A PROJECT REPORT ON

FLIGHT SAFETY

SUBMITTED BY

ROLL NO. 24

T.Y.B.Sc (Aviation)

THE BOMBAY FLYING CLUB’S COLLEGE OF AVIATION

SUBMITTED TO

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

ACADEMIC YEAR

(2013-2014)

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Foreword

“Safety is the notion when the risk of causing harm to a person or property is reduced and supported at acceptable or lower level due to continuous process of danger and risk management”

Hazards pose serious danger to the safety of the flight. Identification, elimination and more importantly prevention of these various hazards is crucial for safe operations. This project report is an overview of fundamental safety management concepts and practices applicable to implementation of safety programmes as well as the implementation and oversight of safety management systems by product and service providers and operators.

Safety is a concern of everyone who flies or contemplates it. One can be provided with volumes of information about the attention to safety given by the airline industry. No other form of transportation is as scrutinized, investigated and monitored as commercial aviation.

Everyone who is involved in aviation, regardless of our roles, has always considered safety to be our first priority. Whether we are air traffic controllers, pilots, dispatchers, maintenance professionals or other members of the aviation community, our actions are driven by the principle “safety first”.

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Index The Concept of Safety 3

Onboard 4

Emergency Situations 5

Fire On Board an Aircraft 6

Smoke On Board an Aircraft 11

Fuel Tank Inerting Systems 13

Decompression in Flight 15

Brace for Impact 18

Evacuation 19

Ditching 21

Fuel Jettison 23

Conclusion 25

Bibliography 26

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The Concept of Safety

Within the context of aviation, safety is ―the state in which the possibility of harm to persons or of property damage is reduced to, and maintained at or below, an acceptable level through a continuing process of hazard identification and safety risk management.

While the elimination of aircraft accidents and/or serious incidents remains the ultimate goal, it is recognized that the aviation system cannot be completely free of hazards and associated risks. Human activities or human-built systems cannot be guaranteed to be absolutely free from operational errors and their consequences. Therefore, safety is a dynamic characteristic of the aviation system, whereby safety risks must be continuously mitigated. It is important to note that the acceptability of safety performance is often influenced by domestic and international norms and culture. As long as safety risks are kept under an appropriate level of control, a system as open and dynamic as aviation can still be managed to maintain the appropriate balance between production and protection.

One of the most important aspects of flight safety is that all crewmembers should be aware that it is vital to communicate, cooperate and work together as a team, in both routine and emergency situations.

The following chain of command should always be respected:

• Pilot-In-Command (PIC) • First Officer or Cruise Captain (where applicable) • Flight Engineer or Second Officer (where applicable) • Lead Cabin Crewmember • Cabin Crewmember

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The PIC is responsible for the safety of the passengers, crewmembers, cargo, and aircraft at the exact point at which the PIC assumes that responsibility in the aircraft and continues until released from flight duty. Any disagreements relating to this authority will be handled after the completion of the flight through the proper authority. In the event both the PIC and First Officer (and other flight deck crew) become incapacitated, the Lead Cabin Crewmember should take command and ensure the safety of the passengers.

The Cabin Crew is in charge of the passenger cabin area and should ensure compliance with all applicable State regulations (e.g., Canadian Aviation Regulations, Federal Aviation Regulations, Joint Aviation Requirements, etc.) concerning safety of flight and passenger activity in the cabin.

Onboard When you’re on a plane, you may hear a flight attendant give a speech like this:

We’ll be taking off momentarily, so please make sure your carryon baggage is stowed securely, either in an overhead compartment or under the seat in front of you. Mobile phones and other electronic devices should be turned off. There are six exits on this plane – 3 doors, on each side. All exits are clearly marked with an exit sign. Please take the time to find the exit nearest you. If you’re seated in an exit row, please review the responsibilities for emergency exit seating, on the back of the safety information card which is in your seat pocket. If you are unable, or prefer not to do this, please let us know, and we will be happy to find you another seat. If there is a loss of cabin pressure, the panels above your seat will open, and oxygen masks will drop down. If this happens, place the mask over your nose and mouth, and adjust it as necessary. Be sure to adjust your own mask before helping others. In the event of a water landing, life vests are under your seat. Whenever the seat belt sign is on, please make sure your seat belt is fastened. Smoking is not allowed on our flights, and federal law prohibits tampering with, disabling, or destroying a smoke detector. Thank you for your attention. We hope you enjoy your flight!

The cabin crew arm the doors, perform necessary cross checks, and notify the Lead Cabin Crewmember upon completion. A safety demonstration is given to passengers prior to each takeoff. All cabin crew should instruct the passengers via video or actual demonstration on the following:

• Importance of following crewmember instructions • Restrictions on the use of passenger owned electronic devices • Smoking restrictions • Fastening seat belts • Putting seat backs in the upright position • Stowing tray tables • Opening window shades fully (some Operator’s procedures)

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• Location of emergency exits • Showing the safety instruction seat pocket card • Use of life vest • Use of oxygen drop-out systems

Note: The items above are listed in the order in which they would occur in flight.

Passenger seat belts are provided on every seat. They consist of two parts to be secured tightly during take-off, landing and any time the passenger is seated. Seat belt extensions should also be available. Cabin crew should check them before every departure.

Life Jackets are used for floatation in a ditching situation. They can be found under each cabin seat. Passengers' life jackets are normally in yellow colour and a different colour for the crew. Life Jackets are made up of two buoyancy chambers that can be inflated by two CO2 cartridges, one for each chamber. Alternatively, two mouthpieces -one for each chamber- may be used to inflate or deflate them. A water activated light and a whistle are incorporated for the purpose of attracting rescuers' attention.

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To don an adult life jacket: Slip it over your head; Fasten the hooks; Pull it tight around the waist; Pull down sharply on gas release knobs to inflate; Blow into the red tubes to top up the air if needed; to loosen the belt, squeeze the buckles.

Life jackets for infants are exactly the same as life jackets for adults, except that they are single chamber jackets. Children up to the age of 4 years or those weighing up to 20 kilograms may use these life jackets.

Emergency Situations The majority of all emergencies happen on take-off or landing with no prior warning. These emergencies are sudden and unexpected, leaving minimum time to react. Whenever a take-off or landing manoeuvre exhibits a definite difference in forces, sounds, or attitudes from the normal, determine the necessity to prepare the passengers for a possible impact and if deemed appropriate shout passenger protective commands repeatedly (e.g., ‘Bend down, stay down’).

The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough familiarity with, and adherence to, the procedures developed by the airplane manufacturer with addition to regulations. The PIC will advise the Lead Cabin Crewmember of an emergency situation as soon as possible. The Lead Cabin Crewmember will obtain the necessary information to prepare the cabin crewmembers and cabin.

Fire On Board an Aircraft Fire is considered to be the most serious in-flight emergency. A recent study of in-flight fires carried out by the Transportation Safety Board of Canada, in which 15 in-flight fires between the years 1967 and 1998 were studied, revealed that the average length of time between the discovery of an in-flight fire and the actual landing of the aircraft/CFIT is 17 minutes.

A fire must be brought under control as soon as possible. Considering how time critical this type of emergency is; it is imperative that not a second is lost in trying to suppress the fire and minimize the risk to the flight. Due to the nature of a fire, and it’s devastating effects on an aircraft, particularly within a confined space, it is important to know what steps should be taken to prevent the fire, and to stop it from spreading. Emphasis has been placed on crews taking “Immediate and aggressive action” to locate the source of the fire and to immediately put it out. Any fire, no matter how small, may rapidly become out of control, if not dealt with immediately. Therefore, at the first sign of any fire, the first priority will always be to put it out.

In-flight fire fighting skills require knowledge, technique and realistic “hands on” training for crewmembers.

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While every effort is made by manufacturers, regulatory authorities and Operators to reduce the risk of fire on board by providing fire resistant material and enforcing rules designed to minimize fire hazards, fires still occur for various reasons.

Sometimes a fire may not always be obvious and smoke and flames may not always be visible, but there may be other indications that a potential fire is in progress. Signs to be aware of include:

• Fumes or unusual odours • Electrical malfunctions, for example, circuit breakers “tripping” • Noises, such as, popping, snapping or crackling, which may indicate electrical

arcing • Hot spots on sidewalls, floors, and panels should be investigated.

The best fire prevention involves continuous vigilance in the application of the procedures described, and a thorough program that describes the three elements of fire along with the need to keep these elements separated.

The three elements of fire are:

1. Oxygen (present in the atmosphere, in certain emergency/medical equipment) 2. Ignition source (electric, heat, matches) 3. Flammable solid or substance (material, paper, rubber, fuel, gases, etc.)

The Fire Triangle

Fires can be complex, in order to fight a fire successfully crewmembers need to know what they may have to deal with, therefore it is important to know a little about fire chemistry and combustion and the different “classes” of fire.

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There are several types of fires that can occur on an aircraft. Crew should be able to identify each type and determine the most effective extinguishing agent to use.

Fires are divided into four main groups with different characteristics:

Class A Fire - Flammable Solids

Any object that might catch ignition and be set on fire requiring the cooling effect of water (e.g., material, wood, paper, cushions, etc.) It is safe to use any type of extinguishers against such fire whenever water is not available.

Smoke: Usually greyish/brown in colour. Can be quite thick depending on the quantity of fuel.

Class B Fire - Liquid Fire

Liquid fire involves flammable substances that are usually lighter than water (e.g., oil, fuel, paint, kerosene). Water and water glycol fire extinguishers should not be used

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to fight such fire, as water will only help it spread and expand. Concentration should be on the exclusion of oxygen.

Smoke: Usually black in colour, very thick, very distinct oil/petrol-like odour.

Class C Fire - Electrical Fire

Fire involving electrical equipment is usually the result of a short circuit. It is essential to cut the electrical source of ignition and exclude the oxygen. Beware of using water against such fire to prevent electric shocks. If there is no other alternative, water glycol extinguishers could be used in short shots.

Smoke: Usually light grey, nearly white with a bluish tinge. Very fine smoke can disperse rapidly. Has a distinct acrid odour.

Class D Fire – Metal Fire

Metal fire involves certain combustible metals (e.g., magnesium, titanium, potassium, sodium). These metals burn at high temperatures and give off sufficient oxygen to support combustion. They may react violently with water or other chemicals and must be handled with care. Never discharge Halon on Class D fires.

Halon or BCF (chemical name bromochlorodiflouromethane, are member of the chemical family of Halogenated Hydrocarbons) is a liquefied gas that extinguishes fires by chemically interrupting a fire’s combustion chain, as opposed to physically smothering the fire. This is one of the main reasons why Halon is effective when the exact source of the fire cannot be positively determined. A small concentration of Halon in the air as a vapor will prevent a fire from continuing to burn. Halon is toxic, and crewmembers should take precautions when using a Halon extinguisher in a confined/unventilated area. A PBE (Portable breathing equipment) should be used.

Fire fighting principles aim at limiting the area of fire by eliminating any one of its three components: i.e., cutting the source of ignition, cooling the heat (by water glycol fire extinguishers, liquids) or by smothering the fire by isolating it from oxygen (halon extinguishers, blankets, pillows)

Fire has three recognized stages:

• The Incipient Stage: The preheating stage, when the fire is in slow progress.

• The Smouldering Stage: When the initial combustion begins. This is the stage were a light haze will appear, or smoke particles may be visible. The smoke particles can be transported away from the source by convection and background air movement.

• The Flame Stage: When the fire has fully developed, and is spreading rapidly.

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A fire will continue until:

• All the fuel has been consumed • One, or more, element has been removed • The temperature has been reduced • The chain reaction has been broken.

How to Use a Fire Extinguisher:

Engine Fire

Take account of whether the aeroplane is in the air or on the ground. The following are general considerations and are not specific to type.

Piston Engine Fire:

1. Fuel off

2. Allow the engine to run dry

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3. The system should then be purged of fuel

4. Ignition off

Jet Engine Fire:

1. Close the thrust lever

2. Engine start lever to cut-off

3. Pull the engine fire warning switch

If the warning continues, operate the fire extinguisher system. If this does not work, after 30 seconds, operate the second fire extinguisher system.

Turboprop Engine Fire

Same as for the Jet Engine Fire except that at some stage the propeller needs feathering.

Smoke On Board an Aircraft It has been said that: “There is no smoke, without fire”. This may not always be true; however, it would certainly be a good indication of an abnormal situation. Many smoke occurrences are resolved, and do not affect the operation of a flight. All reports of smoke in the cabin must be regarded as potentially serious. It is important that crewmembers respond, report, and be aware of the indications of smoke. Identifying the source of smoke, and taking immediate action, will significantly minimize the risk of fire onboard the aircraft.

The existence of smoke may impact flight operations, cause flight diversions, and may result in delays, cancellations, declared emergencies, evacuations. In addition, the presence of smoke may physically affect passengers and crewmembers, if it is not dealt with rapidly and efficiently.

It is wise to treat a smoke occurrence as a fire, until it has been proven otherwise. Keep in mind that the development of an odour, or smoke, takes some time to reach a level that is easily noticeable.

Another indication may be a surface that is abnormally warm. If the source can be identified and is connected to an electrical source; the circuit breaker relating to that coffeemaker should be pulled. If the source of the smoke cannot be identified, and is coming from the galley area, isolate the area by using the “galley shutoff”, or by pulling all of the galley circuit breakers to cut off the power source.

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Example of Galley Circuit Breaker Panel

Components and Physiological Effects

The nature of smoke, its ability to spread quickly, and its chemical components and fumes may cause damage rapidly, and lead to death within a relatively short period of time. Smoke has the ability to impair judgment and affect performance. The effects of smoke inhalation depend on the individual level of tolerance. Materials that the used in the cabin, such as curtains, plastic, paper, or carpets, release toxic fumes when smouldering.

• Carbon monoxide (CO): This is produced when carbon-based items burn. Many items onboard the aircraft are carbon-based.

Effects: Dizziness, headaches, vomiting, impaired alertness, problems of vision and lack of judgment.

• Hydrogen cyanide: This is produced when nitrogen based items burn. These include items such as, wool, silk and nitrogen-based synthetics.

Effects: The effects are the same as the above-listed for carbon monoxide. However, because hydrogen cyanide interferes with the way oxygen is carried in the body, and its effects on the respiratory system, death from cyanide poisoning is relatively quick.

• Hydrogen chloride & Acrolein: Both of these chemicals are found in smoke that is produced, when electrical wires burn.

Effects: These act as a severe irritant to the eyes and the respiratory tract, causing pain, tears and disorientation.

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In some cases, when smoke and toxic gases have been present in the cabin, some crews have had difficulty in communicating, due to the effects of smoke inhalation. The ability to communicate effectively during any abnormal situation is extremely important.

Some measures to be taken for protection

• Do not open the cockpit door, unless it is absolutely necessary. Every effort should be made to prevent smoke and fumes from contaminating the cockpit

• Move passengers away from the area if possible. Otherwise encourage them to keep their heads as low as possible

• The use of wet towels, or wet cloth, filters out acidic gases such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen cyanide, as well as smoke particles. Instruct passengers to breathe, placing the wet towels/cloths over their nose and mouth

• Crewmembers should use Protective Breathing Equipment (PBEs) to protect themselves.

• Cabin crewmembers should immediately advise the PIC of the situation • The PIC should assess the situation and, if required, initiate the smoke

evacuation procedure according to the aircraft type • Continuously observe passengers for signs of incipient panic and take

additional action if required • Administer oxygen via portable oxygen bottle to any passenger experiencing

respiratory difficulties due to smoke and fumes; ensure such passengers are moved away from the fire area prior to oxygen administration

Smoke in the Cargo Compartment On the flight deck or in the passenger compartment, smoke is immediately obvious and the drills can be actioned. Usually unmanned, any smoke present in the cargo compartment may escape attention until warning devices indicate increased temperature due to any fire. To overcome this, linked smoke detectors (similar to domestic smoke detector) are in cargo compartments and crewmembers must visit the compartment (if possible) at regular intervals. Fuel Tank Inerting Systems Fire is the most hazardous occurrence for an aircraft in flight or on ground. Both fire and smoke have adverse consequences in the cabin. A huge amount of fuel is sustained in the aircraft’s fuel tanks typically located in the wings and centre of fuselage. Any lapse in the system either electrical or otherwise which may ignite this fuel will certainly prove catastrophic.

An inerting system decreases the probability of combustion of inflammable materials stored in a confined space, especially a fuel tank, by maintaining a chemically non-

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reactive or "inert" gas, such as nitrogen, in such a space. "Inerted" fuel tanks may be used on land, or aboard ships or aircraft.

Fuel Inerting System (Nitrogen Generators)

Three elements are required to initiate and sustain combustion: an ignition source (heat), fuel and oxygen. Combustion may be prevented by reducing any one of these three elements. If the presence of an ignition source cannot be prevented within a fuel tank, then the tank may be made inert by:

1) Reducing the oxygen concentration of the ullage—the space above a liquid fuel—to below that capable of combustion (the combustion threshold);

2) Reducing the fuel concentration of the ullage to below the "lower explosive limit" (LEL), the minimum concentration capable combustion; or

3) Increasing the fuel concentration to above the "upper explosive limit" (UEL), the maximum concentration capable of combustion.

Fuel tank inerting systems improve aircraft safety by reducing the volatility of the ullage, or air volume above the fuel, in an aircraft fuel tank. As fuel is consumed during flight, the fuel level in the tank is lowered and the remaining oxygen in the ullage is replaced by non-flammable inert gas. Reducing oxygen in the fuel tank prevents combustion in the tank, even if a spark is present.

Advanced system technology includes state-of-the-art membrane gas separators, which reduces the oxygen concentration of the air entering the fuel tank. Also precise pressure, temperature and oxygen concentration controls optimize performance over the various phases of the flight envelope.

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The system greatly enhances flight safety for commercial and military aircraft. Advances in technology and design enable systems that are highly reliable, lightweight and efficient.

Decompression in Flight The pressurization system of the aircraft is used to create a denser atmosphere within the cabin so that crew and passengers are kept comfortable and continue to breathe normally. Decompression occurs whenever cabin altitude exceeds the preset altitude in an uncontrolled way. It could be slow, at which time remedial action such as descent to a lower level is taken, with little chance of causing damage to the cabin or its occupants. Cabin crew may be aware of a slow decompression if the oxygen masks drop down. In this event it is essential for cabin crewmembers to grab an oxygen mask and put it on regardless of how normal cabin conditions may appear.

The pressurized cabin protects the occupants from the physiological risks of high altitude. The external altitude may be 41,000 feet, therefore the difference between the cabin altitude and the external altitude, creates a “pressure differential”.

During decompression, the cabin pressure rises rapidly to equalize with the external environmental pressure. Loss of cabin pressure may be attributed to many causes, for example: Structural damage, system malfunction at the source of pressurization (air conditioning packs or bleed air), a faulty door seal, or a cracked window.

There is always a remote possibility of a rapid loss of cabin pressure in any pressurized aircraft. The signs of rapid decompression are:

• A rush of air • Loud bang • Rapid drop in temperature • Cabin filled with dust, debris, loose objects • Noise level will increase considerably • Moisture will condense in the form of fine mist

Occupants will also feel some of the physiological effects such as:

• Hypoxia • Hypothermia • Gas expansion • Exposure to windblast.

At decompression flight deck crew should accomplish the emergency procedures for decompression/emergency descent.

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Slow decompression may occur, however, it may not be obvious: There will be no fog or sound of air rushing through the cabin, or any visible indication of decompression. Therefore, cabin crewmembers must be alert to any clues that may indicate slow decompression.

One of the first physiological indications may be ear discomfort, or ‘popping’, joint pain, or stomach pain as the gas expands.

Oxygen Systems

When the cabin altitude increases above 14,000 feet, the oxygen masks that are housed above the passenger seats, in the lavatories, galleys, and crew stations will deploy automatically. The flight crew may also manually deploy the oxygen mask system. When the compartments are open, the masks drop down, and are suspended by a lanyard. The oxygen masks are normally in groups, depending on the seat row configuration of the aircraft. Each group of masks has a release pin that is connected to a lanyard. It is sufficient to pull one mask, to activate the oxygen for that entire row of seats. There are two different passenger oxygen systems that are currently used on aircraft: Chemical and Gaseous. However, there are some differences between the two.

Chemical Oxygen Generator: The chemical system generates a chemical reaction, when the mask has been pulled down and the release pin has been removed. When the oxygen begins to flow to the mask, it will continue for either 15 or 22 minutes.

It is not possible to stop the flow of oxygen when it has started. The chemical generator creates heat and becomes hot, therefore a smell of burning, where dust has gathered, is not unusual. Passengers may become concerned with the smell of burning associated with the oxygen generators.

A passenger announcement should be made, when it is considered safe to do so.

Gaseous Oxygen: A number of high-pressure oxygen bottles, contained within the aircraft, supply gaseous oxygen to the cabin. Unlike the chemically generated oxygen that works independently from the aircraft altitude, the gaseous system is activated depending on the cabin altitude. The mask receives pure oxygen under positive pressure, at a rate governed by the cabin altitude pressure. The lower the altitude, the less oxygen will flow to the masks. When the cabin altitude reaches

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10,000 feet, the oxygen supply will stop. Unlike the chemically generated oxygen, there is no burning odour, because there no heat is generated.

Cockpit Oxygen

In the event of depressurization, or emissions of smoke or noxious gases, a fixed oxygen system in the cockpit supplies adequate oxygen to the flight crew.

Four full-face quick donning facemasks are stowed in boxes that are easy to access, adjacent to the crewmembers’ seats (one per seat).

How to use the cockpit oxygen:

1. Remove the mask from the storage box, and then squeeze and pull the two red grips upwards. Continue to squeeze the red grips, as this causes the oxygen flow to inflate the head harness.

2. When the mask is in place, release the grips (so that the oxygen flows out of the harness), and then tie the mask to the face.

3. The mask can be donned with one hand. The microphone is automatically transferred to the mask.

Donning the Cockpit Oxygen Mask

A mask-mounted regulator supplies a mixture of air and oxygen, or pure oxygen, and performs emergency pressure control. With the regulator set to “NORMAL”, the user breathes a mixture of cabin air and oxygen up to the cabin altitude at which point the regulator supplies 100% oxygen. The user can select the regulator to 100%, in this case the regulator supplies pure oxygen at all cabin altitudes.

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Brace For Impact An aircraft may make an emergency landing in response to a crisis which either interferes with the operation of the aircraft or involves sudden medical emergencies necessitating diversion to the nearest airport. A planned emergency landing may be precautionary in nature and may not require an evacuation.

The “Brace” position is one of the most important items in preparing for an emergency. The “Brace” position has a dual function. Firstly, it reduces the extent of body flailing, as passengers must lean or bend over their legs. Secondly, it protects the head from hitting a surface. Remaining in the “Brace” position until the aircraft finally stops will help to protect from injury during primary and secondary impact.

“Brace” positions vary: Pregnant women and passengers travelling with infants will need to be shown the correct alternative “Brace” positions.

When this is a result of aircraft failure or component failure (example landing gear failure or engine failure) the persons on-board must brace for impact for safety. There are two reasons for establishing brace positions:

• To reduce flailing of the body during an impact • To reduce secondary impact

In planned emergencies, bracing should be under-taken when the command is announced from the flight deck (e.g., ‘Brace, Brace’).

In unanticipated emergencies, it is possible that no command will be announced from the flight deck. Cabin crew should always be prepared to give passengers commands (e.g., ‘Heads Down, Stay Down’). All bracing positions should be maintained until the airplane has come to a final stop.

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Evacuation Crew should be prepared to evacuate the aircraft if an emergency situation develops. They should also be alert to clues that may signal a emergency, such as sparks, fire, smoke, unusual noises, impact forces and abnormal aircraft attitude. Any evacuation requires crew co-ordination, because not all crewmembers may be aware that a life-threatening situation exists. Therefore, all crewmembers need to be informed. There are many possible methods, depending on their availability such as Public Address, Interphone, Megaphone, Evacuation alarm.

The majority of emergencies happen on take-off or landing with no prior warning. These emergencies are sudden and unexpected leaving minimum time to react. There are two types of evacuations:

• Planned: Those for which sufficient time exists to brief the passengers and crew

• Unplanned: Those for which there is insufficient time to brief the passengers and crew

Some guidelines to be followed:

• Evacuation should not be initiated until the aircraft has come to a complete stop

• Ensure engines are not running before opening door directly forward or aft of an engine

• Cabin crewmembers should begin evacuation immediately upon signal from the flight deck crew

• If there is an emergency and time permits, notify the flight deck crew prior to initiating an evacuation; if time does not permit, notify the flight deck crew simultaneously upon commencement of evacuation

• Cabin crew should follow any additional instructions the flight deck crew may give over the PA system

• If one cabin crewmember initiates an evacuation, all cabin crewmembers should follow evacuation procedures immediately

When the aircraft has come to a complete stop: Release seatbelts on command of the cabin crew, and follow their directions to the exit doors.

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Using strong voice commands will act as a beacon for passengers, especially if visibility is limited, due to smoke being present in the cabin.

It is important to leave your belongings, as baggage carried to the door of the aircraft has delayed evacuations, and has caused pile-ups at the bottom of the slide in previous evacuations.

Cabin crew will assess outside conditions: Is it safe to open the door; is the area below free of smoke, fire, obstacles and debris? If it is safe to do so, open the aircraft door in the “Armed” mode.

When the aircraft door is in the “ARMED” mode the “Cabin Pressure Warning Light” does not illuminate to indicate cabin differential pressure.

Indications of cabin differential pressure maybe:

Resistance in the “Door Control Handle” to lift to the fully open position, using normal force and/or

A ‘Hissing’ noise around the immediate door area, if circumstances permit. Lower the door control handle to the closed position .Notify the flight crew immediately.

If the slide does not inflate, and the crewmember needs to pull the “Manual Inflation Handle”, extra time may be required. Time in an emergency may seem like an eternity, even though it might only be a few extra seconds. The passengers’ urgency to get out will increase with every passing second. The passengers must be held back until; the slide is fully inflated and ready for use.

Check that the slide is correctly inflated, before sending passengers down the slide.

Example of evacuation slide being used

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Ditching Ditching is the process of landing an aeroplane on the surface of the sea. During the design phase of the aeroplane construction, tests on computer and scale models occur in water tanks to determine the ditching characteristics of the aeroplane. The effects are included in the aircraft manual and pilots must be well briefed regarding the methods of ditching the aircraft during the type rating course.

Statistically, 88% of ditchings result in few if any, injuries to crew and passengers. Unfortunately, a much smaller percentage survives the ensuing 'survival' phase, with many deaths caused by drowning after a successful ditching. Surviving the 'survival' phase is all about the speed of rescue. This depends upon the accuracy and extent of the information conveyed to the ATC authority by the crew during the run-up to the ditching.

Ditching is a controlled operation, with the aeroplane landing deliberately and smoothly (or as smoothly as possible) on to the surface of the sea, not dropped onto the surface during a stall. It is recommended to land the aircraft across the swell (using a crosswind landing technique). If the wind speed is more than 35/40 kt, wave height may well exceed 10ft, making it more prudent to land into the wind in this case. A Significant speed reduction and a definite nose up pitching happens, which can cause high-G rotations leading to possible structural damage and injuries.

To minimise the risk of injury, everybody on board should be securely strapped into their seats and those without shoulder restraint harnesses should adopt a position with the head as far forward (ideally between the knees) and the hands clasped tightly behind the neck holding the head forward. Life jackets should be donned

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before adopting the position. Cabin crew should ensure that all loose articles are stowed and the seats are correctly positioned before securing themselves.

After rapidly coming to rest, providing there is no catastrophic fuselage damage, the aeroplane will float for a considerable time allowing an orderly evacuation via the over-wing exits into the life rafts or dinghies. These should have been released from the in-wing stowages, but are still tethered to the aeroplane.

Preparation for an Evacuation on Water:

In a prepared ditching, the cabin, passengers and cabin crew preparation involve the same procedures as with an emergency landing, except for the following:

• Passengers should be informed over PA about the ditching procedure • Cabin crew should demonstrate the donning of life vests, brace positions,

point out the exits, and finally, show the safety instruction cards • Cabin crew should make sure that passengers have correctly donned life

vests (including infant’s life vests), and understand how to inflate them • Passengers should be reminded to inflate life vests only after leaving the

aircraft • The same basic rules apply for ditching as for crash landing. Water is not a

soft surface and considerable damage to the fuselage should be expected.

US Airways Flight 1549 was an Airbus A320-214 scheduled domestic commercial passenger flight from LaGuardia Airport in New York City that, on January 15, 2009, struck a flock of Canada Geese during its initial climb out, lost engine power, and ditched in the Hudson River off midtown Manhattan with no loss of life. The bird strike, which occurred just northeast of the George Washington Bridge about three minutes into the flight, resulted in the rapid loss of thrust from both engines. When the crew of the aircraft determined that they would be unable to reliably reach any airfield, they turned southbound and glided over the Hudson, finally ditching the

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airliner near the USS Intrepid museum about three minutes after losing power. All 155 occupants safely evacuated the airliner, which was still virtually intact though partially submerged and slowly sinking, and were quickly rescued by nearby ferries and other watercraft. The incident became known as the "Miracle on the Hudson".

The entire crew of Flight 1549 was later awarded the Master's Medal of the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators. The award citation read, "This emergency ditching and evacuation, with the loss of no lives is a heroic and unique aviation achievement". It was described by NTSB board member Kitty Higgins as "the most successful ditching in aviation history."

Fuel Jettison In the event of an emergency occurring when the aeroplane mass exceeds the maximum landing mass, and the decision of the commander to land as soon as possible, a system is fitted to the aeroplane to dump fuel by a controlled process. The system used to facilitate this is the fuel jettison system. Every aeroplane must have a fuel jettison system fitted unless the maximum landing mass exceeds the maximum take-off mass less the mass of the fuel necessary to carry out a 15 minute flight consisting of a takeoff, climb to safe height, go-around and landing at the aerodrome of departure (all flown in the landing configuration). The use of a fuel jettison system in an emergency is not prohibited by the Rules of the Air prohibition on the dropping or spraying of materials from aeroplanes.

Where a fuel jettison system is required, the system must be capable of jettisoning enough fuel in 15 minutes (starting at max take-off mass) to reduce the aeroplane mass to the maximum landing mass. Prior to certification, jettison trials must demonstrate that the jettison system is free from fire hazards, fuel discharges are clear of the aeroplane, fuel or fumes do not enter any part of the aeroplane and that the jettison operation does not affect the controllability of the aeroplane.

Procedure

Pilots of aircraft in flight are permitted to jettison fuel in an emergency. It must be born in mind that fuel jettison is an emergency procedure to reduce aircraft mass expeditiously. The decision to jettison rests with the commander alone but the decision to jettison must be compatible with safety and the ability of the aeroplane to

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continue flying. If possible, it is recommended that fuel jettison should be carried out either over the sea, or above 10,000 ft agl. Exceptionally (for safety considerations), fuel may be jettisoned above 7,000 ft agl in winter and above 4,000 ft agl in summer. If it unavoidable (overriding safety requirement), fuel may be jettisoned anywhere. In all cases ATC is to be informed before commencing jettisoning.

Safety

Unless there is an overriding requirement to jettison fuel, the aeroplane should be flown to an allocated area at an allocated height prior to commencing jettison. Consideration should be given to the weather conditions and areas of electrical storm activity should be avoided, as should areas of excessive turbulence. The no smoking light is to be illuminated and passengers briefed. ATC is to be informed that jettison is about to commence. Once jettison has begun, electrical switching should be restricted to essential use only, HF radio transmission suspended and VHF transmissions restricted to further emergency/flight safety communications only. The flow of fuel from the jettison vents is to be visually monitored (where possible) confirming flow started and flow stopped as required. During jettison manoeuvres should be smooth and the operation of flaps, slots or slats restricted to essential use only. Once the jettison is complete, ATC should be informed.

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Conclusion The establishment of a consistent, well-researched standard of aviation safety practices, applicable to the needs of all aviation service providers, will benefit the entire aviation industry and the public in the years to come. Improved air transportation safety will no doubt contribute to the projected increase in air traffic, as well as further improving public perception of such travel’s safety. And the refinement of Safety Management Systems will of course continue to be an ongoing process, building on established best practices and industry standards and moving forward as new information is acquired and applied in the field of aviation safety.

The evolution of safety is a continuous process, not a means to an end or a static goal to be reached; a healthy culture of safety should maintain its stability while constantly reaching toward new heights, never stopping in place and saying, “That’s good enough, we don’t need to do any more.” And through this continuous process the aviation industry, and other industries as well, can proactively expect to reach a goal where safety truly will become just the way we do business.

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Bibliography Cabin Safety Compendium - A Companion to the Operator’s Flight Safety Handbook – Global Aviation Information Network (GAIN) Program (December 2001)

Safety Management Manual Doc 9859, Third Edition – ICAO (2013)

Flight Safety Information Journal – Curt Lewis & L. Christopher (October 2008)

Getting to Grips with Cabin Safety – Airbus Industrie (February 2005)

Enhancing Safety – www.SKYbrary.aero