulative mean length of the first ordersegments and increasing according to a constantlength ratio. Log values of stream length (Lu) andstream order (Nu) plotted on a graph showsgeometric linear relationship (Fig. 3).

Slope (Sb)

Slope is a morphometric parameter ofhydrological relevance. Steep slopes generallyhave high surface run-off, high sedimentproduction, and low infiltration rate. Gentle slopegradient of this basin (0.23m km-1) indicate, lowsurface run-off, low sediment production, andhigh infiltration rate.

Derived Parameters

Derived parameters are generated from basicparameters such as, basin relief (R), relief-ratio(Rr), bifurcation ratio (Rb), stream-length ratio(Rl), RHO coefficient (RHO), stream frequency(Fs), drainage density (Dd), drainage texture (T),and length of overland flow (Lg).

Basin Relief (R)

Basin relief is the difference in elevationbetween the highest and lowest point of the basin.It determines the slope and so the run-off andsediment transport. Low value of basin relief (24m) indicates low run-off, low sediment transport,and spreading of water within the basin.

Relief-Ratio (Rr)

Relief-ratio (Rr) is the ratio between basinrelief (R) and basin length (L) (Schumm, 1963).Itis a dimension less parameter and is directlyproportional to the surface run-off and intensityof erosion. It is 0.23for this basin and indicateslow to medium surface run-off, and low streampower for erosion.

Bifurcation ratio (Rb)

It is the ratio between numbersof streamsof any given order (Nu) to the number of streamsin the next higher order (Nu+ 1) (Horton, 1945)and reflects the degree of ramification of drainagenetwork. Bifurcation ratio varies from 3-5 fornatural drainage system. The bifurcation ratio ofthis basin ranges from maximum of 4.42 tominimum of 3.0 with mean bifurcation ratio of4.08, which falls in the normal range (3-5). Itshows that the drainages are natural and not muchinfluenced by geological structures.

Stream-length Ratio (RL)

The proportion of increase of mean lengthsof stream segments of two successive basin order

y = -0.068x + 2.582R² = 0.312

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

0 1 2 3 4 5

Log

Lu

Stream orderFig. 3: Stream length (Lu) ploted against Stream number (Nu)

(Horton’s second law)

is defined as length ratio (RL) and is calculated

according to the following equation –

When

Where, is the mean length of all stream

segments of a given order (µ), is the sum oflengths of all stream segments of a given orderand N

µis the number of stream segments of a given

order.It varies due to difference in slope andtopographic condition, between successive streamorders and has an important relationship with thesurface flow and erosional stage of the basin(Sreedevi et al. 2004). Although the theoreticalminimum possible ratio is 2, natural drainagesystem are characterized by bifurcation ratiobetween 3 and 5 (Strahler, 1964).Average R

L value

(5.4) for this basin shows mature stage of erosionand low surface run off.

RHO Coefficient (RHO)

It is the ratio of RL(stream length ratio) and

Rb(bifurcation ratio) and represents relationshipbetween drainage density and physiographicdevelopment of the basin (Horton, 1945). It alsoevaluates the water storage capacity of the basin.Higher values indicate high and low values indicatelow capacity for the storage of water. The RHOvalue (1.32) for this basin indicates low waterstorage capacity.

Stream Frequency (Fs)

Stream frequency (Fs)is defined as the ratiobetween total number of stream segment of allorders in a basin and the basin area. It is measureof the permeability of surface lithology, vegetation,and relief. It is 0.22 km-2 for this basin whichindicate highly permeable alluvium and low relief.

Drainage Density (Dd)

Drainage density (Dd)is the total length ofstream per unit area of drainage basin. Low valueof ‘Dd’ indicates highly permeable region (Horton,1945). It is 0.59 for this basin and reflects highlypermeable and easily erodible alluvium. It is mainlyinfluenced by the resistance of the bed material toerosion, and capacity of infiltration.

Drainage Texture (Rt)

It is the relative channel spacing in a fluvialdissected terrain and depends upon a number ofnatural factors such as climate, rainfall, vegetation,rocks, soil type, rate of infiltration, relief andevolutionary stage of the basin (Kale and Gupta,2001). It is calculated by multiplying drainagedensity with stream frequency. The drainagetexture (R

t) is coarse, interme-diate, fine, and ultra

fine (badland topography) if the values are < 4, 4,10, > 10, and> 15 respectively (Smith, 1950). Verycoarse drainage texture (T=0.13) for this basinindicates that the channels are far away from eachother.

Constant of Channel Maintenance (1/Dd)

Under a given set of geologic andhydroclimatic conditions, a minimum area is neededfor maintaining a river channel of a given length.This has been defined as the constant of channelmaintenance (Schumm, 1956). The reciprocal orinverse of drainage density is the constant ofchannel maintenance or the average distancebetween streams. The constant express thenumber of square km of a drainage basin requiredto maintain one km of channel (Kale and Gupta,2010). The basin’s constant of channelmaintenance is 1.7 km2. This indicates absence ofwell-defined channels due to lack of slopes orexcessive human modification of natural drainage.

Length of Overland Flow (Lg)

Length of overland flow (Lg)is defined as

half of the inverse of drainage density (Dd) andthe distance from the crest line at which theconcentration of flow occurs (Horton, 1945). Lgvalue 0.84 for this basin shows longer path forthe concentration of flow. It means long distanceis required for flow concentration and so peakdischarge takes place in the distal part of the river.

Shape Parameters

Shape parameters such as elongation ratio(Re), and circularity index (Re) indicate shapecharacteristics of the basin (Table 2).

Elongation Ratio (Re)

Elongation ratio (Re) is defined as the ratiobetween the diameter of a circle of the same areaas that of the basin (D) and basin length (L). Theelongation ratio (Re) value 0.2 indicates theelongated shape of the basin.

Circularity Index (Rc)

The Circularity index (Rc) is expressed asthe ratio of basin area (A) and area of a circle withthe same perimeter as that of the basin (P).

Rc= (Strahler, 1964)

Where, Rc is the basin circularity, P is basinperimeter, A is area of the basin and 4 is a constant.Unit circularity index (Rc) shows circular shapeof basin and indicate uniform infiltration with longtime for surplus water to reach the outlet orconfluence which further depends on geology,slope, and land cover (Reddy et al. 2004). TheCircularity index (Rc) value (0.29) indicateselongated shape, mature topography and supportdendritic pattern of drainage network.

Hydromorphological Inferences

Analysis of the basic parameters of the basinindicates about the dominance of first order stream(261), gentle slope gradient (0.23 m km-2), mature

stage of topography, low surface run off, lowsediment production and high infiltration rate.Similarly the derived parameters provideinformation about low value of relief (24 m), reliefratio (0.23), stream length ratio (5.4), low surfacerunoff, high infiltration rate, low stream powerfor erosion, low sediment transport, spreading ofwater within the basin, low water storage capacity,and concentration of peak discharge in the distalpart of this basin.

The shape parameters indicate that basin iselongated and river flow in a NW to SE directionhaving dendritic drainage pattern. The largernumber of first order streams indicate uniformlithology and gentle slope gradient (Kale and Gupta,2010), which indicates that the major portion ofprecipitation flow as surface run-off. Variation inthe size and order of streams are in direct responseto the physiography, precipitation, and climate.Precipitation in the form of rainfall is the onlysource of surface runoff. Due to lack of slope theprecipitation during monsoon in the catchment areaget adequate time for subsurface percolation/infiltration which increases the groundwater tableand after some time the infiltration decreases whichincreases the surface run-off and subsequentflooding.

All the streams and their drainage networkoriginating in the Gangetic alluvium shows a linearrelationship with a small deviation whenlogarithmic stream number is plotted against thestream order (Fig. 2 and 3). It shows that thisriver basin obeys Horton’s laws. This is impliedby the line inserted into the graphs, which confirmsthe linear relationships between stream number andstream order, and mean stream length and streamorder. The river network (stream order and streamnumber), slope, and surface relief tend to reach asteady state, when the channel morphology isadjusted to transmit the sediment and excess flowproduced based on lithology, climate, rainfall andother relevant parameters of the basin (Horton,1945; Strahler,1952; Mesa, 2006).

Gentle slope gradient (0.23m km-1)accompanied with low value of RHO coefficient(0.06) implies low water storage capacity andsubsequent spreading of water within the basin.The length of overland flow (Lg) indicate longerpath for the concentration of flow which explainthat the peak discharge takes place in thedownstream part of the river. Flood inundation isa recurrent problem on the lower part of the basineven with moderate to low rainfall upstream. Thus,these parameters indicate that caution should betaken and flood mitigation planning should be madeaccordingly.

The morphometric measurements are usedto predict the behavior of the basin during heavyrainfall that may generate unusual run-off andcreate floods (Perucca and Angilieri, 2010). Thelow values of drainage density, stream frequencyand drainage intensity also imply that surface run-off is not quickly removed from the basin, makingthe lower part of the basin more susceptible toflooding (Angillieri, 2008). Therefore proper waterresource management and recharging ponds shouldbe made for rain water harvesting and floodmitigation. The desiltation of the channel, diversioncanals, and construction of embankment capableof holding the peak discharge of the river aresuggestive measures.

Drainage network of the basin exhibits asmainly dendritic type, which indicates thehomogeneity in texture and lack of structuralcontrol and to understand variousterrainparameters such as nature of the bedrock,infiltration capacity, runoff, etc. Dendritic patternof drainage network is the definite response ofbasin to the complex physical processes such asclimate and hydrology (Garde, 2006) and iseffective to provide a sufficient superficial drainagewith dominance of lower order streams that flowdirectly in the principal collector or in upper orderstream.

Basin shape is important as it influences and

control the geometry of the stream network. Theelongated nature of the river basin has implicationon both hydrologic and geomorphic processes.The flow of water in elongated basins takes longertime for distribution (Angillieri, 2008).

The stream-length ratio and number of first-order stream reflect mature stage of topographicdevelopment and erosion. The rivers in the maturestage widen its valley. Vertical erosion is low ascompared to the lateral erosion. Laterally rivererodes on one side and deposit on another side.Therefore, in the mature stage it is reworking thesediments of the Ganga Plain.

The mean bifurcation ratio (4.08) indicatesthat the Ami River is a natural drainage system,which is not influenced by any geologicalstructures like lineaments and faults. It alsosuggested that the river valley is not tectonic inorigin. The dendritic drainage patterns of streamnetwork of the basin indicate the homogeneity intexture and lack of structural control. Thus, theriver Ami is originating in the Tarai region awayfrom the Himalayan tectonic regime, mainly rainfed and ground water fed within the plains and ithas natural drainage system, affected by slope andlocal relief.

Conclusions

The quantitative analysis of morphometricparameters isfound to be of immense utility in riverbasin evaluation, analysis of hydromorpholoy, soiland water conservation and natural resourcesmanagement.The morphometric analysis carriedout in the Ami River Basin shows that the basinhas low relief andelongated shape. The river Amiis a fifth order river basin with dominance of lowerorder streams, which is elongated in SE direction.The basin has gentle slope, low surface relief, lowsurface run-off, high infiltration rate, and low waterstorage capacity which indicates mature stage oftopographic evolution and erosion and reworksthe preexisting sediments of the Ganga Plain. This

rain fed as well as groundwater fed alluvial riveroriginating in the Tarai region of the Ganga plainhas natural drainage system. The water spreadswithin the basin and concentration of peakdischarge takes place in the distal part.

This analysis can be used for rivermanagement and river restoration works using sitesuitability analysis ofsoil and water conservationstructures development. Subsequently, theseparameters can be integrated with otherthematicinformation viz., land use/cover, landforms,drainage, slope, and soil in the GIS domainto arrive adecision regarding critical site for riverconservation and flood mitigation.

Acknowledgement

This study is a part of the major researchproject supported by University GrantsCommission (UGC), New Delhi. Their financialsupport is thankfully acknowledged. The authorsare also thankful to Dr. Dhruv Sen Singh, Professorof Geology, Center of Advanced Study in Geology,University of Lucknow and Professor V.N.Sharma, Department of Geography, BHU, Varanasifor valuable suggestions and cooperation.

Angillieri, Y. E. (2008) Morphometric Analysis ofColanguil River Basin and Flash FloodHazard, San Juan, Argentina. Environ. Geol.,v.55 (I), pp.107-111, DOl: 10.1007/s00254-007-09692.

Bhardwaj, V., Singh, D.S. and Singh, A.K. (2010a)Water Quality of the ChhotiGandak Riverusing Principal Component Analysis,Ganga Plain, India. Jour. Earth. Sys. Sci., Vol.119 (1): 1l7-l27.

Bhardwaj, V., Singh, D.S. and Singh, A.K. (2010b)Environmental Repercussions of sugarcane industries on the Chhoti Gandak riverbasin, Ganga Plain, India. Environ. Mon.Asses., Vol. 171: 321-344, DOI 10.1007/s

1066l-009-l28l-2.

Environment Agency (2003) River Habitat Surveyin Britain and Ireland, Field Survey GuidanceManual, available at

Eze, E.B. and Efiong, J. (2010) MorphometricParameters of theCalabar River Basin:Implication for Hydrologic Processes.Jour.Geogr. Geol., Vol. 2(1): 18-26.

Garde, R. J. (2006) River Morphology. New AgeInternational Pvt. Ltd. Publication: 1l-31

Horton, R.E. (1945) Erosional Development ofStreams and their Drainage Basins, Bulletinof the Geological Society of America, 56: 275-370.

Jain, V and Sinha, R. (2003) River system in theGangetic plains and their comparison withthe Siwaliks: A review, Current Science, 84 (8):1025-1033.

Kale, V.S. and Gupta, A. (2010) Introduction toGeomorphology, Universities Press, Hydera-bad: 82-101.

Mesa, L.M. (2006) Morphometric analysis of asubtropical Andeanbasin (Tucuma’n,Argentina). Environ. Geol., Vol. 50: 1235-1242.

Perucca, L.P. and Angilieri, Y.E. (2010) Morpho-metric Characterization of del Mol1e BasinApplied to the Evaluation of Flash FloodsHazard, Iglesia Department, San Juan,Argentina. Quaternary Internatio-nal, doi:10.10 16/j.quaint.2010.08.007.

Prajapti, U. (2010) Eco Management of a TropicalRiver Ami, Ph.D. thesis submitted toDepartment of Botany, D.D.U. GorakhpurUniversity, Gorakhpur.

Schumm, S.A. (1956) Evolution of Drainage systemsand slope in badlands at Perth Amboy, NewJersey , Bulletin, Geological Society ofAmerica, Vol. 67: 597-646.

Singh, D. S. and Awasthi, A. (2011): Implicationof Drainage basin Parameters ofChhotiGandak River, Ganga Plain, India,

Journal of the Geological Society of India, Vol.78(4):370-378.

Singh, I.B. (1992) Geological Evolution of GangaPlain – AnOverview. Jour. Palaeont. Soc.India, Vol. 4l: 99-137.

Sinha, R. and Friend, P.P. (1994) River Systemsand their Sediment Flux, Indo GangeticPlains, Northern Bihar, India. Sedimento-logy, Vol. 41: 825-845.

Sinha, R. and Jain, V. (1998): Flood Hazards ofNorth Bihar Rivers, Indo-Gangetic Plains.Mem. Geol. Soc. India, No. 41: 27-52.

Strahler, A.N. (1953) Hypsometric Analysis ofErosional Topography, Bulletin of theGeological Society of America, 63: 1117-42.

Strahler, A.N. (1964) Quantitative Geomor-phology of Drainage Basin and ChannelNetworks, inY.T. Chow (Ed.) Handbook ofApplied Hydrology. McGraw Hill Book Co.,New York: 4-76.

Vishwakarma, P .K. and Pandey, G. (2013) AStudy on Water Quality of Ami River inUttar Pradesh, International Journal ofEngineering Research & Technology, Vol.2(12): 3000-3007.

* Associate Professor, Department of Geography D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009, Email:nkrana.in@gmail.com

** Junior Research Fellow (JRF), (U.G.C. Major Research Project.

Introduction

Mankind has endured rapid expansion, from2.5 billion to 6 billion since 1950. Sixty percent ofthis gain has been in urban areas, particularly inthe developing world, where the urban populationhas increased more than six-fold in only 50 years.The urban population of the world’s two poorestregion South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa isexpected to double (UN-HABITAT 2014). One thirdof the urban population do not have access toadequate housing, lack of access to water andsanitation. Perhaps most of the slums are growingwith unmet needs for space, education, health,and jobs can lead to social problems, furtherundermining security in urban areas. (UN-HABITAT, 2006). A slum is an area characterisedby inadequate access to safe water; inadequateaccess to sanitation and other infrastructure; poorstructural quality of housing; overcrowding andinsecure residential status. According to UN-

HABITAT, a slum is characterized by lack ofdurable housing, insufficient living area, and lackof access to clean water, inade-quate sanitationand insecure tenure. Around 33 percent of theurban popula-tion of the world or about 863 millionpeople live in slums (UN-HABITAT, 2012). Theproportion of urban population living in slums ishighest in Sub-Saharan Africa (61.7%), followedby South- Asia (35%), South east Asia (31%), EastAsia (28.2%), West Asia (24.6%), Oceania(24.1%), Latin America and Caribbean (23.5%),and North Africa (13.3%) (UN-HABITAT, 2010)

In India, over 65 million people live in slumsin 2011 which increased from 52 million (2001).According to Census 2011, a slum has beendefined as “residential areas where dwellings areunfitted for human habitation (Census of India,2011). The average household are no larger thanan average urban Indian household, with 4.7 familymembers. The child sex ratio (0-6 years) of an

Assessment of Multi-dimensionalSlums in Agra City

SRABANI SANYAL* AND ANSHU CHANDRA**

ABSTRACT

The rapid urbanization in South and East Asia has created megacities of unprecedented size and complexitythat present new challenges in providing a decent environment for the poor. According to Global Report onHuman Settlement, 43 percent of the urban population in developing regions lives in slums. In least developedcountries, 78 percent are slum dwellers. Approximately 1.3 billion people in developing countries live on $1.25 a day or less. The slum population is reported to be 52 million which increased to 65 million by 2011,with a growth rate of 25 per cent. According to World Health Organization urban poverty is a critical pathwayto ill health inequities, which has to be addressed as an urgent public issue. This poses serious risks andchallenges to health of slum dwellers at an unprecedented magnitude. Keeping in view the present challengesin Agra city an attempt has been made to assess slums in terms of their extent and form. The paper alsoattempts to determine the forces underlying the development of slums and its improvement.

Key words: Slum, Slum Profiling, Infrastructural Facilities, Slum Assessment.

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika (Dec., 2015), Vol. 45(2) : 22-30ISSN 0042-1618

average slum household is 922 girls for every1,000 boys, compared to 905 for urban India.Scheduled Castes (SCs) are over-represented inslums, with 1 out of every five slums residentsbelonging to SC (Singh 2011).

Maharashtra has the highest slum populationwith 4.6 million followed by Andhra Pradesh withover 10 million in slums, and West Bengal andUttar Pradesh with over 6 million slum residents(census of India). In comparison to other states,Uttar Pradesh has slum population of over 62 lakh.The estimated slum population of Agra city is about8.41 lakh (2011 census) which is about 50 percentof the total population of the city (CSUP, 2012).

Objective

Keeping in view the present state of slumsand poor living condition of slum dwellers in Agracity, an attempt has been made to study with thefollowing broad objectives:

1. To assess slums in terms of theirextent and form in Agra city

2. To determine the factors under-lying the emergence and shaping thedevelopment of slums in the studyarea.

Study Area

The Agra Municipal Corporation(26° 44' Nto 27° 25' N and 77° 26' E to 78° 32' E) is spreadover an area of 120.57 Km2, of which 20 km2 isunder the Cantonment, Swami Bagh and DayalBagh municipali-ties (fig 1). According to Censusof India, the total population of Agra MunicipalCorporation was 12 lakh (2001), which increasedto 16 lakh by (2011) at a growth rate of 32.2percent (CSUP 2012).

There are 417 slums in Agra city, found insixmajor area or clusters namely Lohamandi,Rakabganj, BunduKatra-Gwalior &Deori Road,Tajganj, Shahganj and Trans-Yamuna areain Agra

city. In addition, there are a substantial numbersof slums in other parts of the city. About 20 percentof slums are found in the Trans-Yamuna area. Incontrast, the slums in Rakabganj area, part of theold city, are highly congested with high density ofpopulation. The Trans-Yamuna and BunduKatraareahave largelyrural settlements havingtransformed into new slums due to urban expansion(DUDA 2011).

Methodology

The present study is conducted based onsecondary as well as primary data generated fromthe field and through relevant publications andreports. Information is also collected from differentGovernmental and non-governmental organizationslike, Census of India, National Sample Surveyorganization (NSSO), City Development Plan(CDP) JNNURM and District Urban Develop-mentAuthority (DUDA) and also from published andunpublished sources. Slum assessment has beenconducted based on the process adopted byDUDA. Following are the steps for slumassessment:-

Step 1:Identification of slums

Step 2:Slum profiling

Step 3:Assessment of slums

Step 1:

IDENTIFICATION OF SLUMS: Thecharacteristics of a slum includes crime,unemployment, suicide rate, low level education,low level income and low quality housing.According to Census of India, slum areas can bebroadly categories based on the following criteria:

1. All specified areas notified as ‘slum’by State/Local Government and UTAdministration under any act;

2. All areas recognized as ‘slum’ byState/Local Government and UT

Administration which may have notbeen formally notified as slum underany act;

3. A compact area of at least 300populations or about 60-70 house-holds of poorly built congestedtenements, in unhygienic environ-ment usually with inadequateinfrastructure and lacking in propersanitary and drinking water facilities(Dudhvala, 2012)

Agra being a global tourist destina-tion,offers huge potential for developing into a strongcentre based on tourism-centric economy. The

major hurdle in achieving this goal is the poorsanitary conditions and unplanned development thathave inhibited the realization. The situation getsexacerbated due to high concentration of slumsand lack of action oriented programmes towardsimproving their environmental condition. There areabout 417 slums in Agra city, out of which 213are notified and 204 are non-notified based on typeof slums and population of slums areas.

Step 2:

SLUM PROFILING: Slum assessmentstarts with slum analysis followed by slum rating,bio-metric survey which leads to policy revisionsand incentives to support the community. Slum

Fig. 1: Location Map

analysis is based on the socio-economiccharacterisation, livelihood and physiographicindicators. These factors can be further classifiedinto general and household factors. The generalfactor focuses on physical location of slums, itstotal area population, number of households natureof land ownership, whereas, household factorsincludes basic infrastructural facilities such aswater supply, sanitation, electrification etc.(Table1). Slum profiling in Agra city has been done basedon major indicators like types of slums, itspopulation and infrastructural facilities.

I. Location and types of slums

There are 90 electoral wards in AgraMunicipal Corporation and for the purpose ofrevenue collection Agra Municipal Corporation hasbeen divided into eight divisions. The eight divisionsare Haripar-vat, Lohamandi North, LohamandiSouth, Rakabganj, Chatta, Kotwali, and Tajganj.It is clear from the table that out of 417 slums inAgra city, 213 are notified with maximum in wardno 17 and 204 are non-notified, with maximum inward no 37. There slums have mushroomed alongthe bank of River Yamuna.

II. Population

India, with 1027 million population, haveapproximately 28 percent or 285 million livingin urban centres and is expected increase toabout 40 percent by 2021(GOUP 2006). The

total slum population of Agra slum is 8,25,344,which is 49 percent of total population of Agracity.The table 2 depicts the range of populationin slums of Agra city. It is clear from the tablethat most of the slum areas have populationranging between 2500, of which 168 slums arenotified and 139 slums are non-notified. Onlyone notified slum has population above 12501-15000.

Out of the total notified slums in Agra citymajority of the population (57 %) belongs toScheduled Caste category, whereas, 34 percentare Other Backward Caste, 8 percent of Generalcategory and only 1 percent is Schedule Tribe. Innon-notified slums also it has been observed that49 percent belongs to Other Backward Caste,8percent in general category,40 percent ScheduleCaste and only 2 percent are Schedule Tribes.Overall, in both notified and non-notified slums,themajority of population belongs to Schedule Castepopulation indicating wide differences in their socialand economic condition from the urban populationof Agra city

III. Infrastructural facilities

Agra city has number of low income andhighly dense areas, which mostly lack basicservices as observed during survey. These slumsare also in very poor condition. About 49 percentof the total population live in slums (CSP 2010).Economic activities in Agra city are markets for

Factors Variables

Location Ward- wise, zoneType Notified, Non-notifiedPopulation S.C; ST; OBC; GeneralHome Type Residence, cum-other residenceOwnership Owned, rentedDrinking water supply Treated, untreatedToilet facilities In the premises, outside

Source: Primary Survey

sandstone and marble of Rajasthan. It has craftsindustries; especially stone carving, toy making,Zari making, shade making etc. There are 2.89lakh male workers and 30 thousand femaleworkers. The basic infrastructural facilities in theslum of Agra city has been evaluated on the basisof the following criteria.

i. Condition and type of houses

Poor housing and living conditions in slumsof developing countries are characterised bycomplex problems such as shortage of housing,sanitation, environmental pollution, moral andsocial attitudes and values and morbidity. Largemajority of slums in Agra city are situated alongnalas and railway lines characterized by poorhousing condition. Housing structure is generallypucca (concrete) in dilapidated state and needs up-gradation. Housing in most of the slum (94.4%) is

pucca with brick walls and Plain Cement Concrete(PCC) flooring. Of the remaining, 3.5 percent issemi kuchha and 2 percent kuchha (CSP 2010).

The conditions of residential and residence-cum other use houses is shown in table 3. Thereare 71,688 slum households whereas (census2011) of which 55 per cent households live in goodcondition, 43 percent households are inliveablecondition while 2 per cent households are living indilapidated condition. They do not have even theirbasic needs.

ii. Status of Ownership

If we look about ownership of a personalhouse in slums, in total approx 62,005 out of 71,688passes their of house ownership and to have theright to passes the house, land, or something elsethat is legal passion of something usually somethingwith and valuable for a persons.

Range Notified Slums Non -notified Total

0-2500 139 168 3072501-5000 52 27 795001-7500 15 8 237501-10000 5 0 510001-12500 2 0 212501-15000 0 1 1

Total 213 204 417

Source:Census of India 2011 and Personal Computation.

Type of House Condition of Census Houses Total(In %) Households

Good Livable Dilapidated

Residence 38,165 29,361 1,549 69,075Residence-cum-other use 1,321 1,254 38 2,613

Total 39486 30,615 1,587 71688

Source: Census of India 2011and Personal Computation

Above table shows that about 85 per centof total slum household have own houses, 12 percent are living in rented houses 3 per cent liveeither in open area or in temporary multishifts.According to household size,(1-3) member, fewerslums have their own houses while rent of theslums have maximum household size 6-8 membersdo not have own.

iii. Drinkingwater supply

In Agra, more than 29 percent slums do nothave access to municipal water facility. Theydepend on water sources like hand or submersiblepumps about 32 slums (7.6%) do not have pipedwater supply and relay on water tankers. Rest ofthe slums are served through community standposts or street taps connected to piped networksupplies (CSP 2010). Nearly, 56.72 percenthouseholds have private water connections. Thereis no metered water supply in the entire city. Thequality of water drawn from River Yamuna is poorand is considered unfit for drinking and cooking

purposes. However, water supply is generallylimited to 2-6 hours in a day (GOUP 2006).

The table 5 indicates that most of thehouseholds 76 percent use tape water from treatedsources within the premises, whereas 13 per centhouseholds was tape water from treated sourcefrom nearby 2 per cent households resides withlack of tape water supply from treated source.

The other sources of drinking water in slumsof Agra city are well, hand pump, tube well, spring,river, tank, etc. out of the total household54percent, uses hand pump, followed by tube well40 percent and other sources. These sources aregenerally obscured to be within the premises 34percent. (Table 6)

iv. Sanitation

Rapid urbanization industrialization andexponential growth in population coupled with highstandard of living and uncontrolled migration tourban centre have exerted a tremendous pressure

Household size Ownership status TotalHousehold

Owned Rented Others

1-3 8,299 1,928 294 10,5214-5 20,501 3,464 495 24,4606-8 24,030 2,511 413 26,9549+ 9,175 470 108 9,754

Total 62005 8373 1310 71688

Source: Census of India 2011 and Personal Computation

Location Treated Un-treated Total Household

Within the premises 31,964 2,102 34,066Near the premises 5,195 1,256 6,451Away 634 527 1,161

Total 37,793 3,885 41,678

Source:Census of India 2011and Personal Computation

on sanitary facilities. This includes drinking watersupply, waste water, disposal system, open drainsand sewage, toilet, solid waste disposal systemand adequate ventilation etc. Most of the slums inAgra city are characterized by poor sanitation,drainage and water facilities. According toJNNURM report, Agra city is categorized underblack (113 rank) indicating need of improvementSanitation is one of the major challenge with only32 – 40 percent served by sewerage and wastewater treatment system, whereas, opens defectionis widely prevalent and result into underminingenvironmental sanitation (CSP 2010)

Above table indicates poor condition ofsanitary facilities in slums of Agra city. With total85 percent households, 82 percent householdshave latrine facility within their house while 18percent do not have any type such facility in theirhouses 13 percent for open defecation 4 percentdispose in open drain. (Table7)

Step 3:

SLUM ASSESSMENT: Poor living conditioncharacterize the 204 notified and 213 non-notifiedslums in Agra that contain over half the city’s

population. Slum population in 2001 estimated at0.5 million has risen to 0.8 million by 2011 in these417 slum-like settlements in slums in particular donot have access to basic of sanitation and municipalservices with abysmal infrastructure facilities(CBUD-PMU 2008). Policy on services in slumsshows indifference resulting in opens isoverflowing of drains stagnant waste water, opendefecation and waste disposal. Not surprising Agrascores only 37 percent in the last Sanitation Surveyand was a first generation city for renewal underthe Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban RenewalMission (JNNURM).

Based on the above socio-economic conditionof slums in Agra city, they can be assessed andcompared taking into consideration the followingcriteria.

Location: Priority is given to slums near to roadand rail-side and non private land. Slums havegrown mostly in open areas so dwellers live freelyas per their choice. These are crowded due tounawareness and unplanned colony. There are alsoplaces in Agra city where slums are denselypopulated. Large number of slums in Agra city islocated along open nalas and railway lines passing

Sources Location TotalHousehold

Within the Near thepremises premises Away

Covered well 112 63 32 207Un-covered well 44 14 2 60Hand pump 7,667 6,852 1,852 16371Tube well/Borehole 10,425 1,341 272 12038Spring - 9 1 10River / Canal - 15 1 16Tank/ Pond/Lake - 44 111 155Others - 513 640 1153

Total 18,248 8,851 2,911 30,010

Source: Census of India 2011and Personal Computation.

through Lohamandi, Shahganj and Idgah area.

Topography: The priority is given highest fordesperation sites which are in risk of flood,disasters etc. Priority is given to the slums locatedin private land and semi government or localauthority land. Here the NWCMC land is given thehighest priority. More that 90 percent of land underslum occupation in Agra city belongs to the StateGovernment and are given to communities on longterm lease or Patta.However, since residentscontinue to occupy these lands, they are nowconsidered to be under community ownership.

Infrastructural facilities: Slums in Agra city are

inhabited primarily by poor, characterized by sub-standard living condition, overcrowding andsocially disorganized, infrastructural resourcesmaking living conditions in these slums highlyunhygienic and disease-prone.

Health: Access to basic services in each slum isa major determinant of health well-being. Sanitationhas a strong relation not only with personal hygienebut also with human dignity and well-being, publichealth, nutrition and education. There are manyslums in Agra city which do not have primary healthfacilities. The slum dwellers are driven to theperiphery of the urban area where living conditionsare highly degraded.

Type of latrine facility TotalHousehold

Within the premises Piped sewer system 22,023Septic tank 31,015Other system 2,461With slab/ventilated improved pit 957Without slab/ open pit 248Night soil disposed into open drain 2,221Night soil removed by human 232Night soil serviced by animal 194

Total 59,351

Not within the premises Public latrine 3,083Open 9,254

Total 12,337

Total 71688

Source: Census of India, 2011 and Personal Computation.

Type of slums Vulnerability index

Most Moderately Less Total

Notified slums 90 88 37 215Non-notified slums 93 85 0 178

Total 183 173 37 393

Source : USAID, 2005

On the basis of above mentioned criteria,DUDA has classified the slums in Agra city intorecognised and unrecogni-zed.Out of the total 393slums, there are 215 recognized and 178unrecognized slums which are further categorisedinto most vulnerable, moderately vulnerable andless vulnerable.

Conclusion

The multidimensional slums of Agra cityneeds urgent attention. The question raises, ifseveral governmental planning and programs arerunning bothby state and central government, i.e.;Swachhata Abhiyan, Indira AwasYojana, Toiletprogram, MANREGA, JNNURM etc., but still theimprovement is on a very slow rate. It directlyimplies that the programmes related for urbanpoor/ slums are not reaching fully to the neediest.Therefore, there is a need to study the reasonsbehind slums not getting improved. It is due tounplanned urbanization, slum households in Agracity have lack of infrastructural facilities such aslatrine facilities and availability of safe drinkingwater. The condition is poor in context to medicalfacilities which are unreachable. Thus, there is aneed to make best planning for the progress ofurban slums of Agra city.

1. CBUD-PMU, (2008) Capacity Building forUrban Development-Project ManagementBoard Reforming Agra by Re-imagingthrough Slum up-Gradation, Best PracticesConsidered Under Fund, Agra MunicipalCorporation.

2. GOUP, (2006) City Development Plan ofAgra in the State of Uttar Pradesh UnderJnnuram, Urban Development Department,Government of Uttar Pradesh Agra Nigam.

3. Census of India, (2001) PCA.

4. Census of India, (2011) PCA.5. CSP, (2010) City Sanitation Plan of Agra,

Administrative Staff College of India,Hyderabad.

6. CSUP, (2012) City Wide Slum Upgrading Planfor the heritage City of Agra, EnvironmentalAssessment of Slums in Tajganj Area, Agra,Centre for Urban and Regional Excellenge,Delhi.

7. DUDA, (2011) District Urban DevelopmentAuthority, Agra.

8. Dudhvala, H., (2012) Assessment of SocialSecurity and Quality of Life Of Urban PoorThrough Slum Permanent Record System,International Journal of Social Science &Interdisciplinary Research, Vol. 1.

9. JNNURM, (2013) Urban Initiatives PeerExperience and Reflective Learning,National Institute of Urban Affairs, Vol. 6.

10. Singh. C, (2011) Centre for GlobalDevelopment Research, Planning Commissionof India, New Delhi.

11. UN-HABITAT, (2006) State of the World’sCities 2006: The Millennium DevelopmentGoals and Urban Sustainability, 30 Years ofShaping the Habitat Agenda. London:Earth scan for UN-Habitat.

12. UN-HABITAT, (2012) State of the World’sCities 2012: The Millennium DevelopmentGoals and Urban Sustainability,UnitedNations Human Settlements Programme,For a Better Urban Future, Nairobi, Kenya.

13. UN-HABITAT, (2014) Voices from Slums,United Nations Human Settlements Programme,For a Better Urban Future, Nairobi, Kenya.

14. UN-HABITAT, (2010) State of the WorldCities 2010/2011, Bridging the Urban Divide,United Nations Human SettlementsProgramme, Nairobi, Kenya.

15. USAID-EHP, (2005) Urban Health Program,United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment, Situational Analysis Report ofAgra City, for Guiding Urban Health Program.

* Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, email:srabani72@gmail.com

** Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, email: binni723@gmail.com

Introduction

The low water-availability in the arid or semi-arid state of Rajasthan is an endemic feature ofthe state. The state has to wage regular strugglewith this adverse situation. The issue becomes evenmore critical when rate of fluctuation is relativelyhigher with other anthropogenic activities in thearea like encroachment, erosion, urbanisation etc.Unplanned urbanisation and development ofgigantic infrastructure becomes hurdle in the naturalflow of stream or flowing water, which ultimatelydisturb the recharge process of ground water aswell as surface water bodies in the area (Mehta,2013). This process results in conversion of waterpotential body/land into to non-water body orurban land uses. This in turn damages toenvironment and ecology of urban space and its

periphery. As the urban area expands, the naturalhydrological features like lakes, nallah, reservoirand water bodies are encroached by the people(Rathore, 2005). Another important issue is aboutfood risk intensity in the low-lying areas of thestream and water bodies. Hence, this processbreaks the geo-hydrological system and creates apermanent water scarcity or recurrent flooddamage zone in the urban area. This study purportsto understand the anthropogenic activities thathave impact on water bodies of Jaipur urban areadue to change in urban morphology encroachmentand unscientific land use plan.

Methodology

The study is based on primary as well assecondary sources of data collected from various

Urbanisation, Water Stress and its Managementin Urban Space of Jaipur, Rajasthan

DR. MURAREE LAL MEENA*

ABSTRACT

The unplanned growth of urban centres is a serious obstacle in the path of sustainable urban developmentpolicy. The Jaipur city is surrounded by hills, intermountain valleys, pediments and sandy plain. In northernand eastern parts, the Aravali hill ranges, trending north, east-south, west alternating with intermountainvalleys constitutes significant signatures of its physiography. These hills provided a natural drainage systemto the city area. The hill terraces are dotted with encroachment and unauthorised construction of urbancolonies. These lands are often parts of watershed or catchment of water bodies (i.e., lakes and ponds). As theurban areas spread and the natural drainage area disturbed and people start encroaching upon them. Hence, theprocess on one hand breaks the natural water system and on the other hand creates a permanent artificial andflood damage zone in the urban area of the city. This urbanisation process has resulted in the conversion ofagricultural fertile land into non-agricultural land uses in the city and its periphery. The study aims to assessthe effect on water resource due to urban encroachments, unscientific land use planning, growth of urbansettlement and emergence of slums area. It also deals with the developments of water management systemparticularly the ways the city is related to the surrounding system.

Keywords: Water stress, Urbanisation, Water resource Management, Urban Space, Drainage anddevelopment.

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government and non-government offices andorganizations. Ground/local level observation,survey and household samples at micro level havebeen generated to primary data for evaluation ofmanagement and depletion of water bodies’ masterplan of the Jaipur city through Jaipur DevelopmentAuthority, Jaipur. Present study is also based onthe available secondary data base Central GroundWater Board Jaipur (Centre), State IrrigationDepartment Jaipur, State Ground Water Board,Jaipur, State Agriculture Department, Jaipur, statedepartment of planning, forest, horticulture aremajor offices from where supportive informationhave been gathered.

Objectives

The objective of the present study is to assessthe anthropogenic influences on water stress onurban water bodies and their management. Thestudy aims at valuing the contribution made byurban and sub-urban water bodies to support andimprove the quality of life of the local peopleresiding in adjoining areas. Further, study also dealtwith sustainable management of water bodies andparticipation of local people.

The Study Area

Jaipur urban area falls between 26°47’ to27° 02’ North Latitudes and 75° 36’ to 75° 55’Eastlongitudes, situated almost in the centre of theJaipur district, Rajasthan. It covers an area of about470 km2. The Jaipur urban has the parts ofSanganer (45.5%), Jhotwara (42.5%) and Amer(12%) blocks. Jhotwara block which constitutesthe major part of the urban city has a populationdensity of 2747 persons/km2.

Geomorphologically, the urban area ischaracterized by sandy-plains, hilly terrain,intermountain-valleys and pediments. Major partof the urban area is covered by the alluvial sandyplains. In the northern and eastern parts, theAravalli Hill Ranges, trending north east-south to

west alternating with intermountain-valleys,constitute significant signatures of physiographic(Barnes etal., 2001). There is no major riverdrainage system in the Jaipur urban Area. TheAmanishah ka Nalla and associated streamlets areephemeral in nature and merge with the Dhundriver, a tributary of Morel River (out of urban area).

Geographical Setting of Jaipur Urban Space

Climate

Jaipur has a semi-arid climate, receiving over640 mm of rainfall annually but major patch ofrains occur in the monsoon months between Juneto September. Temperature remains relatively highthroughout the year, with the summer month ofApril to early July having average daily temperaturesof around 31°C. During the monsoon there arefrequent heavy rains and thunder-storms. Thewinter months of November to February are mildand pleasant, with average temperatures rangingfrom 14°C to 19°C. There are however occasionalcold waves that lead to temperatures near freezingin the Mavath season.

Drainage

The natural drainage of the Jaipur city isdecisively affected by its local terrain. The city issurrounded by the Nahargarh hills (588 mt) in thenorth-east and Jhalana dungari in the east theseare part of Aravalli ranges. South and western partof the city is also has hillocks but they are disconti-nuous and isolated. The southern extend of thecity is open to plain stretches far and wide towardSanganer. The general slop of the city is fromnorth to south and south-east. All seasonal streamsflow in this slop. This drainage shows intense gullyerosion in the northern hilly slop. Amanishah kaNallah originates from Jaigarh hills and finally joinsin Dhund river, they form a fork like drainagepattern in the confluence zone where major partof city is situated (Jethoo, 2010). There is anotherdrainage system in the north foothills which now-

a-days discharges the city’s waste effluents intoan artificially impounded lake called Lal Mahal orMan Sagar. Jal Mahal is a large cesspool now ofeffluent waste water changing its profile frommuddy water mixed with sludge during rainyseason to a dried puddle surrounded by parchedearthen floor during summer.

Water Resource Availability for Urban Areaof Jaipur

Jaipur is one of the earliest planned cities ofIndia. It is located in the semi-desert lands ofRajasthan. At present, Jaipur is a major businesscentre with all requisites of a metropolitan city.TheCity with a population of approximately 3.12million and a growth rate of about 4.2% annually,depends mostly (97%) on ground water resourcesfor its potable water supply (JMC, 2012). Thecurrent rate of ground water abstraction is not

sustainable. The water table throughout the entireurban area has fallen dramatically over the pastthree decades and continues to decline at analarming rate.

The Jaipur water supply problems are wellknown and the State Government has made longterm plans to augment the Jaipur water suppliesby developing sustainable surface water resourcesin the region. The Bisalpur dam and reservoir,which is located on the Banas river about 125 kmsouth west of Jaipur City, wasconstructed in themid-2000s by the Government of Rajasthan, forthe purpose of providing potable water supplies toJaipur City area along with Ajmer City and othertowns of the nearby regions (Rathore, 2005). Themajor rivers passing through the Jaipur districtare Banas and Banganga. Ground water resourcesto the extent of about 28.67MCM are available inthe district. Although serious drought is rare, poor

water management and exploitation of groundwaterwith extensive tube-well systems threatensagriculture in some areas.

Urban Expansion and Water Stress

The drainage pattern of Jaipur urban spaceis governed by physiographic characteristics ofnatural landscape and geomorphology of the area.After the independence due to rapid populationgrowth the city has expanded from9.6 km2(1951)to 470 km2in the master plan (2011) earmarkedthe notified urban area of Jaipur city. Of the totalareas, 40%is urbanised and rest of 60% (231 km2)is declared as the green belt area. The Jaipur urbanarea has the parts of Sanganer (45.5%), Jhotwara(42.5%) and Amer (12%) blocks. Jhotwara blockwhich constitutes the major part of the urban cityhas a population density of 2745 persons/km2. Withthe increase in the rate of urbaniza-tion thepopulation of the city also increased many foldduring the last decades (Rathore et al, 2011). Thedecadal growth rate of population is highest duringthe decade of 1951 as 65.59 % followed by 62.77% during 1991 to 2001 and 29.45% during 2001to 2011 (Table 1)(JDA, 2013).

Year Population Decadal Growth(in %)

1951 2,91,130 65.591961 4,03,444 38.581971 6,15,258 52.501981 9,77,165 58.821991 14,58,438 49.262001 23,74,000 62.772011 30,73,350 29.45

Source: Jaipur Development Authority (JDA) Report No. 34/

M, 2013.

In early stage the expansion of urban areawas restricted up to foothills only.Therefore,drainage system was not affected. When the

expansion took place, people encroaching, fillingand blocking streams the whole drainage systemof the city was disturbed (Cheng and Masser,2003). Many natural streams were used to dumpthe garbage and many streams are blocked/encroached for the construction purpose due toover urban expansion. It has a direct bearing orstress on water availability.

Water stress: Causes and Consequences

Degradation of Hills and Water Bodies

The urban setting of the city is hillocks, evenwithin the town. These hills bends provided anatural scenic view to the urban settlement. Thepopulation pressure has adversely affected thesehillocks and these are almost barren present theseare almost barren (Meyer and Turner, 1996). Thehill terraces are full of encroachment andunauthorized urban landscape constructions.Removal of vegetation due to deforestation on theslopes and due to stone quarrying from the hillslopes of Jhalana Doongari, the quarrying hasincreased the degree of slope of hills causingdeterioration in aesthetic view of hills and affectedaesthetic beauty and environment. The problemof soil erosion has accelerated regularly, and dueto encroachment by the urban constructionactivities.

Lowering Ground Water

After compilation and comparison amongfield survey and governmental records, it showsthat within last two decades 1990 to 2011 (20years) of urbanisation, construction of buildings,roads etc. by encroaching upon water bodies(special during summer season) agricultural land,forest land, pastureland and open land has takenplace at an unprecedented rate.

The open areas were useful places to soakthe rainwater and percolate it down to rechargethe aquifers of the area. Hence, the city expansionhas shrunk the vacant land or drain surfaces

thereby affecting the rainwater supply to waterbearing rocks. The decline of aquifers has nowlowered the water table. According the CWCreport, 2014 during the last eight years the watertable has sunk by more than 1.2 meter per yearinto tube wells, thus the city is in the ‘Dark Zone’of water potential (Rathore, 2005). This is alarmingsituation to the ecology of the study area.Encroach-ments upon the wasteland, forest andpasture lands by building residential and industrialareas in Subhash Chowk, Vishwa-karma IndustrialArea, Jwahar Nagar, Vidhyadhar Nagar and AmbaBari has provide to be suicidal in these ecologicalscenario of the city and damage caused isirreversible. Not only the water table sunk downin these areas, but also the natural abodes ofwilderness have been lost forever(Chopra, 2003).Now, all these areas are the most potential sourceof ground water recharge but the loss of rainwaterreplenishments to the subsoil layer is having aconstant telling effect to the extent that thevegetation cover and water resources will soonvanish or depleting.

Conclusion and Suggestion

To augment and restore the urban waterresource, this study shows is required that increasein the area of drainage surface, crop and grassland. Maximum urban expansion is found on fertileagricultural land in northern west and south-eastdirection of the Jaipur urban area.Therefore, cropland, scrub/grass land and waste land is showingdecreasing trend. This changing pattern is alarmfor natural environment.In this study there aremore than 21anicuts in the marked urban territory(Narain et al., 2005). Their maintenance is verypoor and urban area is facing acute water shortage.Hence, their maintenance should be ensured.Recently government of Rajasthan has showninterest to revive them in the name of water resourceconservation. Some suggestions to augment andrestore the urban water resources:

Ground Water Resource Conserva-tion: Due

to urbanization and industriali-zation most of theJaipur urban area ground water system is over-exploited. Recharge to ground water is alsodiminishing because of the shrinkage in the openarea.The ever increasing pace of development ofground water has also resulted in declining trendsin water level thereby causing decrease in the yieldof the wells.

Surface and Sub-surface Anicuts/ Check dams:In order to arrest and recharge monsoon runoffrain water construct sub-surface anicuts or checkdams across the ephemeral Amanishah Ka Nallhaand its associated streamlets. Construction of suchstructures is likely to result in additional rechargeof ground water.

Artificial Recharge from Paved area: Artificialrecharge from paved area runoff like as roads,footpath. They can be recharged by constructingtrenches, improving the existing storm waterdrainage. This can give additional recharge of about30-35 Million Cubic Metre annually.

Rain-water Harvesting (roof-top): The depletingwater resources have an urgent need for harvestingrain water for ground water recharge so as tominimize runoff water and evaporation losses.These are as much as 272 km2 settlement areaavailable for collecting water as roof top rain water.Hence, government should seriously think to makea plan to conserve this critical water harvestingissue.

Further, study also suggested for a need ofawareness among the local people and society tomaintain these water bodies (Ponds,Kundsandlakes) at least their optimum quality and level ofpurity. The onset of monsoon helps in diluting thepollutants but awareness and proper managementpractices such as planting trees around ponds,regularly recharging during summer period,removal of sediments from the bottom of pond,removal of floating debris from the pond surface,diversion of sewage discharge to proper disposalsite and proper enforcement of law and policy

might be very successful.

1. Barnes K.B.; Morgan J.M.; Roberge, M.C. andLowe, S. (2001) Sprawl Development: ItsPatterns, Consequences and Measurement,Towson University, Towson.

2. Chaurashiya M. and G.C. Pandey (2007)Study of Physico-chemical Characteristic ofSome Water Ponds of Ayodhya-Faizabad,Indian Journal of Environmental Protection,Vol. 27(11): 1019-1029.

3. Cheng, J. and Masser, I. (2003) Urban growthpattern modelling: A case study of WuhanCity, P.R. China, Landscape Urban Planning,Vol. 62: 199–217.

4. Chopra, Kanchan (2003) Use of Water: TheNext Two Decades, Economic and PoliticalWeekly, Vol.38 (32), August 2003.

5. Fitter, R. and R. Mannual (1986) Fresh WaterLife, William Collins Sons and Com. Ltd.London, UK.

6. Jaipur Development Authority, (2013) JDAReport No. 34/M, September, 2013: 37.

7. Jaipur Municipal Corporation (2012) CityDevelopment Plan, Chapter 9: 1-38.

8. Jethoo. A.S. (2010) Consumer Behaviour ofUrban Resident of Jaipur City (India) for

Water Supply, Conference Proceeding of IEEE,Singapore.

9. Mehta P. (2013) Alteration in Water QualityParameters and Consequential Impacts dueto Festival waste in Jodhpur, InternationalJournal of Science and Technology, Vol.17 (1):1166- 1176.

10. Meyer W.B. and Turner B.L. (1996) Land-use/ Land-cover change: Challenges forGeographers, Geo-journal, Vol. 39(3): 237-240.

11. Narain P.; M. A. Khan and G. Singh, (2005)Potential for Water Conservation andHarvesting against drought in Rajasthan, India(Working Paper 104: Drought series PaperNo. 9), Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI: 1-33.

12. Ramachandraiah, C. and Sheela Prasad(2004) Impact of Urban Growth on WaterBodies: The Case of Hyderabad, CESS WorkingPaper No. 60, September, CESS, Hyderabad.

13. Rathore, M.S. (2005) State level analysis ofdrought policies and impacts in Rajasthan(Working paper 93: Drought Series PaperNo. 6), Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI: 1-27.

14. Rathore, M.S.; Ladulal Sharma; N.P. Singh;S. Opitz-Stapleton; S. Chopde, D. Singh; L.Sabbag and M. Moench (2011) TheUncomfortable Nexus: Water, Urbanization andClimate Change in Jaipur, India, Institute forSocial and Environmental Transition,International, Boulder, CO, USA.

* Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Instituteof Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP,India-221005Email: muraree.meena@gmail.com

Introduction

The goal of rural development is to transformrural life and activities by removing as manyconstraints as possible, thus enabling the populationto attain economic and social progress. Ruraldevelopment means overall development ofvillages. This refers development of agricultureand allied sectors, rural industries and ruralinfrastructure. As majority population lives invillages, their backwardness stands forbackwardness of economy as whole. So, ruraldevelopment has emerged as a strategy designedto improve the economic and social life of ruralpoor (Subramanyachary, 2012). In India nearly70% population live in rural areas. Thus, thedevelopment of country is associated with thedevelopment of rural areas. A large number of

India’s rural population depends upon the naturalresources for subsistence and livelihoods. Forestryplays an integral role in rural development byhelping to meet people’s basic needs for wood,fuel, food and forage, as well as providing sourcesof additional income and employment, ensuringagricultural productivity and enhancing theenvironment (Bhardwaj, 2009). Forestry canstimulate rural economics by providing employmentopportunities. It also maintains ecosystem andmakes climatic condition stable. These are essentialfor the progress of livestock, agriculture and forthe whole development of rural areas.

Environmental elements land, water, forest,atmosphere, habitat and resources are destroyedin the present time for achieving the target ofdevelopment. Among these components forest is

Social Forestry and Improvementof Rural EnvironmentA Case Study of Faizabad District

DR. NUDRAT JAHAN* AND DR. KAUSHALENDRA PRAKASH GOSWAMI*

ABSTRACT

Forestry plays a very important role in rural development by helping people to meet their basic needs for fuelwood, food and fodder, providing sources of extra income and employment, increasing agricultural productivityand enhancing the environment. Social forestry were conceived in the country as most effective programme ofplantation on all available land outside the forest area to ensure environmental protection by improving thelife support system of land, air, water and vegetation. The main aim of this paper is to evaluate the work ofsocial forestry programme and different schemes implemented for plantation in the Faizabad district throughprimary survey. The population pressure on forested land is very high (839 persons/hectare). So extensiveGovernment Programmes and Policies are required to minimize this pressure and help to improve the ruralenvironment. The study shows the importance of social forestry for the development of rural environment. Inthe last ten years Faizabad district recorded the increased plantation work. The total forested area of the districtis only 24.09 Sq.Km. it is only 0.95% of the total geographical area of the district, which is not satisfactoryaccording to the National Forest Policy.

Key Words: Social Forestry, Agro Forestry, Rural Development, Rural Environment

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highly degraded due to conversion of forestlandinto agricultural land, with this grazing is alsoresponsible for deforestation. Along with twofactors, illegal cutting of trees for wood; drought,erosion of soil, climbers, lopping of various speciesof trees for various purposes and fire are otherreasons of deforestation. Deforestation increasesthe rate of degradation of other compo-nents ofecology. Presently about 20% of anthropogenicincrease of CO

2 in atmosphere is due to

deforestation (IPCC, 2007). Where one acre oftree generates enough oxygen each day for 18people (Vyas, 2006).

Planting, nurturing, preserving andconserving plants and trees are deep rootedpractices with historical significance in India(Kalpana, 2009). India has implemented the largestafforestation programs in the world. The programswere initiated during 1968 under the social forestryprograms (Ravindranath & Murthy, 2003). Theconcept of social forestry emerged during the ninthcommonwealth programs in 1968. It can aptly bedescribed as forestry of the people, by the peopleand for the people (Negi, 2001). Social forestryprograms were conceived in the country as mosteffective means of raising plantation of quickgrowing species on all available land outside theforest area to ensure environmental protection byimproving the life support system of land, air, waterand vegetation.

‘Social Forestry’ purely an Indian concept,has developed under Indian environment andculture (Ghosh and Singh, 2003). Withdeforestation, industria-lization and urbanizationbeing on the gear up, social forestry compensatesfor the damage to greater extent. This is alsonecessary for maintaining ecological balance.Social forestry adds beauty and elegance to thesurrounding environment. Apart from incomegeneration and employment potential, socialforestry contributes multi- dimensional develop-ment of rural areas. Through the social forestryscheme, the government has involved community

participation, as part of a drive towardsafforestation, and rehabilitating the degraded forestand common lands. Over 90 per cent ofafforestation work has done under social forestryprograms on village common degraded and farmland. Policies have formulated for the problems ofdegradation of forest and steps to be taken up toreplenish the degraded forest land. National ForestPolicy 1952, has envisaged clearly bringing 33 percent of total geographical area under greenery, inwhich 60% of the land in the hilly region and 20%in the plain area. According to the National ForestPolicy, Faizabad district should have 20 per centforested area, but there is only 5 percent area comesunder the forest, permanent pasture, land undermiscellaneous trees crops and groves.

The Study Area

The study area extends from 26o25’N to26o50’N and 81o34’E to 82o29’ (Fig. 1). E andcovering total area of 2846 sq. km. There are fivetehsils and eleven C. D. blocks. The district isbounded on north by Gonda district and Bastidistrict, south by Sultanpur district, west byBarabanki district and east by Ambedkarnagardistrict. The district consists of almosthomogenous plain along with some spot heightsvarying from 85 meters in the east to 105 metersin the west above the sea level. Faizabad district isdrained mainly by river Ghaghara and its threetributaries Marha, Biswi and Bet. Study area belongsto the sub tropical climatic zone, lying in the lap ofmiddle Ganga plain. The maximum temperatureof summer season is 41oC and the minimumtemperature is 26oC; while the maximumtemperature in winter season is 25oC and theminimum temperature is 8oC, and the averageannual rainfall is 80 cm. Soil is the precious gift ofnature to the mankind. Soils of the study area aredividing into following types: Clayey, Sandy loam,Loam, Clayey loam and Sandy clayey soil. Thetotal population of the district is 2468371 (Census,2011) in which 1258455 are males and 1209916

are females. The density of the district is 1054persons per Sq. Km. The sex ratio of the districtare 961 female/thousand male. The literacy rateof Faizabad district is 70.63 per cent in whichmale literacy is 80.21 and female literacy is 60.72per cent.

Forest in Study Area

Geographically Faizabad district is situatedin the tropical dry deciduous forests zone, whereforest cover is only 24.9 sq. km. This is only 0.95

per cent of the total geographical area of the district.The forest cover of the district is negligible anddoes not fulfill the required level of national forestpolicy. There is only open forest; dense forest istotally absent in the district. The forested areasare mainly found in the ravine lands and along theroad and canal sides. Mainly the forest of thedistrict is found along the Betwa Nala, whereAcacia Arabica, Dhak and Dalbergia Sissoo arethe main species. The highest forested area is foundin Mawai block, where forest cover is 71.8 sq.

Fig. 1

km, which is about 3.36 per cent of the totalgeographical area of the block. The lowest forestcover seen in the Masodha block, where only 68hectare area is forested. Apart from these areas,tree cover is found on the waste land, vacantplaces, near the ponds and lakes. Neem, Babul,Mahua, Dhak, Chilbil, and Lisora plants are foundon the waste land and vacant area of the district.The Bamboo, Jhaoo, Narkat and wild Date aregrown by the sides of village ponds. The Bher,Moonj, Khas etc are found in the low lying areas.The lakes and ponds are covered with large numberof aquatics and marshy plants. Forest coverdecreased in last ten years from 6663 hectares in1996-97 to 2490 hectares in 2006-07.

Data Base and Methodology

• Study is based on primary, as well assecondary data.

• Methodology of the study is based onthe integrative approach of primarydata collected from field investigationby implementing interview scheduleand secondary data of plantation forten years, collected from ForestDivision Office Faizabad. The data isanalyzed by statistical techniques andrepresen-ted by cartographicmethods.

• Primary data is collected from 400respondents of both the gender.Questionnaire was used including theareas of social forestry, work ofplantations, endurance of wildanimals existent, awareness of localpeoples for environment and forestand their participation in the socialforestry.

Results and Discussion

Results obtain from study indicate towardsan adverse impact of depleting forest cover on

ecological balance in Faizabad district. In the lastfew years some of the tree species comes underthe endangered category. Due to the depletingcover and natural vegetation, some of the animalsand birds have declined in number. It is recognisedthat this condition is due to the low awareness oflocal people about their environment. More than50 per cent of the local peoples are not aware fortheir environment. About 60 per cent of the localpeople do not know about the ecological benefitsof the trees. Near about 60 per cent rural peopleare not involved in the plantation programmes ordo not planted trees on their own lands or farmsside.

Social Forestry and Rural Environment

Social forestry can improve the physical andsocial environment of rural areas. It helps toimprove life supportive system like land, water,air and vegetation. Social forestry improve thephysical environment of rural areas in the form ofmaintaining tree cover, stabilising temperature,controlling soil erosion, improving soil fertility andmaintaining water table.

Maintain Tree Cover

The aim of social forestry in the district isto secure and maintain the current naturalvegetation. Secondary data show plantation hasrecorded an increase of 463 hectare in the last tenyears; the total plantation in 1997-98 was 502ha.which become 965 ha in 2006-07. As Table-1&2shows continuous increase in plantation tomaintain the forest cover and tree cover in thedistrict.

Study area belongs to an agricultural regionhence, there is not much space to increase theforest cover, so plantation on the vacant places,on road and railway sides is possible andagroforestry is only the way by which we canimprove the tree cover. In the last ten yearsplantation activities have increased the tree cover

of the district continuously and tree covered areabecame 4287 hectares in 2005-06 but it againdecreased in 2006-07, due to removal of the forestfrom a large area.

For the plantation, outside the forest, socialforestry and its various schemes are mainlyadopted in the country as well as in the district. Asthe table 2 show maximum plantation work hasbeen done through social forestry in the district.After 2005, plantation work was done withMANREGA, which provided notable increase inthe plantation. The rapid increase in plantation isalso due to the involvement of local people.

Control Soil Erosion

In rural areas social forestry can reduce theeffect of drought and flood and can check theeffect of soil erosion and soil loss. The downwardfall of rain, sleet and hail is initially absorbed ordeflected by trees, which provides protection fromsoil loss. Trees intercept water and reduce stormrunoff and the possibility of flood. 37,500 tons ofsediments per square mile per year comes off ofdeveloping and developed landscapes – trees couldreduce this value by 95% (Vyas; 2006). Forestrytends to increase local precipitation and waterholding capacity of soil and regulate water cycle,

(Area in hectare)

Year Plantation (ha.) Forest Cover (ha.) Tree Cover (ha.)

1997-98 502 1703 22051998-99 540 2344 28841999-2000 565 2345 29102000-2001 416 2511 29272001-02 287 2511 27982002-03 496 2893 33892003-04 303 3546 38492004-05 388 3546 39342005-06 741 3546 42872006-07 965 2298 3263

Source: District Forest Office, Faizabad.

(Area in hectare)

Years S.R.Y. S.C.P S .Forestry Urban Others Total

1997-1998 249 0 241 7 5 5021998-1999 437 0 86 0 17 5401999-2000 350 0 182 1 32 5652000-2001 0 0 65 0 351 4162001-2002 37 0 130 0 120 2872002-2003 0 0 458 10 28 4962003-2004 0 0 303 0 0 3032004-2005 0 113 253 0 22 3882005-2006 0 26 685 0 30 7412006-2007 0 208 757 0 0 965

Source: District Forest Office, Faizabad

which help to reduce the probability of drought.Planting of trees between the crops and on theboundaries around fields can help in preventingsoil erosion, restore soil’s fertility and provide shadefor other crops (IPCC; 2007). According to Nair(1993) soil erosion is estimated on the basis of theuniversal soil loss equation (USLE).

A = R*K*L*S*C*P

Where, A = soil loss t ha-1 yr-1

R = the rain fall factor (ca ½ mean annualrain fall in mm)

K = the soil erodibility factor (range: 0-1)

L = the slope length factor

S = the slop steepness factor

C = the cover factor (range: 0-1)

P = the support practice factor.

In the given formula rain fall erosivity factorR, soil erodibility factor K and cover factor iscontrolled by tree cover. Hence, social forestry oragroforestry helps to reduce soil erosion fromsurface runoff and from wind also. In the studyarea the photo plate no. 1A shows that barren andopen land easily eroded by air and water but theareas which are planted are protected from thesoil erosion 1B.

Plate: 1A

Plate:

1B

Social Environment

Social forestry helps to improve socialenvironment of rural areas, with the help ofproviding employment to local people. It also helpsto improve agriculture, in the form of improvingsoil fertility and improving the crop productionwith the help of agroforestry. Agroforestry isemerging as an important tool for integrated naturalresource management in addressing wide rangeof issues like soil degradation, biodiversityconservation and climate change. Apart from profitoriented approach and technology, it is the needof the hour to focus on ecosystem services inagroforestry (Chavan, et.al; 2015).

Improve Economic Condition

Today’s developmental policies and strategiesfocused on sustainable development of any area.Social forestry directly involves local people inplantation and provides income. Then the treeswhich are planted under social forestry on thecommon land of village and under the agroforestryprogramme have increased the local people earning.

Plants on the gramsabha land or on thecommon land of village provide fuel-wood to thevillagers. In the district total rural population dependupon fuel wood; however, many of them haveother sources of fuel. As a normal calculation in

Faizabad district, an average size of the family needs40 quintal wood per annum for fuel and other basicneeds. This demand is increasing day by day, withthe help of social forestry demand of fuel-woodin the district is fulfilled. Social forestry givesprotection to some household industries whichdepends upon forest.

In the area social forestry produced rawmaterials for the household industries and smallscale industries. In Faizabad district about 27.8per cent rural population depend upon trees fortheir earning in different ways (Table 3). In whichmaximum people in the district have planted fruitstrees and earn through selling these fruits. In thesample villages, 12 per cent respondents selldifferent fruits for earning. In which maximum15 per cent respondents are from Bhakhawlivillage, because of the maximum vegetation coverin the village. They are engaged in timber sellingfor furniture making and for agricultureinstruments. About 5.7 per cent of the locals areengaged in timber selling.

In the district some, people use tree leaves;generally for bidi making. Six per cent of therespondent says they use leaves for bidi makingand for the plate and bowl of leaves locally knownas pattal and dona, which are their main sourcesof earning. Other than that bamboo is used forbasket making and for other household items. Inthe sample villages 4 per cent respondents dependupon bamboo for the earning. They used it for the

basket making and for making hand fans. Thevillagers are allowed to take fruits and flower ofMahua, fodder, and broken woods from the plantedtrees. Besides that villagers also use leaf of Shahtutand Arjun for silk industry, bark of Babul tree forleather polishing, seeds of Mahua, Kanji and Neemfor the oil mills. For the furniture and agriculturalequipments, wood of Shisham and Babul is used inthe form of logs and planks.

Beside the household industries some smallscale industries based on trees also run in thedistrict, which provides employment to the localpeople. Paper mill, plywood industry and saw millsare the main industries based on trees. Eucalyptusis used on large level in the veneer factory. Thewood and timber of Shisham, Mango, Sakhu,Sagaun, Jamun and Babul are used in theseindustries.

Improve Agriculture

The economy of the study area is completelybased on agriculture, more than 38 per centpopulation of the working population is engagedin the cultivation, while 10 per cent population isengaged as agricultural workers. So, dependencyon land and agriculture is very high in this area,therefore reducing the pressure on agriculture andimproving agriculture system; forestry withagriculture is essential in this area. Agroforestry ismore profitable to farmers than agriculture orforestry for a particular area of land (Chavan, et.al;

Village Respondent Item used by the respondent for earningdepend on

tree for earning Timber Fuelwood Fruit Leaf Bamboo

Bhakhawli 31 2 3 15 5 6Tindauli 22 4 2 11 4 2Sindhaura 22 6 4 12 7 3Paliya 36 8 9 10 8 5

Total 27.8 5.75 4.5 12 6 4

Source: Personal Survey; 2009

2015). Ecologically sound agroforestry systemssuch as intercropping and mixed arable-livestocksystems can increase the sustainability ofagricultural production while reducing on-site andoff-site consequences and lead to sustainableagriculture. (Rasmussen, et al; 1998).Agroforestry, a part of social forestry, shouldmaintain and increase production as well asproductivity of the land. Forestry can increaseoutput of tree products, improved yields ofassociated crops, reduce of cropping systeminputs, and increase labour efficiency.Agroforestry enrich soil by regulating nitrogencycle, adding organic materials in soil and improvedinfiltration rates. All these aspects help in increasingagricultural production and income of the ruralpeople.

Conclusion

The present study shows the forested areain Faizabad district is only 0.95% of the totalgeographical area and present forest cover is notable to fulfill the ever-increasing demand of ruralpopulation and cannot maintain the rural environ-ment. Plantation has increased in the last ten year;maximum plantation is done in the year 2005-06and 2006-07. Most of the plantation work in thearea is done through the social forestry scheme.There is incredible change seen in 2005-06plantations, this is due to the attachment of socialforestry program with the MNREGA. Plantationunder social forestry increased the tree cover inthe district. It has controlled soil erosion andenriched the soil to some extent. Social forestryprovided employment to rural people and providedraw material to household industries and small scaleindustries. Beside that, some other industries basedon forestry like herbal drugs, dairy, bee keeping,sericulture and mushroom cultivation can also bestart in the area. Subsequently, social forestry willimprove the economic condition of the rural people.Social forestry also gives the permanent sourceof income to village societies (gram samaj) for the

community development. There is very highpressure on the agricultural land, so there is needto motivate the people to adopt social forestryprogram to minimize this pressure. People involveswith the forestry, when they get economic benefitsfrom that. So the plantation in rural areas can bedone under the social forestry. This programme ismore suitable and useful for the rural environmentand rural people.

1. Bhardwaj, R.K. (2009) Advances in ForestryResearch in India, Oxford Book Company,Jaipur: 171.

2. Chavan, .B., Newaj, R., Uthappa A. R, (2015)Agroforestry Research and Development inIndia: The Way Forward, Indian Journal ofApplied Research, Vol-5, Issue-6: 623.

3. Chavan, S.B., Keerthika, A., Dhyani, S. K.,Handa, A.K., Newa, R.J. and K. Rajarajan(2015) National Agroforestry Policy inIndia: A Low Hanging Fruit, Current Science,Vol. 108, No. 10: 1826.

4. Ghosh, S.K. and Rita Singh, (2003) SocialForestry and Forest Management, GlobalVision Publishing House, Delhi: 459.

5. IPCC on Climate Change: (2007) ThePhysical Science Basis, Technical Summary,Fourth Assessment Report Working Group 1.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,United Kingdom and New York: 21-87.

6. Palkhiwala, Kalpana, (2009) Afforestation–Fighting Climate change, Kurukshetra, Vol.57, July, No. 9: 23.

7. Nair, P.K.R. (1993) An Introduction toAgroforestry, Kluwer Academic Publishers,Netherland: 327.

8. Negi, S.S. (2001) A Handbook of Social Forestry,International Book Distributors, India: 3.

9. Ravindranath, N.H. and I.K. Murthy, April(2003) Clean Development Mechanism andForestry Projects: Strategy for Operationa-lization in India, The Indian Forester, Vol.129, No. 4: 694.

10. Rasmussen, P.E., Keith, W.T. Goulding,James R. Brown, Peter R. Grace, H. HenryJanzen and Martin Korschens, (1998) Long-term Agroecosystem Experiments: AssessingAgricultural Sustainability and GlobalChange, Science, Vol. 282: 893-896.

11. Subramanyachary, P. (2012) Rural Environ-mental Scenario: A Need for SustainableDevelopment, International Journal ofScientific Research, Vol. 1, Issue-6: 117.

12. Vyas, G.P.D. (2006) Community Forestry,AGROBIOS (India): 15.

* Assistant Professor. Dept. of Geography, Rezwana Begam Memorial Degree Collage, Chandauli ** Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005.

Introduction

Cities from time immemorial have beenproducts of the numerous forces that shape andchange them. Traditionally, one has identified theseto be related to history, transport and marketforces. In the absence of investment ininfrastructure, most cities in India have beenshaped by the influence of history and marketforces alone. It can be argued that in the nearfuture, massive interventions of transportinfrastructure in urban areas in India would presentopportunities for restructuring existing cities. Citiesgrow and in the process of such a growth, theurban form that is unique to these cities continuesto evolve. The city of Delhi can be conceived tobe characterized by a polycentric, poly-nodal andradial city structure. It has a circumferential andpartly sectoral form.

Cities across the world have evolved from acomplex relationship between numerousinfluencing factors such as people, climate,economy and other factors which go a long way

in contributing to the infrastructure that the saidcity might have. It can be argued that in presenttimes, transport and technology are the twosignificant pre-cursors of change. The next decadein India is likely to see massive interventions inurban areas with regard to infrastructure, especiallythose related to transportation. The city of Delhiis an appropriate case to examine in this regard ascurrently a mass rapid transport system is beingintroduced in the city. Delhi Metro is one suchmeasure taken by the Central Government incollaboration with a few other Asian countries likeJapan and Korea (http://www.delhimetrorail.com).

The first and second phase of the Delhi MetroRail is currently operational and the system isexpected to be completed in its totality by the year2021. Also, presently the Delhi DevelopmentAuthority (DDA), which is the primarydevelopment agency in the city, is working on theMaster Plan for the year 2021. As a result, Delhi isat an interesting point in time, where it is not onlyreceiving large investment in the form of transport

Impact of Metro Rail on the Urban Delhi

PANKAJ KUMAR AZAD*, SUBHASH ANAND** &ASHWAJEET CHAUDHARY***

ABSTRACT

The capital city Delhi rapidly facing the problem of increasing population which increase in the use privatevehicles leads to increase traffic Congestion, accidents and other transport related problems in the city. Theintroduction of the Delhi Metro in 2002 kept promise of a new means of public transport and provide asolution to number of problems related to commuters. Thus, this study emphasized on understanding to howspatio-temporal expansion of Delhi Metro, how it affected urban environment, society and economy of thecity as well as the land-use pattern. Both primary and secondary data collection method was used for thestudy. This Study found that Delhi Metro helped the urban Delhi in term of monetary value, time saving,comfort, employment opportunity, lowering of pollution level, accessibility and mobility.

Key Words : Urban Delhi, Metro Rail, Spatial Expansion, Society and Economy, Pollution, Change inLand-use Pattern.

Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika (Dec., 2015), Vol. 45(2) : 46-44ISSN 0042-1618

RESEARCH ARTICLE

infrastructure but is also planning its future. Thus,there is an opportunity for it to create a new destinyfor itself, one which would lead to a more livablecity and help address some of the physical andsocial issues that currently challenge it (DDA,2013).

Delhi is a unique capital city in the world.Area and population wise it is one of the largestcities which relies mostly on road transport in theform of buses, auto rickshaws and private vehiclesfor transport. The introduction of the new massrapid transit system being one of the biggestfinancial investments in the city post-independenceis seen as an opportunity to restructure the city toaccommodate an ever increasing population andalso to define future urbanization trends in theregion. It is a city which like any other Asian cityhas experienced rapid urban growth and populationexplosion in its post-independence era due todistress migration from rural to urban areas. Italso shows a city which will expand to at least24.5 million people by the year 2021 (Master Planof Delhi, 2021).

Statement of the Problem

Introduction of a Rail based Mass RapidTransit Systems (MRTS) are capital intensive andhave long gestation period. It has been observedthat in developed countries, planning for masstransit system starts when city population sizeexceeds 1 million; the system is in position by thetime the city population is 2 to 3 million and oncethe population exceeds 4 million or so, plannedextensions to the Mass Rapid Transit Systems isvigorously taken up. The city of Delhi with apopulation of round 16.2 million should have hadan MRTS network of at least 300 Km. by thistime, whereas actually it is still (190 kms) at thetake-off stage. Delhi has all the ideal dress-up foran excellent Mass Rapid Transit System to bebrought in. The citizens are enlightened and wouldeagerly welcome introduction of people friendlyMRTS though they may initially face some

difficulties during the implementation phase. Addedto this Delhi has an unassailable advantage in itsexcellent railway network comprising two ringsand six spurs totaling about 120 Km within theurban area.

Delhi Metro is a world-class Metro. To ensurereliability and safety in train operations, it isequipped with the most modern communicationand control systems. It has state-of-art air-conditioned coaches. Ticketing and passengercontrol are through Automatic Fare CollectionSystem, which is introduced in the country forthe first time. Travelling in Delhi Metro is a pleasurewith trains ultimately available at three minutesfrequency. Entries and exits to Metro stations arecontrolled by flap-doors operated by ‘smart-cards’and contact less tokens. For convenience ofcommuters, adequate number of escalators areinstalled at Metro stations (Delhi Metro RailCorporation, 2010).

The Delhi Metro has several potentialnegative impacts on the urban Delhi and thesenegative impacts have been listed under thefollowing headings:

� Consequences due to project loca-tion;

� Consequences due to constructionworks;

� Consequences due to project opera-tion.

Consequences Due to Project Location :The Delhi Metro has caused changes in the patternof land use. The Delhi Metro is transforming therural landscape into urban landscape and such achange is going hand in hand with the way in whichthe city is seeing an expansion. It has resulted intoa change in the number of trees in the city. Due tothe proposed and completed construction of theMetro Rail line, a number of trees have been cutdown and many more are likely to be lost. Thiswill cause negative impacts on bio-diversity ofurban Delhi.

The project area falls under seismic zone IVas per the Seismic Zoning Map of India (IS 1893,Part-I, 2002). So there is risk of stability of DelhiMetro network due to earthquakes.

The introduction of the project seeminglyhas led to adverse effects on the historicalmonuments. The operation of Metro Rail near thesemonuments might endanger the stability of theseheritage structures due to constant vibrations(RITES, 2006).

Consequences due to Project Cons-truction: Run off from unprotected excavatedareas, and underground tunnel result in excessivesoil erosion. Disposal of soil during constructionis another issue in question. Considering the factthat there is paucity of space in Delhi, thetransporta-tion transfer and disposal of excavatedsoil poses a challenge. Soil spillage at theconstruction sites or during transportation couldlead to health hazards. Problems could arise fromdumping of construction spoils (Concrete, bricks)waste materials (from contractor camps) etc.,causing surface and ground water pollution.

Health risks include disease hazards due tolack of sanitation facilities (water supply and humanwaste disposal) and insect vector disease hazardsof local workers and disease hazards to the localpopulation. Cranes and launchers, concretecrushers, drilling machines, trenchers causes thenoise pollution at the construction sites and makeuncomfortable to workers and local population.

Besides the above stated, there are issuesrelated to traffic and its diversion. Duringconstruction, traffic diversions on roads have beendone at several construction sites and it createsproblem to the commuters especially during thepeak hours due to traffic jams

A project as huge as the Delhi Metro cannotbe said to be devoid of accidents and accidentalhazards. In the past several accidents have occurredat the construction sites primarily due to machinery

failures (collapsing of cranes and launchers).Several workers got injured and lost their livesdue to these accidental hazards.

Construction activities may have an adverseimpact on water bodies due to disposal of waste.The waste could be due to the spillage ofconstruction materials, dumping of used waterfrom the stone crusher, oils and greases and fromlabour camp also. Contamination of ground watercan take place, if the dump containing abovesubstances gets leached and percolates into theground water table. Quality of air has seen a changeonce the project has been introduced. Duringconstruction the quality of air nearby theconstruction sites deteriorates due to concentrationof solid particles released during the constructionprocess (RITES, 2006).

Consequences of Project Operation : TheDelhi Metro Project has had serious andnoteworthy consequences as far as pollution isconcerned. Oil spillage during change of lubricants,cleaning and repair processes, in the maintenanceof rolling stock, is very common. The spilled oilmay lead to underground water contamination.

Waste coming out of the everyday operationsof the Delhi metro includes; garbage, rubbish, andfloor sweepings. The collection and removal ofrefuse in a sanitary manner from the station is ofimportance for effective vector control, aestheticimprovement, and nuisance and pollutionabatement (RITES, 2012).

Socio-Economic Problems by Delhi Metro

It has been observed that the price of realestate along the Delhi Metro routes have becomeexorbitant which has negative impact on lowerstrata of the society, as affordability of housingand commercial places has gone out of their reach.The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation did notrehabilitate the entire displaced population.Significant proportion of the displaced populationis still looking forward to DMRC to rehabilitate it.

Due to the operations of Delhi Metro some peopleengaged in other mode of transport services losttheir jobs due to the rise in the ridership of DelhiMetro. Despite being in operations for few yearsthe Delhi Metro is still not able to efficiently managethe peak hours crowd and rush. It has beenreported in news- papers and other media thatincidents of power failure during the operationsare becoming more frequent and it causes lot of

inconvenience to the commuters. Due to the highcommuting charges and its high-tech operationsthe urban poor and illiterate people have beenreluctant to access the services of Delhi Metro.Local residents where construction is going onhave fear about tunneling process. All the stationsdo not have toilets and Drinking water facility, thelack of affordably priced food and drinks kioskson these stations, Lack of seating arrangements

Fig. 1 : Location of Study Area

Source : Census of India, 2011.

and student-passes are not permissible in the DelhiMetro like in state-run DTC buses.

By observing above mentioned problems thisresearch work is an inquiry, aimed at understandingas to how the spatio-temporal expansion of DelhiMetro and how the Delhi Metro rail affected changein land use pattern and land value, pollution leveland all other related socio-economic andenvironmental aspects of Delhi.

Study Area

Delhi is located in the northern India betweenthe latitudes of 28°-24’-17"and 28°-53’-00"Northand longitudes of 76°-50’-24"and 77°-20’-37"East.Delhi shares its border with the states of UttarPradesh and Haryana. Delhi has an area of 1483sq. kms. Its maximum length is 51.90 kms andgreatest width is 48.48 kms. Total urban area ofDelhi is 685 sq.km and rural area is 798 sq. km.,whereas total population of urban Delhi is16,33,3916 and total population of rural Delhi is4,19,319. Upto April 2011 the total surface vehiclesin Delhi are 69,30,307. The Yamuna River andterminal part of the Aravalli hills range are the twomain geographical features of the city. The Aravallihill range is covered with forests called the Ridges.These areas act as city’s lungs and help maintainits environment. The Yamuna River is Delhi’s mainsource of drinking water. The average annualrainfall in Delhi is 714 mm, three-fourths of whichfalls in July, August and September. Heavy rainfallin the catchment area of the Yamuna can result ina dangerous flood situation for the city. Duringthe summer months of April, May and June,temperature can rise to 40-45 degrees Celsius;winters are typically cold with minimumtemperature during December and January fallingto 4 to 5 degree Celsius. February, March andOctober - November are climatically the bestmonths ( Economic Survey of Delhi, 2012).

The forest and green cover has increasedfrom 0.76 per cent of total area in 1981 to 1.75

per cent in 1995, 5.9 per cent in 1999, 10.2 percent in 2001, 18.07 per cent in 2003 and 19 percent in 2005. Delhi’s mineral resources areprimarily sand and stone, which are useful forconstruction activities. Advent of Delhi Metro Railin the environment of Delhi gave it a differentlook. The Delhi metro project was introduced invarious phases. Each phase catered to a particularroute and a corresponding section of thepopulation.

Aims and Objectives

� To understand the spatio-temporalexpansion of Delhi Metro Rail.

� To analyse the socio-economic impactof Delhi Metro Rail.

� To study the changes in land use andland value due to introduction ofDelhi Metro Rail.

� To study the impact of Delhi MetroRail on urban environment.

� To know community perceptionregarding Metro Rail.

Hypothesis

Delhi Metro Rail has positively affected theUrban Delhi.

Methodology

Data Collection : This study is based onprimary as well as secondary sources of data forfulfilling the objectives and testing the hypothesis.

Primary Data have been collected through acommon structured questionnaire which havebeen filled through responses of different kinds ofcommuters of Metro and DTC officials, and RealEstate authorities and Local people. Over all 400respondents have been selected randomly forprimary survey:

Commuters 300

Metro and DTC staff, Property dealers,Local People, Real Estate Authorities 50Auto Rickshaw, Taxi and Metro feederBus Drivers, Rikshaw Pullers 50

(The respondents have been chosenaccording to appropriate parameters such as theirage, gender, socio-economic status etc.). Theserespondents have been chosen through a processof random sampling in various selected localitiesin Delhi. The selection of these localities have beendone in a way that the sample becomes arepresentative sample).

Secondary Data Sources

A number of Government offices, i.e.,DMRC, DPCC, CSE, NIUA, DUAC, SPA, TERI,CRRI, NEERI, Planning Commission and variousdepartment of Delhi Govern-ment and NGOs areconsulted for collecting relevant information.Internet, Newspapers are also used in the processof this research.

Analysis

Data (both primary and secondary) tabulatedand analyzed the correlation-ships betweenconstants and variables established by the use of

appropriate statistical techniques and tests. SPSShas been used for data interpretation and mapshave been prepared and analysed on GIS platforms.

Description of the Test Applied : Thesample size for the study (400) is large. Hence,large sample test for significance is applied to test

Ho : The observed proportion of the attributeis not significant, i.e., P = p.

Against

H1 : The observed proportion of the attributeis significant, i.e., P < p.

The data are tested for significance using Z-test for single proportion. The test statistic forthis is given as :

Z = )NPQ()Pp( �

where,

p = proportion of the given attribute(obtained from the responses)

P = ideal proportion of the attribute

Q = 1 – P

n = total number of responses

The test is left-tailed. Hence, if Z < -1.645,Ho may be accepted at 5 per cent level ofsignificance. Else, it is rejected.

Type of Data Source

Thematic Maps Delhi Metro, Census of IndiaLand-use data DDA, MCD, Ministry of Urban Development, RITESPollution data Central Pollution Control Board, DPCBPopulation data Census of India, NSSO and CSO.Temporal vehicles data Transport authority of Delhi, Delhi Statistical Hand BookRemote Sensing Images Earth Resources Observations & Science Center, United

States Geological SurveyProjected fuel consumption data Delhi Metro EIA Report, 2006 and RITESBooks, Reports, Magazine, Periodicals Delhi Development Report 2009, Economic Survey of

Delhi, Master Plan of Delhi 2021 Annual Report ofDMRC, EPW, Journal of Transportation.

Findings :

Spatial Expansion of Delhi Metro Rail

� Phase III, Delhi Metro is aiming tointerconnect existing lines by ringlines to improve connectivity. Thiswill not only help in reducingdistances but will also relieve somecongestion. Thus, increase in urbanmobility.

� The influence of Delhi Metro exerts itaffect upto 1 km. radius. It is seen thatgrowth is faster in half km distancefrom Metro.

� Highest 27 per cent respondentsbelieves that Blue line area betweenDwarka Sector 21 to Noida/Vaishaliis highest benefitted by Delhi Metroand only 7 per cent respondentsbelieves that Air-port /Orange LineArea between New Delhi to DwarkaSector 21 is least benefitted by DelhiMetro.

� Majority (21.25 per cent) of therespondents want more expansion ofDelhi Metro Rail in north-west districtof Delhi and second highest 18.5 percent of the respondents want moreexpansion of Delhi Metro Rail insouth-west district of Delhi.

� About 38 per cent respondentssuggested ring Metro is the optimalroute, which should brought underfor further the spatial expansion ofDelhi Metro Rail.

Impact of Delhi Metro on Land-Use andLand-Value

� The coming of the Metro Rail hasenhanced the property value in theurban and rural-urban fringe area.

Initially this has led to morecommercial development, followedby mixed use development ofresidential and commercial plots.

� Due to advent of Delhi Metro, vacantsites of Rohini transformed intomixed type of land-use, that is the mixof residential and commer-cial. DelhiMetro encourages real estateinvestment in Rohini and high risebuilding came into existence andvertical growth of Rohini startedrapidly. In 2000, the land which wasopen or vacant after advent of DelhiMetro upto 2013 has become majorcommercial hub, now it has five starhotels, malls, parks, roads along theMetro line have all sorts of commercialactivities now. This is the major effectof Delhi Metro on land use of thisarea.

� Due to advent of Delhi Metro the areanear Shastri park has been developas commercial centre now, the ITpark, Metro depot, residentialcomplex and other corporate officebuildings are the attraction of thisarea. Due to effect Delhi Metro moreresidential development in theSeelampur area has taken place.

� Due to advent of Yellow line in KhyberPass area, which has previously jhuggijhoppri clusture, now has the Metrodepot and the lavish ParswanathResidential Complex, which haschanged the land use of this areacompletely.

� By the advent of Delhi Metro face ofthe surface of Inderlok remar-kablychanged and has become acommercial center for near aboutlocations. It has come with bus

terminal and shopping centre like BigBazaar and Mega Malls.

� Delhi Metro in Sarita Vihar, conver-ted open spaces into metro yard,depot and residential complexes forthe Metro employee; therefore it isclear that the Delhi Metro has impacton the land use of Delhi.

� Majority (62.5 per cent) of therespondents believes that in their landvalue has changed drastically by theinfluence of Metro Rail.

Impact of Delhi Metro Rail on the UrbanEnvironment

� The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation hasbeen certified by the United Nationsas the first Rail-based system in theworld to get “carbon credits forreducing greenhouse gas emissions”and helping in reducing pollutionlevels in the city by 630,000 tonnesevery year . The Metro Rail hashelped to save 33,000 tonnes of fueland prevented creation of over 2,275tonnes of poisonous gases. Also, it hashelped commuters in the city save 66minutes every day on an average andreduced the daily vehicle demand.

� Majority (56 per cent) of the respon-dents believe that to great extentDelhi Metro has led to lowering ofpollution level in the city.

� Majority (35 per cent) of therespondents believe that Delhi Metrois effective in keeping level ofpollution under check and 18 per centof the respondents believe that DTChelped in keeping level of pollutionunder check because DTC are CNGdriven.

� 38.75 Per cent of the respondents saidthat personal vehicles are mostresponsible for air pollution.

Community Perception Regarding Delhi MetroRail

� 85 per cent of the respondents agreedthat Metro Rail helps to reachdestinations on time because it is avery punctual mode of passengertransportation for the commuterswho observes punctua-lity as valueand necessity.

� 63 per cent respondents felt that MetroRail is a safe and comfortable modeof transport. About 76 Per cent of therespondents believe that the problemof integration with the other modesof transport no longer exists.

� 78 per cent of the respondentsresponse was that inadequate crowdmanagement still persist. 18 per centof respondents had the opinion thatautomatic operated gates of train,escalators, ticket gates are compelledto pay attention during the travelthrough Delhi Metro. So, upto certainextent Delhi Metro ride act assensitive for commuters.

� 38 per cent of the respondentsbelieved that Delhi Metro acquiredprivate land for their expansion andalso displaced the jhuggi-jhopri poorpeople without paying any attention.This has certainly has affected theirlivelihood and services when thesepopulation eventually displaced.

� 40 per cent of the respondentsbelieves that Delhi Metro mosteconomically benefitted them. LikeCommercial Complexes : Malls

(provided employments), BanquetHalls (income sources for eventmanagers) and by increasingaccessibility and mobility. Metro Railopen the ways of economic growthfor them.

� 64 per cent of the respondents saidthat Metro Rail is very cost effectivein terms of monetary value, timesaving and its level of comfort. 74 percent of the respondents believe thatDelhi Metro is saving about 30minutes in every trip and giving backthis time to their life for anotherproductive works.

� The distance of Metro obtained to besignificant among the respon-dents is500 mts. – 1 km. or greater than 1 km.18.4 per cent respon-dents said thatConnaught Place is the top mostaccessible area for them after thecoming of Delhi Metro.

� As per 63 per cent of the respon-dentsfelt that the Delhi is now a world classcity as far as the services of DelhiMetro is concerned. 96.5 per centrespondents felt that the reser-vationsfor women in the coaches of DelhiMetro helped in making publicconveyance safer for women.

� Majority (40 per cent) of therespondents perceived that DelhiMetro made private and govt. officesmost accessible. 42 per cent of therespondents believed that Delhi Metrois the fastest mode of passengertransport and 16 per cent respondentsbelieved that personal vehicle is secondfastest mode of passenger transport.

� 78 per cent respondents believed thatmiddle class population has beenmost benefitted by Delhi Metro andpoor people are least benefitted bythe same.

Conclusion

The growing travel demand and inclinationtoward personalized mode of travel in the capitalis imposing serious effects on ecosystems,especially due to changes in land use patterns. Anecologically sustainable urban transport systemcan be obtained by an appropriate mix of alternativemodes of transport which is capable of movingmass with relatively lesser fuel consumptiontogether encouragement of environment friendlyfuels. Delhi Metro has proved itself as a solutionto many of these problems. The introduction ofDelhi Metro has provided speed and time savingsto commuters on congested corridors leading toincremental benefits and costs savings. It is needlessto say that for high duty corridors, there is no escapefor Metro Rail and the final solution for Delhi lies ina Metro Rail System.

Census of India, (2011) Provisional PopulationTables, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

DDA, (2013) Govt. of NCT of Delhi, New Delhi.Delhi Metro Rail Corporation, (2010) Towards

New Horizon, DMRC Ltd., New Delhi.Economic Survey of Delhi, (2012) Planning Depart-

ment, Govt. of NCT of Delhi, New Delhi.Master Plan of Delhi, (2021) Planning Commission,

Govt. of NCT of Delhi, New Delhi.RITES, (2006) Environmental Impact Assessment

Report of Delhi Metro Rail, New Delhi.RITES, (2012) Environmental Impact Assessment

Report of Delhi Metro Rail, New Delhi.

* Senior Research Scholar.** Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi.

*** Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, University of Allahabad, Allahabad.

Introduction

Urban growth is a spatial and demographicprocess and refers to the increase of importanceof towns and cities as a concentration of populationwithin a particular economy and society. Urbangrowth, as a pattern, although helps us tounderstand the spatial distribution but as a staticphenomenon. In fact, areas that can be identifiedas a sprawl for a specific time are typically part ofdynamic urban scene. The growth of populationwhether positive or negative is controlled by therelative balance of fertility, mortality and migration,which are generally influenced by six groups offactors: biological, environmental, economic,social, political and technological (Sauvy, 1969).

Any change in the size of population over aperiod of an area have a great impact on the socio–economic as well as on the environment of an

area that of the statistical figure denoting thenumber of human souls of certain time. Thepopulation growth is considered as the change inthe size of population of a region over a givenperiod of time (Barclay, 1958; Bogue, 1969). Thegrowth of population whether positive or negativereflects the history of man’s response to theenviron-mental possibilities presenting the region(Sharma, 1978). The growth of population usuallymeasured in absolute number and in percentagechange in numbers of population. The urbanexpansion caused by rapid urbanization has posedgreat challenges for planning and policy making,especially in developing countries like India(Ramchandran, 2012). In population geography,the term growth of population is used in broadestconnotation to cover change in population numberinhabiting a territory, during a specific period oftime, irrespective of the fact whether the change

Population Growth of Maunath BhanjanCity in reference to other Cities of

Eastern U.P.: An Analysis

SANJAY KUMAR BHARATI*

ABSTRACT

Population growth is a spatial and demographic process and refers to increase importance of town and citiesas a concentration of population within a particular economy and society. Cities are always developed andtransformed through the interaction between the different socio-cultural, political, economic, and technologicalforces. Hence, these forces create the population growth and its pattern in the city. This paper refers toanalyse comparative population growth of Maunath Bhanjan city in reference to other cities of Eastern UttarPradesh. The city is significant for cotton textile and handicraft as well as other industrial units since recentpast. Due to well connected transport network and an urban service centre, it has influenced increasingpopulation pressure on the urban space (Bharati and Sharma, 2014). In the developing country like India, thisproblem can be observed in the form high and uncontrolled development in urban space. This requires ananalysis of population growth may be utilized efficiently for a sustainability of the future city. This study isbased on the census data (1901-2011) and application of modern tools and techniques.

Key words: Population growth, population pressure, demographic process, urban space, sustainability.

Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika (Dec,, 2015), Vol. 45(2) : 55-64ISSN 0042-1618

RESEARCH ARTICLE

is positive or negative (Tiwari, 2012). Populationgeography in India is gradually shifting from macroscale to micro scale in recent years. Therefore, anapproach has been made to study the variousaspect of population in the city of Uttar Pradesh,as a pattern and process, helps us to understandhow a population is changing with time and space.Therefore, it is imperative to analyse and appraisepopulation growth and comparative growth ofpopulation in major cities in eastern Uttar Pradesh,adjacent district and minority town in India, so asto accommodate growing population comfortablyand to ensure sustainable development of urbancentres. Such studies become more significant incase of medium size city like Maunath Bhanjan. Inthe recent years, remote sensing data andGeographical Information System (GIS)techniques are widely used for interpretation ofmaps (to understand pattern), monitoring (tounderstand the process) and modelling (tosimulate) the population growth and distribution.The interrelationship of man and land resourcesplays a significant role in the urban space. Theurban land is a base for the development of themodern society. Cities are distinctive spatial unitof the people, their activities and the institutions.

The growth of Maunath Bhanjan is veryremarkable. It has grown at a very fast rate duringlast four decades (1981-2011). But during (1921-31) decade its growth is spectacular, showing apercentage increase in population of 74.21, whichis higher than that in many eastern Uttar Pradeshtowns/cities. Comparative growth of populationof Maunath Bhanjan into major cities in EasternUttar Pradesh is high. The increase of populationof adjacent towns of Maunath Bhanjan likeGhazipur (1,21,020 persons), Azamgarh (1,10,983persons) and Ballia (1,04,424 persons) remainedis low in current census year (2011) and thepercentage increase in population are 17.16, 18.67and 2.92 respectively. While growth (2,78,745persons) and percentage (31.08) increase inpopulation of Maunath Bhanjan city is very high

as comparatively adjacent cities, because of textile,handicrafts as well as other industrial units in therecent past. It is typically significant to note thatthis city is dominated and settled by minorities(specially Muslims) consisting of about 58 percentpopulation (UIDSSMT, 2010) in 2001 (2,12,657persons) which ranked third in Uttar Pradesh, afterSambhal (77%) and Rampur (71%). This old partof the city like Chowk as well as south and south–west of the city is dominated by the Muslimpopulation. In India, its rank is 11th as a minority’scity.

Study Area

Maunath Bhanjan City (250 54' 21'’ N - 250

59' 08'’ N & 830 30’16'’ E - 83035' 44'’ E) is locatedin the fertile alluvial land of southern (right) bankof river Tons or Tamsa or Chhoti Sarju (a tributaryof river Ganga) in the heart of the triangleconstituted by joining the Azamgarh, Ballia andGhazipur district in the Eastern Uttar Pradesh(Fig.1). It lies on the main urban axis of majorhandicraft, industrial and commercial centres onGorakhpur-Mau-Azamgarh-Shahganj-Allahabadand Varanasi-Mau-Bhatani-Gorakhpur/ Chhapranorthern and north-east railways and on thecrossing point of NH-29 (National Highway) andSH-34 (State Highway) roads, as well as mainGorakhpur-Mau-Varanasi-Mumbai railway route.The city has well developed transport network andis connected with roads and railways fromdifferent part of the country. The city, a districtheadquarter (1988), has been an important centreof cotton textile both as manufacturing andhandloom as well as power loom in Eastern UttarPradesh. The surrounding region of the city haswell developed as agro-based industries.

Objectives

The main objective of the study is to analysethe population growth and comparative growth ofpopulation of major cities in eastern Uttar Pradesh,adjacent districts and minority towns in India. The

following aspects have been taken in toconsideration:

(a) to analyse comparative growth ofpopulation of minority town in India(Top 12 cities only), major cities ineastern Uttar Pradesh (only thosecities have Land Use Master Plan)and adjacent cities (Azamgarh,Ghazipur and Ballia),

(b) temporal growth of population ofthe city

Data Base and Methodology

Research is a scientific and systematicsearch for knowledge. It is the pursuit of truthwith the help of study, observation, comparisonand experiments. In short, the search forknowledge through objective and systematicmethod of finding solution to a problem isresearch. In the present study, population growthand comparative growth of population of majorcities in Eastern Uttar Pradesh (only those citieshave Land Use Master Plan), adjacent districts andminority towns in India (Top 12 cities only), has

LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

Fig. 1: Location of Maunath Bhanjan City

S. Minority Total Percentage of Rank in Rank inNo. Towns / Cities Population Minority District State India U.P.

Population

1 SOPORE 58,712 99% Baramula Jammu &Kashmir I

2 BARAMULLA 69,871 97% Baramula Jammu &Kashmir II

3 ANANTNAG 88,442 97% Anantnag Jammu &Kashmir III

4 MALEGAON 4,09,403 78% Nashik Maharashtra IV5 SAMBHAL 1,82,478 77% Moradabad Uttar Pradesh V I6 MALAPPURAM 58,491 75% Malappuram Kerala VI7 DHULIAN 72,850 75% Murshidabad West Bengal VII8 RAMPUR 2,81,494 71% Rampur Uttar Pradesh VIII II9 MAKRANA 83,289 66% Nagaur Rajasthan IX

10 KAMPTEE 84,344 62% Nagpur Maharashtra X11 MAUNATH BHANJAN 2,12,657 58% Mau Uttar Pradesh XI III12 BIJNOR 79,368 54% Bijnor Uttar Pradesh XII IV

Source:UIDSSMT, (2010). Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns, Ministry of UrbanDevelopment, Government of India, http://www.uidssmt.org; Accessed on 26.02.2014.

been dealt with. The secondary data were collectedthrough published/ unpublished records ofMunicipal Corporation, PWD, Census of India(Lucknow) and minority town data fromUIDSSMT, (2010). The maps are geo-referencedwith the help of the toposheet no. 63 O/9 anddigitized and exported to Arc GIS 9.3 softwarefor creation of different layers.

Comparative Growth of Population of MaunathBhanjan City

The population growth of Maunath Bhanjancity is compared with - a) minority towns in India(Top 12 cities only), b) major cities of EasternUttar Pradesh; and c) adjacent cities of MaunathBhanjan like Ghazipur, Azamgarh and Ballia.

Comparative Growth of Minority Population inIndia

Table 1 shows comparative status ofMinorities towns/ cities in India. The Maunath

Bhanjan city is under the minorities (speciallyMuslims), consisting of about 58 percentpopulation (UIDSSMT, 2010) in 2001 (2,12,657persons), which reached third in the rank of theState of Uttar Pradesh after Sambhal (Moradabad)(77%) and Rampur (71%). In India, its rank is11th as a minority’s city after Sopore (Baramula)(99%), Baramula (97%), Anantnag (97%), inJammu & Kashmir; Malegaon (Nashik) (78%) inMaharashtra; Sambhal (Moradabad) (77%) in UttarPradesh; Malappuram (75%) in Kerala; Dhulian(Murshidabad) (75%) in West Bengal); Rampur(71%) in Uttar Pradesh; Makrana (Nagaur, 66%)in Rajasthan; Kamptee (Nagpur) (62%) inMaharashtra; Maunath Bhanjan (Mau) (58%) andBijnor (54%) in Uttar Pradesh. The MaunathBhanjan city is identified as one of the modernweaving centre in the Eastern Uttar Pradesh.Weaving, the culture of the town, originated fromthis place during the period of Mughal king Jahangiraround 16th century A.D. It is said that Tan Sen –one of the weavers, produced good variety of cloth

at that time. Today, it has become the householdindustry in every Muslim household with a figureof around 75 thousand looms. That is the reasonbehind high concentration of minorities (speciallyMuslims) here. The evolution of the townscapeof Maunath Bhanjan bears an intimate relationshipwith the physical setting of its site. As seen in theforegoing, landscape, the river, handicrafts, indust-rial, commercial centres, public and semi – publicuses and connectivity of the city, the character ofthe habitat has induced the development of variousparts of the town during different periods. TheChowk or old town was attracted by cotton textileboth as manufacturing and handloom as well aspower loom and alluvial plain for easy access towater–supply through tanks; while a well drainedarea could attract settlements during the lastcentury.

Comparative Growth of Population in majorcities of Eastern Uttar Pradesh

The comparative growth of population ofMaunath Bhanjan city in reference to other majorcities of Eastern Uttar Pradesh is high. BeforeIndepen-dence, in census year 1921, the populationof the town like Maunath Bhanjan was 17,998persons (+7.44%), Ghazipur was 24,708 persons(+11.47%), Azamgarh was 14,788 persons(+36.50%), Ballia was 18,215 persons (+9.18%),Deoria was 5,579 persons (+67.09%), Jaunpurwas 32,569 persons (+6.88%), Mughalsarai was2,430 persons, Faizabad was 56,620 persons(3.60%), Gonda was 17,159 persons (+5.44%)and Basti was 17,691 persons (+54.55%) i.e.,growth of population of Maunath Bhanjan townwas low and growth rate of major cities in EasternUttar Pradesh was also low except Jaunpur,Faizabad and Gonda during this period (Fig. 2).

After Independence, in census year 1951,the population of town like Maunath Bhanjan was34,807 persons (+18.56%), Ghazipur was 33,498persons (+6.93%), Azamgarh was 26,632 persons(+9.57%), Ballia was 30,638 persons (+30.26%),

Deoria was 20,156 persons (32.62%), Jaunpurwas 52,351 persons (+16.77%), Mughalsarai was7,332 persons (+31.70%), Faizabad was 76,582persons (+38.70), Gonda was 32,566 persons(+12.21%) and Basti was 33,203 persons(+38.97%) was moderate and growth rate lowexcept Ghazipur, Azamgarh, Jaunpur and Gondaof Maunath Bhanjan city. While growth ofpopulation of Maunath Bhanjan city in census year2011, is 2,78,745 persons (+31.08%) became veryhigh as compared to Ghazipur 1,21,020 persons(+17.16%), Azamgarh 1,10,983 persons(+18.67%), Ballia 1,04,424 persons (+2.92%),Deoria 1,29,479 persons (+24.23%), Jaunpur1,80,362 persons (+12.69%), Mughalsarai1,09,650 persons (+24.06), Faizabad 1,65,228persons (+14.18%), Gonda is 1,14,046 persons(-5.2%) and Basti 1,14,657 persons (+6.56%) aswell as growth rate is also high due to mediumscale industries, better infrastructure (roadnetwork, health care and electricity) and as districtheadquarter (1988) in Eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Comparative Growth of Adjacent Cities:Ghazipur, Azamgarh and Ballia

Comparative growth of population ofMaunath Bhanjan town then its adjacent towns ishigh. Before Independence, in census year 1901,the population of Maunath Bhanjan (17,696persons) was comparatively low except Ballia(15,278 persons) in adjacent towns like Ghazipur(39,429 persons) and Azamgarh (18,835 persons).After Independence, in census year 1951, thepopulation of Maunath Bhanjan (34,807 persons)become moderate high than its adjacent towns likeGhazipur (33,498 persons), Azamgarh (26,632persons) and Ballia (30,638 persons). The increaseof population of adjacent towns of MaunathBhanjan like Ghazipur (1,21,020 persons),Azamgarh (1,10,983 persons) and Ballia (1,04,424persons) are low in current census year (2011)and the percentage increase in population are 17.16,18.67 and 2.92 respectively (Fig. 3). While growth

Fig. 2

Source: Based on Data Available from Town Directory (1901-2011), Directorate of Census Operations, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow.

Fig. 3

Source:Based on Data Available from Town Directory (1872-2011), Directorate of Census Operations, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow.

(2,78,745 persons) and percentage (31.08)increase in population of Maunath Bhanjan city isvery high as comparatively than its adjacent cities,because of the city is significant for due to cottontextile and handicrafts as well as other industrialunits in the recent past.

Temporal Growth of Population of MaunathBhanjan City

The growth of population is the mostpowerful single factor contributing to the changesin land use both in urban and rural. Populationgrowth reflects the development processes relatedto urbanization, industrialization and modernizationof an urban centre. The past trend of populationgrowth is the indicator of future development. Thefirst available reliable census was taken in 1881,therefore, the trend of population growth in thecity has been studied since then.

Trends of Population Growth

The analysis of the population growth andthe trend of growth rate is required for evaluatingthe existing as well as future population resource.The growth of population has a direct effect onper capita utilization of available resources,although Maunath Bhanjan has been an importanttown since past. The first census enumeration ofthe town was made in 1872, without applyingscientific procedure. The decennial enumerationsystem could be adopted only in 1901. Thepopulation growth of the city may be analysedconveniently with the help of census data availablefrom 1872 onwards (Fig. 3). The city wasflourishing since the British period in the laterdecades of 19th century. The city is significant forcotton textile and handicrafts as well as otherindustrial units in the recent past. First recordedpopulation data of Maunath Bhanjan is 11315persons in 1872. According to the first census1881, the population of Maunath Bbanjan is 14945persons which shows an increase of 32.08

percent. But since 1891 and 1901, the populationshows a very slow increase, i.e., 602 persons(4.03%) and 2149 persons (13.82%) respectively.According to the census 1911, the population ofMaunath Bhanjan is 16751 persons. The 1911figure shows a decline (-5.36%) over the previouscensus which might possibly be due to theepidemic spread on a large scale. Since 1921, thepopulation began to increase and it continuedsteadily till 1931. The 1931, census indicates anabrupt jump with a percentage increase of 74.21.It was mainly due to the installation of varioustextile and handicraft industries which providedgreat opportunity for employment. Once again, in1941, there was a decline (-6.37%) over theprevious census which was due to the epidemicspread in the state as well as nation. Since 1951,the population began to increase, which continuedsteadily till 1981. The 1991 census indicates asignificance increase of population which was 1,36,697 persons (58.35%) due to creation of newdistrict Mau (1988). The administrative andjudiciary offices were established primarily in thecity and simultaneously the area of the municipalitywhich was 777 hectares in 1981 increased 1530hectares in 1991. According to census 1981 to2011, both population growth and area of MaunathBhanjan increased, i.e., 34.76, 58.35, 55.57 and31.08 percent with the increase in area, i.e., 911,1530, 2561 and 4917 ha, respectively. The city isan old handloom and small scale industries, locatedin the fertile alluvial land of southern (right) bankof river Tons or Tamsa or Chhoti Sarju in EasternUttar Pradesh. The average growth rate of the cityis 2.78 percent (1872-2011) per annum, whereasaverage decadal growth rate is 29.88 percent(1881-2011). The average decadal growth rateduring 1881 to 1951 is very low (19.77%),whereas during 1951 to 1981 decadal growth rateis moderate (35.41%) and during 1981 to 2011, itis very high (48.33%). The population growth ofMaunath Bhanjan city has been analysed into twoPhase:

(A) Phase of Pre-independence (1901-1951) and

(B) Phase of Post-independence (1951-2011)

Further, it has been divided into three distinctperiods as follows:

Period of Slow Growth (1901-1951)

During this period (1901-1951), thepopulation growth was fluctuating. The populationof Maunath Bhanjan town was 17,696 persons in1901. In 1911, population became 16,751 personswhich showed a decline of -5.36% due to spreadof epidemics like plague caused high death ratewhich was prevalent in the country and known as‘Indian Demographic Division’. Further,population increased to 17,998 persons (a growthrate of 7.44%) followed by 31,354 persons(74.21%) in 1931, an unexpected populationgrowth in this decade. Again in 1941, populationdecreased to 29,357 persons, which noticed adecline of -6.37 percent caused due to againoccurrence of drought and famines in the town aswell as in the State. In the census year 1951, thepopulation again increased to 34,807 persons(18.56%) which was observed a moderately lowgrowth in pre-independence phase. There-fore,during 1881-1951 (in seven decade) an averagedecadal growth rate was 19.77%, whereas thedecade 1941-51 also observed coinciding the samegrowth rate of 18.56 percent. Therefore, this isthe phase/ period of low growth of popula-tion.The reasons for slow growth from 1872 – 1951are the famines and spread epidemics like plague(1911), influenza (1918), cholera (1918) anddrought and famines (1941) which took a goodtoll of human life (death) resulting in a generaldecline of population. Though a small portion ofrural population moved towards the town becauseof the famines experien-ced in 1918 and, its impactwas not over-weighing to that of epidemic disease.The population of the town, in 1911 and 1941

declined (-5.36% and -6.37% respectively) overthe previous census years and it was recoveringfrom the shock of epidemics. It is significant totake that decade (1921-1931) has an unexpectedgrowth showing a percentage increase ofpopulation, i.e., 74.21 percent.

2. Period of Moderate Growth (1951-1981)

The year 1951, is known as second‘demographic division’, after that populationgrowth of Maunath Bhanjan shows a remarkablerise. In between 1951 to 1981, the average growthrate (35.41%) of town was medium in thesedecades. In decade 1951, population of the citywas 48,785 persons and area was 1.29 sq. km.which further increased in decade 1961 to 48,785persons (40.16%) and 7.77 km2 (1961)respectively (Fig. 3). In 1971, population increasedto 64,058 persons while growth rate (31.31%)which decreased in the previous decade. While1981, both population and area rose to 86,326persons (34.76%) and 9.11 km2 respectively.Therefore, the population of the city in last threedecades (the average decadal population growthrate 35.41%) was twice with medium growth,whereas in this phase population growth wascontinuously increased, due to which establish-ment of small scale handloom industries and twoindustrial mills, development of health services todecrease death rate and development of fundamen-tals needs of town. In increase area (1951- 1.29km2, 1981- 9.11 km2) was also main reason.During 1951 to 1981, the trend of populationgrowth shows a remarkable rise moderately; dueto which condition was a normal and free fromepidemics or famines, which led to the naturalprocesses of increase from this phase onward(Fig. 4).

3 Period of High Growth (1981-2011)

After 1981, the population growth hasincreased with a faster rate (48.33%) in last threedecades (1991, 2011 & 2011) compared to

previous phase. During this phase averagepopulation growth rate (48.33%) was above thetwice with high growth. In 1991, population ofthe city was 1,36,697 persons and growth rate(58.35%) which was very high due to increase inarea (15.30 km2). Therefore, Maunath Bhanjanbecame as a city in this decade (1991). It wasmainly due to creation of new district Mau (1988).The administrative and judicial offices wereestablished and development of fundamentals needsof city increased. Hence, working populationshifted towards administrative offices andattraction of the rural-urban migration to the city.The population of the city in 2001 was 2,12,657persons with high growth rate (55.57%) butslightly decreased growth rate from previousdecade (1991). The popula tion (2,78,745persons) of the city grew by 31.08 percent inthe last decade (2001-2011) Fig. 4). It wasbecause the people from the rural areas hadstarted developing their choice of getting settledin the city. It was more a matter of status symbolto have a house in the city. It had nothing to dowith the socio-economic development the city,but increased infrastructural facilities like roadnetwork, railways, electricity, health care, watersupply, educational, sewage, communi-cation aswell as commercial facilities.

Conclusion

It is typically significant to note that thiscity is dominated and settled by minorities(specially Muslims) consisting of about 58 percentpopulation (UIDSSMT, 2010) in 2001 (2,12,657persons) which reached third in the rank of theState of Uttar Pradesh after Sambhal (77%) andRampur (71%). This old part of the city is highlyconcentrated by Muslims in the Chowk as well assouth and south – west of the city. In India, itsrank is 11th as a minority’s city. Due to whichweaving culture of the town, originated from thisplace during the period of Mughal king Jahangiraround 16th century A.D. It is said that Tan Sen –

one of the weavers, produced good variety of clothat that time. Today, it has become the householdindustry in every Muslim household with a figureof around 75 thousand looms. The growth ofMaunath Bhanjan city is very remarkable as asignificant because the recent urban landscapechanges occurred due to creation of districtheadquarter. The average growth rate of the cityis 2.78 percent (1872-2011) per annual increase,whereas average decadal growth rate is 29.88percent (1872-2011). The average decadal growthrate (19.77%) during 1881 to 1951 is very slow,whereas during 1951 to 1981 period the decadalgrowth rate (35.41%) is moderate. During 1981to 2011, it has an average growth rate (48.33%) isvery high due to the Mau district formed in 1988by division of Azamgarh district and MaunathBhanjan city becames district headquarter.Therefore, all the administrative offices includinggovern-ments, semi-government, district court andjudiciary, and other offices for public welfare areestablished.

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* Research Scholar (CSIR-UGC-Senior Research Fellow), Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, BanarasHindu University, Varanasi; U.P., India. (Email: sanjaybhugeo@gmail.com), Mob. No. 9628224373