FLEXIBLE WORK ARRANGEMENTS: AN EVALUATION OF JOB

SATISFACTION AND WORKLIFE BALANCE

by

Gladys Hrobowski-Culbreath

FRANK DECARO, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

LUIS RIVERA, PhD, Committee Member

DAVID BALCH, PhD, Committee Member

William A. Reed, PhD, Acting Dean, School of Business and Technology

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

August 2010

UMI Number: 3423947

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UMI 3423947

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Gladys Hrobowski-Culbreath, 2010

Abstract

Flexible work arrangements are tied to turnover, absenteeism, job satisfaction,

productivity and worklife balance. The purpose of this research is threefold: (a)

Examine the relationship between flexible work arrangement programs, job satisfaction,

productivity and worklife balance; (b) identify jobs that are best suited for these

strategies and identify a number of companies tat have been successful in using these

strategies; and (c) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of flexible work

arrangements for both employees and employers. Survey data were collected from 200

individuals who participate in various forms of flexible work arrangement programs. The

participants completed the short form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss,

Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). The instrument consisted of 20 factors that measured

the relationships between job satisfaction and worklife balance. A demographic

questionnaire was also used. Herzbergs (1987) motivation-hygiene theory was used as

the framework to examine job satisfaction and worklife balance in a sample of 200

participants.

REFERENCES

Herzberg, F. (1987). One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, 65(5), 109120.

Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.

iii

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Dwight, my daughters, Brittany and

Joey, my son, Thomas, my parents, the late Freeman and Gladys Hrobowski, and my

brothers and sisters. It is truly a blessing to have (or have had) you in my life. Thank you

for your love and support which has sustained me throughout this long and sometimes

arduous journey.

iv

Acknowledgments

Without the support and encouragement of my mentor, committee members,

family, friends, and fellow classmates, I could not have achieved this momentous goal.

My gratitude and appreciation to all who contributed to my success is immeasurable.

I would like to thank my mentor, Dr. Frank DeCaro, and my committee members,

Dr. Luis Rivera and Dr. David Balch. I am eternally grateful for your expertise and

guidance throughout this challenging, but rewarding experience. I am truly grateful to the

research participants for extending their time and support to my research effort. Thanks to

my advisor, Laura Hutt, who was always willing to listen and make suggestions.

A special thanks to a young man I met at the University of Michigan. I could not

have completed this chapter in my life without your expertise.

v

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments iv

List of Tables viii

List of Figures ix

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction to the Problem 1

Background of the Problem 3

Statement of the Problem 9

Purpose of the Study 10

Rationale 10

Research Questions 11

Significance of the Study 11

Definition of Terms 12

Assumptions and Limitations 13

Nature of the Study 14

Organization of the Remainder of the Study 14

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 15

Types of Flexible Work Arrangements 15

Jobs Best Suited for Flexible Work Arrangements 19

Companies That Have Successful Alternative Work Arrangement Programs 20

Advantages and Disadvantages of Flexible Work Arrangements 21

Flexible Work Arrangements and WorkLife Balance 24

vi

Flexible Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction 25

Future Trends in Flexible Work Arrangement Programs 26

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory 27

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 32

Introduction 32

Description of Methodology 32

Design of the Study 33

Sample and Population 34

Instrumentation/Measures 36

Reliability and Validity 38

Data Collection 40

Data Analysis Procedures 41

Ethical Considerations 42

CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 44

Introduction 44

Data Collection 45

Research Sample 46

Data Analysis Procedures 50

Research Question 1 52

Research Question 2 62

Research Question 3 67

Summary 76

vii

CHAPTER 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 80

Summary 80

Conclusions 91

Recommendations 93

Recommendations for Further Research 94

REFERENCES 97

APPENDIX A. DEMOGRAPHICS QUESTIONNAIRE 106

APPENDIX B. PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHICS 108

APPENDIX C. VARIABLES AND SATISFACTION 113

APPENDIX D. MSQ QUESTIONS 122

viii

List of Tables

Table 1. Participants Personal Characteristics 48

Table 2. Participants Work-Related Characteristics 49

Table 3. Summary of MANOVA Results 51

Table 4. Means 52

Table 5. MANOVA Analysis, Extrinsic Factors 56

Table 6. MANOVA Analysis, Intrinsic Factors 57

Table 7. MANOVA Analysis, Job Satisfaction 58

Table 8. MANOVA Analysis, Overall Satisfaction 60

Table 9. MANOVA Analysis, WorkLife Balance 61

Table 10. MANOVA Analysis, Job Satisfaction (Q13, Q16, Q20) 63

Table 11. Correlation Analysis, Job Satisfaction 64

Table 12. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis, Job Satisfaction 65

Table 13. MANOVA Analysis, WorkLife Balance (Q4, Q7, Q9) 68

Table 14. Correlation Analysis, WorkLife Balance 69

Table 15. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis, WorkLife Balance 72

Table 16. Cronbachs Alpha 76

Table 17. Summary of Means and Standard Deviations 77

ix

List of Figures

Figure 1. Extrinsic factors and job satisfaction 66

Figure 2. Intrinsic factors and job satisfaction 67

Figure 3. Extrinsic factors and worklife balance 73

Figure 4. Intrinsic factors and worklife balance 74

Figure 5. Job satisfaction and worklife balance 75

Figure B1. Participants gender 108

Figure B2. Participants race/ethnicity 108

Figure B3. Participants marital status 109

Figure B4. Participants number of children under 18 109

Figure B5. Participants education 110

Figure B6. Participants type of organization 110

Figure B7. Participants occupational category 111

Figure B8. Participants employment status 111

Figure B9. Participants current salary 112

Figure B10. Participants present job 112

Figure C1. Age and satisfaction 113

Figure C2. Children at home and satisfaction 114

Figure C3. Education and satisfaction 115

Figure C4. Employment status and satisfaction 116

Figure C5. Gender and satisfaction 117

Figure C6. Job tenure (years) and satisfaction 118

Figure C7. Marital status and satisfaction 119

x

Figure C8. Occupation tenure (years) and satisfaction 120

Figure C9. Salary ($1,000) and satisfaction 121

1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

I believe a balanced life is essential, and I try to make sure that all of our employees know that and live that way. Its crucial to me as a manager that I help ensure that our employees are as successful as our customers and partners. I also think that employees these days expect less of a separation of work and personal life. That doesnt mean that work tasks should encroach upon our personal time, but it does mean that employees today expect more from the companies for whom they work.

Marc Benioff, CEO, Salesforce.com

Introduction to the Problem

The business world is a dynamic human structure in which its activities require

ingenuity and creativity in order to progress and survive. Innovations in workplace

strategies are the manifestations of these innate human attributes, but there are few people

who go beyond these innovations and add more color to it by using flexible work

arrangement options. Workers from all over the world are attracted to organizations that

use these business practices. Perhaps it is because of the curiosity of experiencing

something different or perhaps they are motivated to experience the business world in a

different zone (Peter & Donnelly, 2003). These businesses tend to have notable success

and continue to be highly adoptive. Therefore, it is safe to assume that, in spite of stiff

competition; they survive and flourish because of the flexible work options they offer

their employees.

2

Bias in Research

Bias is any influence or condition that distorts data (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Bias

attacks the integrity of the facts; therefore, the goal of the researcher is to minimize bias.

Research is a process that is never totally objective or completely independent;

therefore, researchers can always expect some bias. When interpreting data, researchers

sometimes produce methodical errors. Researchers must scrutinize the data in order to

avoid or at least minimize errors. The researchers interpretation must not be affected by

what the researcher wishes to discover, but rather what the facts of the research are. As a

researcher, one must commit to the research being conducted and should not deliberately

attempt to reject the results of the research (Cooper & Schindler, 2006; Leedy & Ormrod,

2001).

Theoretical Foundation of the Study

Many organizations have changed their work environment because they recognize

that their employees are valuable assets and want them to commit themselves to the

company. When employees are recognized and rewarded for the efforts that they have

contributed to the organization, many are motivated to be more effective and efficient;

they tend to stay longer with the company and are more satisfied with their job. Giving

employees more responsibilities will serve as their motivation for advancement and

growth (Herzberg, 1987).

People work for a variety reasons, the most apparent being the need for money.

However, it is not just the money that keeps them showing up for work every day. A

complex problem in this area is the ability to understand and explain why some people do

not enjoy their work and others do. Obviously there is no single resolution for satisfying

3

everybody in the workplace. Therefore, managers must recognize and understand the

concept of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction and related issues.

The theoretical framework for the study was based on Herzbergs motivation-

hygiene theory. He based the theory on his interviews with over 200 engineers and

accountants. The interviews assisted in establishing factors that determine ones

satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his or her job. From the findings, Herzberg came to the

conclusion that these factors are separate and distinct. According to Herzberg, Mausner,

and Snyderman (1959), job satisfaction is positively related to achievement, opportunity

for personal growth, stimulating work, recognition, responsibility, and promotion

opportunities, which are factors related to outcomes associated with the work itself. He

labeled these factors motivators because they were associated with high levels of job

satisfaction. In contrast, he linked job dissatisfaction with factors he termed hygiene.

Examples of hygiene factors are job security, salary, working conditions, relationships

with others, company policies and procedures, and the quality of supervision. Herzberg

(1987) claimed that employees who satisfy their hygiene factors will reduce their job

dissatisfaction.

Background of the Problem

Before the 1990s, employees were housed in office buildings and involved in

mostly face-to-face communication. Equipment used in these traditional settings included

typewriters, telephones, copy machines, and early computers. Regular mail and overnight

package delivery (early 1980s) were used to transmit correspondence and documents.

The transmission speed of information was increased by advances in technology.

4

Therefore, the need for face-to-face communication was reduced significantly

(Mamaghani, 2006).

The fast development of new technologies has altered the nature of work as well

as the physical work environment. Barber, Laing, and Simeone (2005) believed that

continuous investment in infrastructures that enhance remote connectivity and

communication challenges the traditional view of the work environment. Therefore,

organizations must continuously develop new strategies and cost effective means to

satisfy the need of its employees.

Alfares (2006) asserted that employee scheduling is an important and complex,

practical problem, particularly for businesses that operate continuously (e.g., hospitals,

airports, train stations, and restaurants). When the businesses operate 7 days a week,

different employees must be given different days off, some of which do not include the

weekend.

Flexible Work Arrangements

For employees, job flexibility is important. Many employers offer various flexible

work options to meet the needs of their employees. Examples of flexible work options are

telecommuting, flextime, voluntary part-time work, particularly job sharing, and

compressed work week. Many employees are attracted to these work arrangements.

According to Cole (2006), flexible work arrangements are alternatives to the

traditional 9-to-5 work schedule. He further states that they can support employee

preference and unique job requirements. Significant organizational and individual

benefits can be obtained by using flexible work arrangements. Additionally, these work

arrangements have proved to be helpful in terms of improving morale, helping meet

5

employees personal needs while contributing to the organization, and recruiting and

retaining valuable employees.

A common element in the lives of all employees is the need to be flexible. Some

Traditionalists want to move into retirement slowly; Baby Boomers must often assume

responsibility for taking care of their ailing or aging parents and Generation Xers need

time to participate in school and community activities with their children. The terms,

Traditionalists, Baby Boomers, Generation Xers are explained in the definition of terms

section of this study. Many employers have discovered that increasing work schedule

flexibility does not interfere with maintaining acceptable levels of productivity (Reese,

Rowings, & Sharpley, 2007).

Today, some employees do not go to their offices every day. They have the

opportunity to work at home or spend less time at the office and maintain the same level

or better efficiency. Because of the impact it has had on families, this work option has

been the topic of much research. Parents have the opportunity to spend more time at

home and be hands-on parents. Working at home is one of the benefits of flexible work

arrangements. The time spent preparing for work and traveling to work can be used for

other family activities. Using mobile telecommunications technology and on-call work

arrangements allows for spending less time in the office. These strategies can increase

productivity and reduce absenteeism (Desrochers & Sargent, 2003).

Telecommuting

According to Manochehri and Pinkerton (2003), telecommuting is a preferred

substitute to working in an office. Both employees and employers have many reasons to

consider telecommuting programs. Benefits that can be realized by using telecommuting

6

include schedule and location flexibility, enhanced employee satisfaction, attracting and

retaining employees, productivity improvement, cost reduction, and benefiting society.

However, the potential benefits of this work option can be realized only if organizations

identify and address the challenges associated with telecommuting. Some challenges

include the nature of jobs, company culture, selection of employees, providing the

required infrastructure, awareness of legal considerations, overcoming resistance to

telecommuting, monitoring and performance measurements, and employee isolation and

communication.

The advantages of telecommuting for some employees can be very valuable. One

huge advantage an employee has when telecommuting is the flexibility to coordinate

work schedules and family responsibilities. Flexible working arrangements improve the

quality of the work performed. More control over ones life can be achieved when family

and work life are in balance. Turnover, job satisfaction, performance and stress, are

influenced by the advantages and benefits of telecommuting. According to the authors,

employees who telecommute 2.5 days per week heighten its favorable effects on work

and family (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007).

Compressed Work Week

Compressed work weeks allow employees to work a variety of schedules such as

4 days a week for 10-hour days or 12+ hours 3 days a week. In a recent meta-analysis

study, compressed work week schedules showed a favorable effect on the participants

work outcomes (e.g., productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and overall satisfaction).

The positive consequences may subsequently lead to an increase in organizational

performance (Sands & Harper, 2007). Disadvantages such as fatigue, stress, and

7

decreased productivity have been responsible for the limited acceptance of the

compressed work week schedule option (Vega & Gilbert, 1997).

Among employers, the compressed work week is one of the most preferred work

schedules. For example, Texas Instruments provides compressed work weeks, which

consist of 12-hour days, working 3 days one week and 4 days the following week.

Scheduling of this nature has had a positive effect on productivity by reducing the

number of shifts and time-consuming changeovers from three to two. One benefit of

offering a compressed work week is to make the job more attractive to employees. The

advantages of this scheduling system for employees include 3- and 4-day weekends,

potential savings on childcare and gas, more personal time, and increased employee

morale. A compressed work week also provides mutual benefits for employers by saving

operating cost, increased productivity, making employees more focused on the task at

hand and providing a recruiting advantage. A major shortcoming of flextime is that

employees who work long days may develop fatigue. This sometimes results in

eliminating the benefits (Erickson, 2005).

Work Sharing/Job Sharing

Work-sharing arrangements allow the duties and responsibilities of a full-time job

to be shared among two or more employees. For example, two department representatives

may be responsible for the whole job and all tasks. Alternatively, some projects may be

assigned independently, one employee work in the am and the other work in the pm.

Frequently, employees alternate days or develop some other schedule for sharing. On a

short-term basis, this work option can help transition experienced workers into retirement

8

while training their replacement. Over a longer term, it allows part-time employees to

remain in the job market and earn income (Preston, 2007).

Work-sharing benefits both employees and employers. When the organizations

are dedicated to meeting their personal needs, employees tend to become more loyal to

their employers. At the same time, employers avoid high turnover and reduce the cost of

benefits. However, employees who participate in work-sharing programs receive fewer

benefits and are at risk of being the first to be laid off when organizations make

workforce cutbacks. In general, work sharing has become a popular modified work

schedule. A survey of 1,000 American employers found that more than 28% of

employers offered job-sharing programs (Preston, 2007).

According to Sherwyn and Sturman (2002), job sharing provides a tool that adds a

layer of protection that lies between contingent workers and layoffs of core employees.

Layoffs are not the options to consider when economic conditions reduce the workforce

to the point where eliminating contingent-work arrangements is not enough.

Flextime

Flextime was initially introduced by Christel Kaemmerev in 1956 and

implemented in West German businesses in 1967 (Avery & Zabel, 2001). According to

Hicks and Klimoski (1981), flextime was introduced (1970s) to American businesses to

reduce crowding in parking facilities. Because of the positive effects on employee

attitude, flextime became popular as a means to adapt hours to the requirements of the

workforce. Flextime allows employees to exercise their discretion regarding the times

they want to work. This work option was used as a retention and recruitment tool during

the 20th century.

9

Statement of the Problem

Organizations and their employees are able to be more efficient, communicate

quickly, and easily perform their jobs from remote locations as a result of advances in

technology. Technology has expanded workers options in terms of how, where, and

when they work. This technology has assisted employees in improving the quality of their

lives. Additionally, advancements in technology have been helpful in terms of managing

the personal and professional aspects of their lives. Advanced technology gives the

employees the choice to perform their jobs from remote locations. Increased efficiencies,

competitive advantage in the marketplace, reduced costs, improved company and

customer communications, and global expansion are the benefits for organizations that

have embraced technical innovations (Mamaghani, 2006).

From an organizational standpoint, leadership within organizations are

continually developing strategies to contain costs (particularly energy costs these days),

maximize productivity, improve competitiveness, and do their share to preserve the

environment. While trying to improve the productivity of employees, organizations also

try to provide a culture that helps employees maintain a worklife balance. Much of the

same holds true for employees. Employees strive to save energy, protect the environment,

and most important, make an attempt to maintain a balance between family and career.

Employees also try to be productive at the workplace, but not at the cost of sacrificing

their personal or family life (D. Harris, 2004).

Our food, clothes, shelter, and much more are the rewards for work. Therefore,

employees need to understand the changes that are occurring at work. Todays workplace

is quite different from what it was years ago. Change has altered the way work is done.

10

As a result, a companys database allows sales representatives to give customers

immediate information about new products and services and allows a shipping clerk to

monitor goods in real time (Barner, 1996).

Purpose of the Study

The aim of this research was threefold. First, the study examined the relationship

between flexible work arrangement programs, job satisfaction, and worklife balance.

Second, it identified jobs that were best suited for these strategies and identified

companies that were successful in using these strategies. Third, the study discussed the

advantages and disadvantages of flexible work arrangement options for both employees

and employers. Research on this subject is important because it will help identify and

provide solutions to business, family and environmental concerns (Kalleberg, 2000).

Additionally, the reader will learn about various jobs and work situations that are

conducive to using flexible work arrangement strategies. Readers will become aware of

how these strategies improve job satisfaction and the lives of employees and their

families.

Rationale

Herzbergs theory illustrates that hygiene factors are a platform for employee

satisfaction while the motivator factors of recognition is instrumental to engendering

ones productivity and growth (Herzberg et al., 1959).

This study was designed to enhance ones knowledge about flexible work

arrangements, and how these strategies affect job satisfaction and worklife balance.

11

Work flexibility has become an important topic of interest for employees and employers

alike. To assist managers with understanding the relationships and factors linked to

worklife balance and job satisfaction, this situation needs to be talked about at length in

the workplace. This dissertation presented another opportunity to contribute to the

knowledge of flexible work arrangements. Employers can use this information to help

attract and keep competent employees.

Research Questions

1. Is there a relationship between demographic variables and job satisfaction?

2. Is job satisfaction and dissatisfaction related to motivator and hygiene factors?

3. Is there a relationship between extrinsic factors and worklife balance?

Significance of the Study

This research is significant for several reasons: (a) Employers need to be educated

so that their mind set is changed; (b) provides employers with research that will present

evidence to support the value of flexible work arrangement options for both employers

and employees in relation to job flexibility, productivity and worklife balance, job

satisfaction; (c) the study will contribute to extended knowledge related to these topics;

(d) assist employees in better understanding utilization of these work options; and (e)

identify trends to establish best practices that can be tested and or incorporated in

organizations.

These days businesses the world over must change with the times. Many times

corporate offices, branch offices, contractors and subcontractors, and business travel is

12

located around the world. Therefore, keeping everyone on the same page when work is

not even in the same time zone becomes very difficult. Even so, many organizations are

finding that the advantages of having such diverse workforce outweigh the challenges.

With this in mind, management needs to reevaluate and update strategies to meet the

challenges in a highly globalized business environment (Kooser, 2005).

Definition of Terms

The definitions that follow will help the reader understand the terms and concepts

related to this study.

Baby Boomer. Individuals born between 1946 and 1964, and represents one of the

largest populations born (Herman, 2006).

Compressed work week. According to Mitchell and Williamson (2003), the

compressed work schedule consists of working a full-time schedule in fewer, longer days.

ones home or other remote location outside the companys office.

Flexible work arrangements. Work arrangements that let employees have some

control over when and where they work (Lambert, Marler, & Gueutal, 2008).

Flextime. According to Brookshire (2002), flextime allows an employee to change

his or her start and end time, but be at work for core hours of the day, and work a

standard number of hours within a specified time.

Generation Xers. Individuals born between 1065 and 1980 (Hatfield, 2002).

Job satisfaction. Operationally defined as ones positive feelings or attitudes

towards ones occupation (Moore, 2008).

13

Telecommuting. Mamaghani (2006) defined telecommuting as working from

ones home or other remote location outside the companys office.

Telework. According to Byrd (2005), telework is defined as substitution of

information technologies for normal work-related travel.

Teleworking. The ability of managers and employees to use computers to access

their work from remote locations (Martnez-Snchez, Prez-Prez, Vela-Jimnez, & de-

Luis-Carnicer, 2008).

Traditionalists. Individuals born between 1926 and 1945.

Worklife balance. According to Nicholas (2007), worklife balance is ones

satisfaction and ability to function well at work and home while minimizing role conflict.

Assumptions and Limitations

Some assumptions that can be made from this study are (a) employee scheduling

is considered a hygiene factor; (b) 8-hour, 40-hour work weeks are not satisfactory work

arrangements; (c) replacing 8-hour, 40-hour work weeks with more flexible schedules

increase job satisfaction and improve worklife balance; (d) the sample selected is

representative of the target population; (e) variables will be accurately measured with the

short form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ); and (f) measures are valid and

reliable.

The limitations identified in this study are (a) snowball sampling can result in

biases; (b) the findings of the study cannot be generalized beyond the study sample; and

(c) the data used in the study rely on self-reporting, which can be distorted by perception,

faulty memory, and other biases.

14

Nature of the Study

This research used a quantitative, descriptive methodology approach to examine

the relationship between flexible work arrangements, worklife balance and job

satisfaction. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data from employees involved in

flexible work arrangement programs. In this study, the research examined how

employees job satisfaction and worklife balance relates to tenure, age, income, and

other personal demographics. The instrument, the short form MSQ, elicited information

from participants seeking to uncover trends and understand their perceptions of the

variables.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter 2 provides a review of literature relevant to flexible work arrangement

programs and how these programs affect job satisfaction and worklife balance. It

identifies companies who were using these programs successfully, jobs that were best

suited for these programs, and discussed advantages and disadvantages for employers and

employees. Chapter 3 describes the methodology used to conduct the study. Chapter 4

discusses the results of the survey and analysis of the data collected from participants.

This chapter also provided graphic display of the data collected. Chapter 5 discusses the

findings, recommendations, and conclusions based on the data collected and analysis of

the data.

15

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter identified available and relevant literature from a variety of sources.

The review begins with a discussion of literature that relates to the types of flexible work

arrangements programs, companies who were successful in using flexible work

arrangement strategies, and advantages and disadvantages of flexible work arrangement

programs. Next is a discussion of flexible work arrangements and worklife balance,

flexible work arrangements and job satisfaction, and future trends in flexible work

arrangement programs. Last is a discussion of Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory.

Types of Flexible Work Arrangements

Flexible work arrangements include flextime, compressed work weeks,

telecommuting, and job sharing/work sharing (Kelly & Kalev, 2006).

Telecommuting

Employers have been allowing employees to telecommute for a long time.

According to Langhoff (2002) and Kurland and Bailey (1999), the term telecommuting

was coined by Jack Nilles, a rocket scientist, while working on a project for NASA in

1970. Nilles had experienced several problems on the project and decided to try

alternative strategies to resolve the issues.

16

As computer programmers became more important and harder to find in the early

1970s, companies like Control Data Corporation (CDC) began to explore the concept of

working at home as recruitment tool. Programmers liked the idea of not being stuffed into

a corporate office and being able to concentrate any hour on his or her work. CDCs

telecommuting policy gave it a competitive advantage for a time in the hiring of

programmers (Piskurich, 1998).

When Congress amended the Clean Air Act, many companies were motivated to

implement telecommuting programs. As a result, 11 states with the poorest air quality

were targeted to reduce daily commuting. Telecommuting was used to help organization

in these states reduce the number of employees who commuted daily (Siha & Monroe,

2006).

In 2000, the Behavior Research Center conducted a study sponsored by AT&T.

The study concluded that about 17 million workers aged 18 and older could be classified

as teleworkers. In addition, the researchers revealed that over half of these employees had

worked offsite for about 3 years, and 2.8 million of these employees had limited

experience. This statistic showed a quick increase in offsite workers and a 20% increase

in the growth rate over a year earlier (Gibson, Blackwell, Dominicis, & Demerath, 2002).

Flextime

Flextime is a very popular flexible work option. It is used by both public and

private sector employers. Flextime allows flexibility in start and finish times, with no

change in the workers total hours worked. For instance, a couples partner uses flextime

and starts work early. With a shortened lunch, the partner is able take care of the children

after school. These schedules seem to work better for the couple than the standard 9-to-5

17

schedule. According to recent research, flexibility in employees work schedule has

positive effects on employee outcomes (Gainey & Clenney, 2006; Haar, 2007). Some

benefits of flextime include improved member relationships, more engaged and loyal

employees, improved communication throughout the organizations, and higher employee

retention. The Alliance for Work-Life Progress stated that employees rank flexibility

behind wages and healthcare. Given the high level of importance and impact of flexible

scheduling, almost 85% of all companies offer some form of flexibility to their

employees according to the group. Organizations that do not offer this work option to

their employees risk burning out or losing their top performers. With productivity

increasing more than one third for some organizations that embrace this strategy, this is

one that can be deemed beneficial for both sides (Liberman, 2008).

Compressed Work Week

Compressed work weeks are very common in the American workforce and have

been viewed positively by management and employees. Among the most commonly

reported disadvantages are coverage, fatigue, scheduling, moonlighting, productivity,

supervision, reluctance to return to work after being away for an extended period, and

employee dissatisfaction with long work hours. This flexible work arrangement varies

significantly and is usually used in the following industries: manufacturing, computer

operations, petroleum, insurance, and hospitals (Vega & Gilbert, 1997).

Some advantages associated with compressed works weeks are improved

productivity, morale, better recruitment and retention, employee and customer relations,

reduced turnover, absences, overtime, tardiness, and operating expenses. These authors

note that studies concerning compressed work weeks have hinged data from

18

questionnaires and case study data collected on individual companies. Very little

longitudinal data were used, which makes generalization about private and public sector

industries complex and narrow in focus (Vega & Gilbert, 1997).

Hyland, Rowsome, and Rowsome (2005) observed that mixed results have been

found in studies conducted on compressed work weeks. Some researchers found

reductions in sick time and use of personal leave, improved service and productivity (four

out of seven studies) in which compressed work weeks were investigated. There was no

change reported in three out the seven studies.

Job Sharing/Work Sharing

According to Crampton and Mishra (2005), the concept of job sharing was

introduced as a result of the 1978 Federal Employee Part-Time Career Employment Act.

The legislation was enacted to increase the number of workers who wanted to work less

than 40 hours per week. Additionally, this legislation authorized job sharing for federal

employees, which opened the door for further implementation. The authors note that

radical changes have occurred in the workforce which caused companies to reexamine

this viable alternative work arrangement. There have been reports of many benefits

associated with this work option; however, disadvantages also exist. Many companies

that offer job sharing to retain employees indicate that they are willing to use this flexible

work option, but it is sometimes difficult to find employees to participate in the program.

One reason for this is because job sharing may not be suitable for every company or

every employee. Another reason is that sometimes employees are afraid of management

disapproval or career disintegration (Crampton & Mishra, 2005). Work sharing may

influence employee productivity. For example, if employees work fewer hours per week

19

and reduce fatigue, their productivity may increase. On the other hand, this work option

can create situations where worker productivity is decreased and adds to the need for

more workers (Lanoie, Raymond, & Shearer, 2001). Job sharing can be a solution to help

employees juggle family and work obligations, reduce layoffs, produce happy and

productive employees, part-time professional work, and increase employee commitment

and organizational loyalty (Branine, 2003; Franklin, 1999).

Jobs Best Suited for Flexible Work Arrangements

These work options are suitable for work that do not involve rigid schedules, and

in organizations that have effective methods in place to measure employee performance.

It is especially appropriate in urban areas where severe traffic congestions problems exist

(Siha & Monroe, 2006). Jobs suitable for flexible work arrangements programs typically

have many characteristics. Some of these characteristics include tasks that can be

completed during quiet and uninterrupted time; tasks that are clearly defined and

objectives can be set. Other characteristics are ability to schedule work that can only be

done at the main office on nontelecommuting days; and colleagues can be satisfied

through the use of flexible work arrangements (Crampton & Mishra, 2005; Foote, 1998).

The jobs that are best suited for this program are those that fit perfectly to the

benefits it offers, such as flextime and job sharing. Within these parameters, it is

noticeable that the best jobs for this program are those that are project-based. Here, it is

the employees who set their own work discipline and the time they put into the work.

This work arrangement is a simplification of a work routine. Its only concern is to reach a

certain objective within a certain time frameall else is up to the worker. Another job

20

that is suitable for this is commission-based in which workers get paid in line with the

results of his or her work. Employees who have found alternative work arrangements

most suitable for them are those who have issues between work and family life.

Additionally, older workers who have less endurance for a 9-to-5 work routine have

found that this work option is very favorable (Flexible Work Arrangements Attract

Older Workers, 2007).

According to Scordato and Harris (1990), flexible work arrangements can be

successful in many different positions and functional areas. For example, line jobs,

supervisory positions, and jobs with heavy client contact. Some job titles include

architect, benefits administrator, counselor, daycare director, electrical engineer, financial

analyst, graphic designer, human resource generalist, information specialist, international

manager, and network engineer.

Companies That Have Successful Alternative Work Arrangement Programs

Among the best known companies that offer alternate work programs are Sun

Microsystems Incorporated, KPMG LLP, Best Buy Co. Incorporated,

PricewaterhouseCoopers, and PNC Financial Services Group, Incorporated. Sun

Microsystems is a leading software manufacturer that focuses on network computing.

The company offers an open work program to 40% of its employees where they have the

freedom to work any time they want. As a result of using open work programs, Sun

Microsystems found that employees become more productive and become more satisfied

with the company. Moreover, Sun Microsystems employees who work at home have the

21

best scores in performance ratings. KPMG LLP, a company that specializes in providing

audits, tax and advisory services, also offer flexible work schedules, which is part of their

objectives to become more flexible. As a result of using open work programs, Sun

Microsystems found that employees become more productive and become more satisfied

with the company. Moreover, Sun Microsystems employees who work at home have the

best scores in performance ratings. KPMG LLP, a company that specializes in providing

audits, tax and advisory services, also offer flexible work schedules, which is part of their

objectives to become more flexible. In its effort to become more flexible; the company is

offering compressed work weeks where employees are encouraged to leave work by 3:00

p.m. on Fridays.

Best Buy Co. Incorporated offers alternate work programs through its Results-

Only Work Environments (ROWE). Here, the hours of work in a day are not defined.

What matters is that employees achieve the results they set at the end of the day. PNC

Financial Services Group has some 12,000 or more employees on flextime, which

includes job sharing, compressed work weeks and telecommuting. Finally, there is

PricewaterhouseCoopers, which offers tax and advisory services to their clients.

Approximately 40% of their employees work on an informal basis. Every employee is

given a laptop at this company, and with it, they can work flexible hours, compressed

work weeks, telecommuting and so on (Five Flextime Friendly Companies, 2007).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Flexible Work Arrangements

These issues viewed from the perspective of the employer and employees provide

strong motivations for using these programs. Cost savings that result from such programs

22

may be a motivating factor for employers and employees. When employers realize the

economic benefits of such programs, they will allow and promote them. Much has been

written about the potential cost savings (and sometimes additional costs) that may arise

because of flexible work arrangement options (Kaczmarczyk, 2004; Shoop, 2006). Cost

reduction is often considered the main reason for an organization to use flexible work

arrangements.

Best Buy Co. Incorporated offers alternate work programs through its ROWE.

Here, the hours of work in a day are not defined. What matters is that employees achieve

the results they set at the end of the day. PNC Financial Services Group has some 12,000

or more employees on flextime, which includes job sharing, compressed work weeks and

telecommuting. Finally, there is PricewaterhouseCoopers, which offers tax and advisory

services to their clients. Approximately 40% of their employees work on an informal

basis. Every employee is given a laptop at this company, and with it, they can work

flexible hours, compressed work weeks, telecommuting and so on (Five Flextime

Friendly Companies, 2007).

These issues viewed from the perspective of the employer and employees provide

strong motivations for using these programs. Cost savings that result from such programs

may be a motivating factor for employers and employees. When employers realize the

economic benefits of such programs, they will allow and promote them. Much has been

written about the potential cost savings (and sometimes additional costs) that may arise

because of flexible work arrangement options (Kaczmarczyk, 2004; Shoop, 2006). Cost

reduction is often considered the main reason for an organization to use flexible work

arrangements. Some advantages enjoyed by employers and employees include lower fuel

23

costs, more transportation options, more parking availability, reduced stress, improved

morale and productivity, longer periods of time away from the office with no reduction in

the employees leave balance, service hours can be extended, and minimal absences and

tardiness. Because a more flexible starting and ending time can be agreed upon,

employers enjoy enhanced recruitment and retention, and employees benefit from better

opportunities for cross-training due to coverage adjustments and shared job

responsibilities (Creagh & Brewster, (1998).

Of course, some disadvantages also exist. These include loss of work unit

cohesion due to reduced face-to-face interactions, working in a central location may

cause some employees to feel distanced from the other workers, and more distractions

may occur when working from home. Other disadvantages include lower productivity,

the boundary of work time and personal time can become unclear when working from

home, and other workers in the work unit may feel they must work beyond their strength

or capacity. There are still other disadvantages, including tracking employee time

becomes complex, monitoring employees becomes more difficult; and the direct costs of

some flexible work arrangements may not be offset by increased productivity, reductions

in resource requirements, or reduced costs (Kush & Stroh, 1994).

There are many advantages to flexible work arrangements, including increased

job satisfaction, higher employee productivity, lower absenteeism and turnover, and

reduced costs associated with real estate. In addition, flexible work arrangements help

employers attract well-educated applicants, strengthen the recruitment strategy of the

organization, and maintain compliance with the Clean Air Act and the Americans with

Disabilities Act (Maxwell, Rankine, Bell, & MacVicar, 2007). Review of the literature

24

shows that flexible starting and ending times reduce loss of work due to mild illnesses,

allow greater flexibility in office space and equipment use during peak times (Creagh &

Brewster, 1998). Maxwell et al. identified several potentially negative factors: errors due

to fatigue, communication problems, continuity and isolation at work, minimized staffing

levels, and lean production lines.

Flexible Work Arrangements and WorkLife Balance

It is importance to have balance in ones work and life responsibilities. Balance

helps maintain the leverage needed to get an idea of how to approach situations and take

care of the problems. Balance in ones life is necessary to enjoy and appreciate all that

can be achieved without bringing too much stress into ones life. Lifes responsibilities

are many and situations come about in different ways, shapes and forms. It is

understandable that one cannot handle stressors in the same manner as another (Hill,

Hawkins, Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001).

Frank and Lowe (2003) reported that many employees require flexibility in their

work schedules to help balance work with their family and personal lives. Various works

of literature that focused on work and life balance seemed to boost the advantages from

flexible work arrangements in large organizations. These organizations have more

resources than smaller businesses to develop and implement such practices. Other

research has brought to the forefront health issues such as stress management caused by

worklife imbalance (Maxwell et al., 2007).

In Periyakoils (2007) article, the following holds true and share a resemblance to

what most of use know and should apply but seldom pay close attention to and execute.

25

First, finding a worklife balance helps sustain the inner core of energy and serves to

reduce work related stresses (Periyakoil, 2007, p. 308). The statement is not only valid,

but it is something that people can process and internalize on many levels. Based on the

research they conducted relating to balance and job satisfaction, Bryant and Constantine

(2006) suggested that (according to the role balance theory), women can function in

multiple roles during their life time. Further, the authors contend that the issues affecting

both womens physical health and mental depends on the extent that they organize the

roles in their lives. When one lacks in leveraging the responsibilities in his or her life, this

potentially leads to undue stress and unwanted stress, which leads to negative attitudes

and behaviors in peoples personal life and professional life. Encompassing this pattern

lies the problem of conflict arising which in reality could help ensure that peoples work

and life responsibilities are kept in balance.

Flexible Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction and worker motivation has attracted lots of research. It has

become one of the most studied work attitudes. Researchers such as Igbaria and

Guimaraes (1999) and Venkatesh and Vitalari (1992) have contributed a great deal to this

subject area. These researchers have reported that telecommuters are satisfied with their

work arrangement especially when not required by their employers. The source of job

satisfaction came from factors such as working conditions, taking care of family and

personal obligations, and scheduling ones own working hours. Individuals with children

reported the greatest satisfaction (Siha & Monroe, 2006). Researchers at the University of

Minnesota concluded that job satisfaction stems from 20 different dimensions. These

26

include recognition, compensation, supervision, job security, and advancement on the job

to name a few (D. J. Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967).

Flexible work schedules rate very high for employees interested in balancing

personal and work life and factors that contribute to job satisfaction. Randstad of North

America conducted a survey of 6,000 workers. Of these 6,000 participants, 51% indicated

that if their current employer offered flexible work hours they would continue to work for

the company. A number of employers discovered that flexible work schedules have more

benefits than loyal workers. For example, Aladdin Equipment of Sarasota, Florida, found

that absenteeism dropped 50%, and productivity increased by 10% when it changed its

traditional work schedule to four 9-hour days and 4 hours on Friday. All time sales

records were broken at another company that implemented a p.m. ending time for

employees who exceeded their sales goals (Boehle, Stamps, & Stratton, 2000; Ghazzawi,

2008).

Future Trends in Flexible Work Arrangement Programs

The number of mobile workers is on the rise. Researchers predict that there will

be about 61 million workers by 2009. A 2006 survey found that 44% of companies intend

to increase the population of workers involved in flexible work arrangements (Chen &

Nath, 2005).

Interest among workers for flexible work options is stable or growing, according

to the results of the HR Focus Flexible Work Options Survey. The growth of this option

depends on the extent of the offerings, how many employees will use them, and the

organizations motivation to implement and support these options. The respondents

27

indicated that structured programs seemed to be the main ingredient to achieve success in

these work options. Everyone knows what is expected of them when parameters are set

and enforced. Respondents said that the leading reasons employees want more flexible

arrangements are changes in family circumstances, greater need for child and elder care,

seeing other employees in the organization using these options, and the availability of

these options at other organizations (Flexible Work Grows as Work/Life Solution,

2004).

Not everyone seems to agree about the importance of flexible work arrangements.

According to Benko and Weisberg (2008), flextime and worklife balance is becoming

less important. Todays workforce is dominated by knowledge workers with different

goals and options; therefore, flextime and worklife balance is less important. The

authors also argue that flexible work arrangements do not address the fundamental needs

of the changing workforce although they have been helpful to some.

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg developed a theory regarding employee behavior in the workplace

because he wanted to understand the factors that contributed to job satisfaction. Before

Herzberg other theorists understood the phenomenon of job satisfaction and job

dissatisfaction under one continuum. They were the opposite ends of the spectrum. This

means that the greater the job satisfaction, the less dissatisfaction and vice versa. This is

the operating context on the earlier theories of job satisfaction. For example, the

fulfillment theory claimed that the degree of response a worker gets is directly

proportional to his or her job satisfaction. If an employee does not get a positive

28

response, job dissatisfaction will be more likely. Discrepancy theories deal with the needs

and wants of the employee. If employees are not fulfilled the greater the dissatisfaction

with their work (J. I. Harris, Winskowski, & Engdahl, 2007; Herzberg et al., 1959;

Michalos, 1991).

Herzberg proceeded to conduct his own study. His survey research was

undertaken with engineers and accountants in nine manufacturing firms in Pittsburgh,

PA. His questions were twofold. In the first, he asked people to describe situations in

their workplace that made them feel good about their job. The second were questions

about what made them feel bad. When interviewing employees, he found a pattern.

People seemed to feel good about their jobs, but had very different responses when asked

about bad situations. For Herzberg, these differences seemed to run out of context from

the one-line continuum that earlier theories operated (Herzberg et al., 1959).

The two-factor theory helps improve worker comradeship and workersupervisor

relationships. Essentially, because of Herzbergs theory, working became more

interesting as employees need not worry that the organization is no longer playing a tug-

of-war between satisfying their physiological and psychological needs. Furthermore, this

theory improved the aspect of promotion. Before, promotion was primarily a notion of

giving an employee more responsibility. Today, there is much more importance placed on

promotion as it is now marketed to provide growth, recognition and higher salaries.

Fundamentally, the importance of the two-factor theory to individuals is that it

accommodates self-fulfillment on the job, and it gives individual workers status which

defines ones place or rank in the organization (Williamson, 1986).

29

Good business sense tells us that Herzbergs theory is valid. A good company

policy or a neat work setting does not necessarily lead an employee to keep working. Nor

it is not reason enough for him or her to decide to stay on the job. A higher salary does

not necessarily mean an employee will be happy with his or her job. Conversely,

recognition of a job well done or career advancement are not factors that will

automatically avoid feelings of dissatisfaction. A worker may be promoted, but the work

setting and or the salary is still poor or average which can cause dissatisfaction. Common

sense tells us that a hostile work environment, no matter how much psychological needs

are provided will not counter dissatisfaction. The same applies to physiological needs. In

a statement made by Herzberg in 1968, he said that his two-factor theory has been

replicated 16 times in various populations, which included Communist countries.

Researchers he collaborated with later on were said to agree with his original findings

concerning intrinsic motivations, making it one of the most replicated findings on worker

attitudes (Sachau, 2007).

Although Herzbergs theory is not without criticism, it opened many doors to the

study of human satisfaction (Hinrichs & Mischkind, 1967; Hinton, 1968). Others

criticized Herzbergs theory because of its dimensionality and methodology. Because of

it, many researchers went back to believing that satisfaction and dissatisfaction no longer

exist in separate dimensions. Although Herzbergs theory is still influential, some regard

it as obsolete. When Herzberg asked employees what situations satisfied and dissatisfied

them, he was already framing the answer itself, which would indeed lead him to believe

that they are two phenomena. His assumptions are further skewed when, during the

interviews, the respondents gave a socially acceptable answer (or what they believe the

30

interviewer wanted to hear). The bidimensionality aspect of his theory closed the doors

on any possibilities that there are individual differences between employees. Herzberg

assumed immediately that all employees had similar personality traits; they have the

same reactions; that achievement, recognition and growth are boxed-in with motivator

factors; and salary, working conditions, and company policies are sets of hygiene factors.

Moreover, Herzberg is criticized for assuming a great deal regarding human behavior

(Herzberg et al., 1993; Phelps & Waskel, 1994). For instance, Herzberg assumed that

satisfied and happy workers are sufficient enough to explain their productivity levels; all

workers carry average behavior and so on. Indeed, getting recognition might lead

individuals to work more, but does not necessarily improve his or her productivity levels.

Still other researchers criticized Herzberg regarding satisfaction and dissatisfaction as

mutually exclusive for the obvious reason that some motivators contribute to both

motivation and hygiene factors (Friedlander, 1964). Salary can also satisfy a mans

psychological need as it gives him status in the organization (Sachau, 2007).

Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory can be used to address motivational

concerns. Outcomes such as absenteeism, lagging performance, and turnover, can be

reduced when managers show employees that they care about them and recognize them

for good performance. Line employees are motivated by hygiene factors such as salary,

overtime, bonuses, and health benefits. The authors state that there is a lack of social

recognition, which plays an important part in increasing workers productivity (McElroy,

Liddell, Richman, & Thompson, 2008).

Herzberg applied job enrichment to the motivation-hygiene theory. Job

enrichment involves modifying jobs so that employees and experience more of the

31

motivator factors. Enriched jobs offer frequent opportunities to experience achievement,

opportunities to take responsibility, opportunities to be autonomous, and opportunities to

learn (Sachau, 2007).

In Udechukwus (2007) article, the author noted that there were some who argued

against the two-factor theory and concluded that there was no support for it, and thus

demonstrated the distinct differences between satisfaction and dissatisfaction. According

to the author, all variables are equally potent contributors to job satisfaction. Udechukwu

also noted that other authors argued that job satisfaction can be due to high levels of

satisfaction with intrinsic factors, and dissatisfaction can be due to low levels of

satisfaction with intrinsic factors. Extrinsic factors can cause both satisfaction and

dissatisfaction less readily than do the intrinsic factors, but people will more likely say

they have bad or dissatisfied feelings about extrinsic factors.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher discussed the research method that was used in

conducting the research. The following discussion presented the description of the

methodology, design of the study, sample and population, instrumentation and measures,

reliability, validity, data collection, data analysis procedures, and ethical considerations.

This research examined the relationship between flexible work arrangements, job

satisfaction, and worklife balance; identified organizations that were successful in using

these strategies; identified jobs that were best suited for these work options, and

advantages and disadvantages for both employees and employers.

Description of Methodology

The work was a descriptive, quantitative study. Koul (1984) considered

descriptive research a very popular and widely used research method. Additionally, he

suggests that descriptive methods are designed to obtain pertinent and precise

information about the phenomena and formulate valid conclusions from the facts that the

researcher uncovers.

According to Isaac and Michael (1981), the quantitative, descriptive method of

research systematically describes the facts and characteristics of the researchers topic of

33

interest consistent with the facts. Descriptive research allowed the researcher to describe

and evaluate the aspects of the participants feelings, opinions, and attitudes toward

flexible work arrangements, job satisfaction, and worklife balance. The researchers

decision to use a survey to collect the data further established the suitability of this

methodology (Lee, 1992).

Design of the Study

To gather the data, the researcher used a survey questionnaire. The survey

instrument that was used was the short form MSQ. The researcher obtained permission to

use the instrument from the University of Minnesota (Vocational Psychology Research).

There were 20 items on the survey instrument, one item from each of the original 20

scales (D. J. Weiss et al., 1967). A 5-point Likert-type scale allowed the participants to

indicate their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the variables. Much of the limitation that

is attributed to survey research is the reliance of self-report. Researchers have nothing to

depend on but the answers of the respondents. They can neither analyze the surveys

based on what they observe nor interact with the participants in a subjective manner. The

analysis can be presented numerically in an objective manner and the data are quantified

as provided by the respondents. Some of the limitations noted in the area were (a)

respondents do not participate in the construction of the information, (b) data do not

capture the decision process that produces observed outcomes, (c) it only gathers

information about the questions asked and cannot explore important subjects in depth as

they are uncovered, and (d) statistical associations do not provide an understanding of

complex relationships. The individuals being surveyed must have a moderate degree of

34

literacy in order for the surveys to be effective. Although possible, using an oral survey is

very impractical (Graverson, 2008; Idea, n.d.).

How the questionnaires are disseminated, is an important consideration. The

considerations for this process are budgets, time limitations and the level of anonymity

desired for a study. Presently, e-communication is thought to be the best mode of

dissemination since it is easier to access and disseminate at almost no cost. Respondents

were able to respond effectively and in a user-friendly medium (Burns et al., 2008;

Pinterick, 2005). For the pretest, the questionnaire was distributed via email to 40

participant surrogates. In the actual research study, the questionnaire was distributed via

email to 200 participants.

Sample and Population

Survey research is a form of scientific inquiry whose purpose is to collect reliable

and unbiased data from participants who are representative of a sample. Some

questionnaires are descriptive (reporting factual data), and can look at more than one

construct at a time. The design represented in this study was snowball sampling, a

nonprobability design. Snowball sampling is a technique where the researcher identified

individuals from the population of interest and use these individuals as informants to

identify other members of the population, who are themselves used as informants, and so

on (Robson, 2002). The researcher identified participants who met certain criteria, who in

turn identified other potential participants meeting the same criteria (Burns et al., 2008).

The key informants made initial contact with other potential participants and had them

contact the researcher if they are interested in participating in the study.

35

This explanatory research project required 200 completed surveys in order to

achieve statistically valid results. Additionally, a sample of 200 would minimize

shrinking of the multiple correlation coefficients (Cohen, 1977). Furthermore, this size

would yield power greater than .97 to detect a moderate effect (2 = .15) in a multiple

regression analysis at the .05 level. According to Cohen, the power analysis accounts for

the effect of sample size and the probability of correctly rejecting the hypothesis.

Since there were a number of options available to employees participating in

flexible work arrangement programs, and inclusion or exclusion of certain groups of

workers, the participants used in this research were male and female employees who were

involved in such programs at least once a month and were not self-employed. The

participants in this study represented individuals who worked in both the private and

public sectors (e.g., federal government, professional and business services, insurance

and healthcare industries).

Participation in this study was voluntary and survey responses were kept

confidential. Participants were required to sign a consent form that stated the purpose of

the study, acknowledging that their participation in the study was voluntary and that they

were able to stop participating in the study at any time.

Protection of the data collected was paramount to maintaining the confidentiality

and anonymity of the participants throughout the research process (Creswell, 2002).

Therefore, pseudonyms for the participants were used throughout the collection of data

and reporting of the findings.

36

Instrumentation/Measures

The MSQ (short form), which was used for the study, contained multiple

measurement variables to assess job satisfaction. In this study, the research was intended

to examine how employees job satisfaction and worklife balance relates to tenure, age,

education, income, and other demographics. This tool measured intrinsic and extrinsic

job satisfaction. This instrument was selected because of its acceptance and wide usage in

the research community and, therefore, has sufficient internal validity and reliability to

measure job satisfaction (DeMato & Curcio, 2004; Van Horn, 2008; van Saane, Sluiter,

Verbeek, & Frings-Dresen, 2003).

The data collected were analyzed to determine differences in job satisfaction and

worklife balance. Inferential statistical methods such as an independent measure t test,

confidence level, and multiple regression testing were performed on the dependent and

independent variables. An idea of the direction and strength of the relationship between

the variables will be provided through the use of measures of correlation. Descriptive

statistics (means and standard deviations) will help readers get an understanding of the

data and identify any potential problems that can skew the analysis. To determine central

tendencies of the data, means will be computed, and to discover the extent of the variance

of the data, standard deviation will be computed.

According to Leedy and Ormrod (2001), researchers are unable to avoid

encountering bias of one sort or another. To handle this problem, the authors suggest that

researchers accept this fact as an inevitable condition in research and not be unduly upset.

37

Instrument

Biases here are most likely because of the way the questions are put together and

the kind of questions asked. The survey questionnaire is created to reflect the answers the

researcher is looking for. The MSQ limits answers to one of the five categories listed.

Questionnaires often do that leaving little or no room for gray areas of concern. The

wording of the answer choices is also a way to create bias. The use of words like very

and extreme can mean different things to different people. In some cases, the differences

in how people perceive words like very satisfied and extremely satisfied can make a

difference in how they might answer. The order of choice is important, as well. Starting

with very dissatisfied and ending with very satisfied guide people to consider the negative

first. However, starting with the positive first can skew the survey to more positive results

than may occur. Some people limit themselves to the first answers or do not read

completely through an answer choice before answering the question.

Participants

Everyone has their own agenda. When participants are part of a research study,

care has to be taken to consider the background and experiences of the people being

interviewed and questioned. For example, the obvious questionssuch as Are you

satisfied with your lifestyle?are going to be very different when posed to those whose

income is less than $20,00 and those whose income is more than $100,000. Issues such as

quality of care in a hospital intensive care unit are also going to be based on experiences

including whether or not the patient involved became better. The researcher has to take

these experiences and challenges that people face into consideration. Cooper and

38

Schindler (2006) suggested that responses should be accepted for what they are

statements by individuals who reflect varying degrees of truth and accuracy.

Researcher

The first thing that a researcher must learn is to address his or her own biases

about the subject. There is a reason the researcher chooses a subject to be researched. The

researcher must understand the approach he or she takes and the questions or hypothesis

formulated. The people and data used are a choice that can be based on trying to achieve

what the researcher believes to be true. Researchers are also people with experiences and,

therefore, must examine and note those in their research evaluation (Robson, 2002).

Reliability and Validity

The data gathered and the objective of the survey generally determine the

reliability required. Reliability refers to the researchers ability to ensure that the

measurement procedure yields consistent results (Fisher, Andersen, & Heath, n.d.).

Maintaining consistency of data was necessary for making general statements. This

involves, for example, administering the questionnaire or portions of the questionnaire to

the same respondents at different times or under different circumstances to assess how

stable the answers are (Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2007).

The validity and reliability of the MSQ has been established through the finding

of van Saane et al. (2003). These researchers used a total of 29 instruments with

psychometric quality control factors consisting of internal consistency scale total and

range coefficient of 0.79, testretest coefficient scale totals and range scales (0.69),

39

convergent validity scale total and subscale correlation range (0.49), discriminate validity

(0.50), and content validity that contain at least 4 of 11 factors (van Saane et al., 2003).

The instruments reliability is based on Hoyts analysis of variance (ANOVA)

method which demonstrates that the MSQ scales have internal, consistent reliability. For

intrinsic satisfaction, researchers reported that coefficients for the short-form scale ranged

from .84 to .91 and from 77 to .82 for the extrinsic scale and from .87 to .92 for the

general satisfaction scale. The validity of the short form MSQ is contingent on the

validity of the long form MSQ which shows the validity through its performance

according to theoretical expectations (D. J. Weiss et al., 1967).

Cronbachs alpha was used to test for reliability. Cronbachs alpha measures how

well each item in a scale correlates with the sum of the remaining items. It also measured

consistency among the items in a scale (Cronbach, 1951).

Validity is the extent that a test measures what the researcher needs to measure.

Reliability is concerned with the accuracy and precision of measurement procedures. To

measure the validity (content and construct) of the survey, responses from the pretest

were analyzed. The various types of validity (face, content, construct and criterion) can

be measured in surveys. Face validity evaluates whether the questionnaire measures what

it is supposed to and is thought to be the most subjective. The researcher tests for content

validity by evaluating whether the questionnaire accurately measures every aspect of the

topic. Construct validity should be measured if specific criteria cannot be identified that

adequately defines the construct being measured. Criterion validity reflects the success of

measures used for prediction or estimation. Researcher must make sure that the validity

criterion used is itself valid (Cooper & Schindler, 2006, p. 320). These authors

40

suggested that any criterion measure should be judged in terms of several qualities: (a)

relevance, (b) freedom from bias, (c) reliability, and (d) availability.

Data Collection

The data were collected using a survey questionnaire. Questionnaires are useful

when the researcher needs to collect large amounts of information from people quickly or

easily. Several advantages are (a) can complete anonymously, (b) easy to compare and

analyze, (c) inexpensive to administer, (d) can administer to many people, and (e) can use

existing questionnaires. Some of the challenges of using questionnaires are (a) people

who receive them do not return them, (b) wording can bias responses, and (c) impersonal

so the researcher does not get the full story (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).

The confidence level reveals the percent range of certainty generated from a

sample (+ or a certain value range), of how the whole population will respond to a

specific question. The wider the confidence interval accepted the more certain the entire

population answers will be within that particular range. The confidence level tells the

researcher how sure he or she can be because it represents how often the true percentage

of the population will choose an answer that falls within the confidence level. The

literature shows that most researchers use the 95% level. The choice of the significance

level used in this research will be .05, the most common level used by researchers

(Cooper & Schindler, 2006).

Participants completed the survey. Prior to the administration of the questionnaire,

40 pretest participants were selected from volunteers who participated from a request

made on the universitys Web site. All individuals were contacted via email. The

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questionnaire, information about why the survey is being conducted, a definition of

flexible work arrangements, a statement regarding anonymity, instructions, and a request

for a return email to confirm his or her agreement to participate in the survey was

included in this communication.

Follow-up was accomplished using email 15 business days after the surveys were

emailed. This allowed ample time for delivery to the participants and time to complete

and return the survey. For participants who returned the surveys, the correspondence

thanked them for their participation. For those who did not respond, the email served as a

reminder that they were still able to participate if the survey was returned within 5

business days.

Data Analysis Procedures

ORourke (2003) stated that when analyzing data, it is normal to discover that

some data are missing. Sometimes the quantity of missing data is negligible; while in

other instances, it can be substantial. To prevent or minimize instances of missing data,

the author suggests (a) understand the reason for the missing data (e.g., participants

refuse to answer the question, participants do not know the answer to the question, or

question sensitivity); (b) prevention is the best possible means to avoid or minimize

missing data; and (c) survey instruments should be well designed with explicable

directions and clear-cut and answerable items. Missing data can be dealt with by simply

ignoring it and just analyzing the remaining data.

Like ORourke, Cooper and Schindler (2006) suggested several tools to use to

address missing data. These tools appear to be the same as ORourkes, just with different

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names: (a) listwise deletiondiscarding the surveys, (b) pairwise deletionmissing data

completely random and requires that the researcher estimate for consistency, and (c)

replacement of missing data requires the researcher to estimate the missing responses

based on the researchers choice of using average response or most used response to

capture the missing data. Generally, it is quite difficult to measure the effects when data

are missing. Analysis and interpretation of the data can be influenced by missing data.

To prepare and analyze the data, the researcher used SPSS and Excel software

packages. Mean score were computed and graphics created. A regression analysis of the

independent and dependent variables was performed.

Ethical Considerations

Robson (2002) stated that it is vital, at a very early stage of ones preparation to

carry out an enquiry, that the researcher gives serious thought to the ethical aspects of

what he or she is proposing. Taking this into consideration, this researcher adhered to the

highest ethical standards during the conduct of the research. All participants in the study

were provided, in writing, detailed information concerning the study and its purpose and

the study procedures.

The email invitation and online informed consent form assured participants

confidentiality and anonymity. The use of a third-party vendor, FreeOnlineSurveys.com,

assisted in maintaining the participants privacy and anonymity. The researcher did not

include any vulnerable populations in the study.

All data were used to prepare the dissertation. All data were analyzed, so the

researcher stored it in a secure location. The results of the study will not be shared with

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anyone. The surveys, other paperwork, and software computations will remain in the

researchers possession within the statutory limits after publication of the dissertation at

which time all data will be shredded and discarded (G. McLaughlin, personal

communication, January 7, 2009).

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CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between job satisfaction

and worklife balance. The researcher identified organizations that were successful in

using alternative workplace strategies and identified jobs that were best suited for the

work options. The study discussed advantages and disadvantages for both employees and

employers and factors that determined job satisfaction and worklife balance.

Participants completed online instruments, which consisted of the MSQ and a

demographic survey. A description of the data collection method, the research sample,

the data analysis procedures, and the results of the data analysis from the survey data in

order to answer the following research questions are provided in this chapter:

1. Is there a relationship between demographic variables and job satisfaction?

2. Is job satisfaction and dissatisfaction related to motivator and hygiene factors?

3. Is there a relationship between extrinsic factors and worklife balance?

Results of the data analysis include descriptive statistics for each MSQ scale,

correlations, significance tests, and a summary of the research findings.

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Data Collection

The researcher used the short form MSQ, which consisted of 20 statements

related to the participants work environment. The participants responded to the

statements by indicating his or her choice of how satisfied he or she was with his or her

present job. The participants checked the appropriate response according to five choices

and corresponding numerical assignment: 1 = very dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 =

neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 4 = satisfied, and 5 = very satisfied.

The short form MSQ has statements that measured intrinsic motivators (e.g.,

achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and other factors that motivate

employees). Some statements measured extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, job security,

working conditions, status, organizational policies and procedures, quality of supervision,

and other job content).

A pretest that consisted of 40 participants was conducted prior to launching the

survey. The participants received an email invitation requesting their assistance in testing

the survey, with a link to FreeOnlineSurveys.com, an online survey provider. The email

informed participants that the survey and the six questions should be completed as soon

as possible, but not later than October 30, 2009.

The pretest participants were asked to access the Web link, where they completed

the actual survey and answered six brief questions about the MSQ. All participants

completed the questionnaire and answered the six questions. The participants provided

the following feedback regarding the questionnaire: (a) They were comfortable with the

questions and instructions for completing the survey questionnaire were easy to

understand, (b) the construction and design of the survey was very good, (c) the language

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and terminology used in wording the questions was simple, (d) the length of the survey

was very good, (e) the appearance was simple, and (f) provided no recommendations for

improving the survey.

Research Sample

The researcher identified participants who met certain criteria, who in turn

identified other potential participants meeting the same criteria (Burns et al., 2008). The

key informants made initial contact with other potential participants who contacted the

researcher if t