Conflict and Tension: First World War 1894-1918Causes of the First World War

AlliancesIn the years leading up to the First World War, some of the most powerful countries in Europe had divided into two opposing sides (or alliances). In one alliance were Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, the Triple Alliance, and the other was made up of France, Russia and Britain, the Triple Entente.

1879 – Dual Alliance is formed between Germany and Austria-Hungary as they were natural allies given their shared language, culture and history.

1882 – Dual Alliance becomes the Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Each country promised to provide military support to the others id one was attacked by two other powers. Italy was viewed as a minor partner.

1892 – Franco-Russian Alliance between France and Russia. France determined to protect itself against Germany after the Franco-Prussian War so signed deal with Russia to help each other out if either of them was attacked.

1904 – Entente Cordiale (Friendly Understanding) between Britain and France. Formed due to increasing threat of Germany’s growing army and navy in South Africa who Britain had fought a war against (the Boer War).

1907 – Triple Entente between France, Russia and Britain was amalgamation of the Franco-Russian Alliance and the Entente Cordiale.

GermanyBefore 1870 there was no such country as Germany. Collection of small states or areas that shared similar customs were united together in 1871 following a series of wars between Prussia and nearby France, Austria and Denmark. The new Germany made rapid social, military and economic progress.

Wilhelm II, the German Kaiser was the grandson of Britain’s Queen Victoria the cousin of Britain’s future king, George V. He was a dictator with complete power despite having a parliament to assist him.

Germany’s empire was small compared with both the British and French empires but by the twentieth century it was recognised as having the finest army in the world.

BritainBy 1900 Britain was the world’s richest country and the British Empire was the largest the world had ever seen. This was one of the reasons why such a small island was viewed as such a powerful nation.Through her marriage to Albert and the marriages of her children, Queen Victoria and the royal family was directly connected to the rulers of Russia, Germany, Spain, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Greece and Romania.Despite having wealth and power, Britain was divided - a rich nation and a poor nation. Richer people enjoyed a life of luxury while the poor barely earned enough money to get by.Britain had the largest shipbuilding industry but producing less goods than other nations.

FranceIn 1870 the French were beaten by German forces in the Franco-Prussian War which was a blow to their pride.France didn’t have a ruling royal family like many other leading European powers but was a republic –a nation rules by an elected president with the help of elected politicians. Many French politicians had long-standing hatred for Germany and wanted revenge for the Franco-Prussian War.French Empire was the second largest behind the British Empire.France was one of the world’s leading trading nations but was beginning to fall behind many other nations, including Britain and Germany, in the production of goods and materials such as coal, steel, ships and food.

Key Wordsimperial empire

trade union tsar

colony Reichstag

ethnic group Slav

alliance treaty

pan-Slavism semi-independent

Splendid Isolation two-power standard

Weltpolitik foreign policy

arms race nationalist

assassin July Crisis

mobilise ultimatum

Key dates

1879 Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary

1882 Italy joins Germany and Austria-Hungary to form Triple Alliance

1892 Franco-Russian Alliance is formed

1897 Germany begins formulating the Schlieffen Plan

1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance between Britain and Japan

1904 Britain and France sign Entente Cordial, ‘friendly understanding’

1905-6 Tangier (First Moroccan) Crisis

1906 Creation of Dreadnought

1907 Britain, France and Russia become Triple Entente

1908-9 Balkan Crisis

1911 May – Second Moroccan CrisisSeptember – Black Hand is formed

1912-13 Balkan Wars

1914

June – Assassination of Archduke Franz FerdinandJuly – Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia

RussiaRussia was by far the largest country in the world but didn’t have any overseas colonies.

Russia was a nation of both great wealth and extreme poverty. The rich owned the best land and the vast majority of Russians were illiterate peasants under the control of wealthy landowners.

Ruled by an emperor (known as a tsar) and Tsar Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra were distant cousins of both Kaiser Wilhelm II, the German Emperor, and King George V of Great Britain.

From 1904-5, Russia fought and lost a war with Japan (Russo-Japanese War). Country remained very unstable; strikes became more frequent and Tsar responded with increasing force.

Austria-HungaryThe union between Austria and Hungary had taken place in 1867. Was a nation of many different nationalities and 15 different languages were spoken. Many of these groups wanted independence from Austria-Hungary.Overall political authority was held by Emperor Franz Josef, although Austria and Hungary had separate elected parliaments.Austria-Hungary did not have any overseas colonies.Task of keeping Austria-Hungary unified was one of the government’s biggest problems in the years leading up to the First World War. The Czechs in the north and the Croats in the south-west wanted to rule themselves; and Serbs living in the south wanted to join with the neighbouring country of Serbia. Serbia itself was becoming increasingly more powerful and was a strong ally of Russia.

Conflict and Tension: First World War 1894-1918Causes of the First World War

Arms RaceAn arms race is when rival countries build up their armed forces in a bid to become bigger and stronger than the other. In the years leading up to WWI the major European powers took part in an arms race and spent millions on their military. In 1870, Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Italy spent over £90 million between them but by 1914 this had quadrupled to almost £400 million. Britain was the only major power that had not introduced conscription by the time the war broke out in 1914 and relied on a volunteer army until 1916. European powers so worried about future conflicts they made detailed plans of attack. Naval-race took place between Britain and Germany as Kaiser Wilhelm II announced he wanted a navy to rival Britain who was currently the world’s greatest naval power. Britain announced creation of dreadnought, new improved type of warship, in 1906 and Germans retaliated with their own version – Rheinland. Britain then responded with ‘super-dreadnought’.

The Balkan Wars

Serbia was the leading Slav state in the Balkans and wanted to unite all Slavs into one nation pan-Slavism. 1908, Austria-Hungary took control of Bosnia, one of the small Slav states that had been under Turkish control which angered Serbia who asked Russia to take action. Russia called for an international conference to discus A-H actions. Germany supported A-H. Russia faced a dilemma: stand up for Serbia and take on both Austria-Hungary and Germany, or back down? For now, Russia backed down because it as not prepared to risk war as it felt it was not strong enough to take on Germany at this time. Several secret societies were formed in Serbia and Bosnia with the main aim being to get rid of A-H influence in the Balkans. Prepared to use violence to achieve this. Russian vowed they would not back down against Germany again.

The Moroccan CrisesMorocco was one of the few areas of Africa that had not been colonised by a European country. Britain had agreed to support France’s attempts to take them over as part of the Entente Cordiale. Germany’s Emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II, was determined to prevent this from happening and visited Tangier to pledge his support to Morocco’s ruler. Tensions built between France and Germany and The Algeciras Conference, January 1906 was held to settle the conflict. This was humiliating for Germany and led to the formation of the Triple Entente. 1911 saw a second crisis in Morocco when there was a local rebellion in Fez. The Sultan asked the French for help who sent 20,000 soldiers to fight the rebels. Germany accused the French of invading Morocco and sent a warship (Panther) as a show of strength. Eventually a series of meetings were held between German, French and British politicians and a peaceful solution found. German humiliation. Britain and France grew closer. Italy hadn’t supported Germany which weakened the Triple Alliance. Britain now convinced Germany were a threat to European peace and in 1912 signed secret naval agreement with France to protect the sea against Germany.

Kaiser Wilhelm IIKaiser felt that Germany should be a global power, with a large empire and control over colonies in different parts of the world. This idea was know as Weltpolitik, meaning ‘world policy’. To protect his new empire, the Kaiser wanted a large navy of powerful battleships. His aims and actions increased the tension between European nations. Desire for more colonies alarmed countries that already had empires of their own, wondered whether Kaiser would challenge them for their colonies which could lead to war. The fact that he kept building up his army and navy only increased this tension. Other nations began to build up their own armies and navies in response and drew up detailed defence (and attack) plans in preparation for war. This is when most of the powerful European nations began to form alliances.

Splendid IsolationBritain had the biggest Empire and wanted to protect it. In order to do this a law was passed in 1889 stating that Britain’s navy should be at least equal in size to the combined strength of the next two largest navies in the world (France and Russia). This was known as the two-power standard. Britain felt that they didn’t need any military or economic allies as they had such a huge navy and an empire that provided all the resources it needed. This was known as the Splendid Isolation. It began to look less great in the early 1900s when the most powerful European nations began to split themselves into two alliances. With Germany becoming increasingly aggressive, Britain was looking a little too isolated. In 1904 the Entente Cordiale was signed between Britain and France. 1907 they joined the Triple Entente with France and Russia and ended their Splendid Isolation.

Black Hand / Murder in SarajevoBlack Hand was a secret society formed in May 1911 by a group of ten Serbian army officers. Members were prepared to commit acts of terrorism to achieve their aim of a united Serbia. Before long there were about 2500 members and several worked as guards in the border between Serbia and Bosnia. Failed assassination attempts on Austrio-Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef and an important member of Austrian government. Austria-Hungary began testing weapons and carrying out army exercises in Bosnia next to the Serbia border. Black Hand saw this as threatening. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Franz Josef’s nephew, planned visit to Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 which was seen as a direct insult to Serbia as this was a National Day in Serbia. Black Hand planned his assassination. Gavrilo Princip, 19-year-old-student, shot Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. Attempt earlier in the day by another assassin had failed when bomb failed to hit its target. Princip happened to be in the right place at the right time and seized the opportunity. He was never meant to be the primary assassin.

Countdown to WarMost European powers thought that the Sarajevo murders were a local matter that would be dealt with by the countries involved. This was not the case.July 1914, after checking it had the support of Germany, Austria-Hungary send a list of demands known as the 10 point ultimatum to Serbia. They were given 48 hours to respond. Not all demands were accepted by Serbia so on 28 July A-H declare war and began bombing Serbian capital city of Belgrade. Triggered chain of events that meant all great powers of Europe were at war with each other in just over a week.

Weds 29 July 1914 – Russian army mobilised to go to Serbia’s aid.

Thurs 30 July 1914 – Germany’s alliance with A-H comes into force. Kaiser asks his cousin (Tsar Nicholas of Russia) to stop getting his troops ready.

Sat 1 Aug 1914 – Tsar Nicholas refuses to stop preparations for war so Germany mobilises army and declares war on Russia. French prepares army for war (ally of Russia).

Sun 2 Aug 1914 – Germany begins first part of Schlieffen Plan. Asks for passage through Belgium to France but is refused.

Mon 3 Aug 1914 – Germany declares war on France and invades Belgium. This brings Britain into the conflict as they had signed a treaty in 1839 promising to protect Belgium if it was invaded. Britain ask Germany to call off invasion of Belgium.

Tue 4 Aug1914 – Germans do not respond to Britain and at 11pm Britain declares war on Germany.

Wed 5 Aug 1914 – France declares war on Germany.

Thu 6 Aug 1914 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia

These events are sometimes known collaboratively as the July Crisis.

Causes of the First World War

Militarism – many countries believed it was important to build large armies and navies.

Alliances – the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente were said to have been formed to help prevent war.

Imperialism – European nations were creating Empires and coming into conflict.

Nationalism – all countries were looking out for their own interests.

Conflict and Tension: First World War 1894-1918Stalemate

Race to the seaBy early September 1914, both sides had dug trenches to defend themselves. Neither side could go forward so they each tried to get round the back of the other. As the armies moved forward, trying to outflank each other, they dug trenches as they went. Sometimes called ‘the race to the sea’. 19 Oct – 22 Nov 1914 over 120,000 British, French and Belgian soldiers killed or wounded in Ypres while stopping Germans from outflanking them.

Failure of the war plansSchlieffen Plan’s success relied on speedy defeat of Belgium and quick victory over France. Germans had underestimated the Belgians who put up much fiercer resistance than expected. Had built series of huge, stone forts equipped with long-range powerful guns. Delayed German invasion of France by 4 or 5 days. Also slowed at Mons where British Expeditionary Force (BEF) pinned down large number of German troops. Delay forced Germans to abandon plan to sweep around Paris to capture it. Schlieffen Plan relied on Russians taking 6 weeks to mobilise their armies but it only took ten days. In response, Germans ordered around 100,000 soldiers to leave war in France and take on the Russians. Germany now fighting the ‘war on two fronts’ that the Schlieffen Plan had been designed to avoid. German troops under General von Kluck swerved to southeast and marched into valley of the River Marne. This gave French and British and opportunity to attach. Following the Battle of the Marne it became clear that the Schlieffen Plan had failed.

Schlieffen PlanCreated in December 1905 by Count Alfred von Schlieffen, most senior general in German army. Was designed to deal with a ‘war on two fronts’ following the signing of the Franco-Russian Alliance. Simple but risky plan that hinged on belief that it would take Russia several weeks to mobilise its army and this would give Germany time to beat France. Plan involved several smaller groups of German soldiers entering France through its more lightly defended northern regions and marching through Belgium and Luxembourg. Expected most French troops to be positioned on German border so German would have element of surprise and the French would be outflanked and surrounded.

RussiaRussian army marched towards Germany and Austria-Hungary within days of the war. Over one million soldiers and nicknamed the ‘steam-roller’. By mid August had advanced several hundred miles into German territory. Russians were poorly equipped and badly led. Beaten by the Germans at the Battle of Tannenberg (26-30 August 1914) and Battle of MasurianLakes two weeks later. At Tannenberg they lost 125,000 men and a further 100,000 at Masurian Lakes. Had more success against Austria-Hungary. A-H had advanced well into Russian territory but fled when faced with nearly half a million Russian soldiers. In less than a week they retreated over 120 miles. Estimated 100,000 killed, 220,000 wounded, and 100,000 captured. Russians crossed the border into A-H but met by Carpathian mountain range. Eastern Front began to take shape over the next few months.

Key Wordsoutflanked province

stalemate Eastern Front

Western Front no man’s land

attrition counter-attack

stand to trench foot

shell shock machine gun

rifle bayonet

mutiny mutineer

blockade U-boat

Q-ships convoy system

depth charge Reconnaissance

dogfight zeppelin

Key battles

6th – 10th September 1914 The First Battle of the Marne

25th April 1915 – 9th

January 1916 Gallipoli Campaign

21st February 1916 –18th December 1916 Battle of Verdun

31st May 1916 – 1st

June 1915 Battle of Jutland

1st July – 18th

November 1916 Battle of the Somme

31st July – 10th

November 1918Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)

8th - 11th August 1918 Battle of Amiens(beginning of the hundred days)

Trench WarfareTo begin with, trenches were simply holes in the ground that soldiers dug to protect themselves from bullets and bombs. Soon developed into more complex defensive system, protected by barbed wire, sandbags and machine guns. Usually three lines of trenches on each side with the land in between known as ‘no man’s land’. Where possible they were built in a zigzag pattern so the blast from exploding bombs would be confines to a small part of the trench. Also stopped enemy soldiers firing straight down the line if they reached a trench. Front-line, followed by support and reserve trenches. Linked by lots of communication trenches that allowed each side to quickly bring soldiers up to the front-line without being exposed to enemy fire. Two enemy front-lines were often only 50-200 metres apart. German trenches often much deeper and better built - realised war of movement had passed and might be there for some time. British and French thought that the trenches might only be temporary so design only began to change after several months.

Large guns behind trenches would fire shells at enemy - aim was to smash enemy trench system and blow holes in barbed wire. Attacking soldiers would ‘go over the top’ – climb out of their trenches with guns and grenades towards enemy trenches across no man’s land. Soldiers would jump into enemy trenches and shoot or fight in hand-to-hand combat.

Life in the trenches

Everyday routine – third on guard duty on front-line, third would repair trenches, collect foot, water, ammunition and first aid supplies, third would rest. Typical month soldier might serve four days in the front-line, four days in a support trench, eight days in reserve trenches and remainder of time behind the lines in the local town. Up before sunlight for stand to when they were on highest state of alert with guns loaded and on the lookout for enemy attacks. Dawn and dusk most dangerous time of day as changing light made it difficult to spot attacks. Some soldiers used humour to cope with the stress – rude songs, naughty jokes and drew funny picture and cartoons. Trenches were boiling hot in the summer and freezing cold in the winter. Many soldierssuffered from pneumonia, tuberculosis, bronchitis and diarrhoea. Weeks on end with cold, wet feet could lead to trench foot, a painful condition where the foot swells up and develops open sores. Every week, around 12 million letters and parcels were sentby family and friends. Soldiers sent letters home too but usually wouldn’t mention the horrors of trench warfare to avoid upsetting loved ones. Shell shock was common, caused by constant fear of death, relentless noise of bombs and witnessing close friends being killed. Keeping clean was almost impossible and almost all soldiers infested with lice. Food was basic: stew, bread and hard biscuits. Bacon, cheese and jam were treats.

StalemateBy November 1914, both sides had reached the English Channel. Lines of trenches soon stretched the other way too, eventually reaching from coast to Switzerland (over 400 miles). For the next four years these positions hardly changed and this was soon referred to as a ‘stalemate’ – a complete inability to move forward any great distance and a solid determination not to be pushed back. War of movement was over and trench warfare had begun.

Conflict and Tension: First World War 1894-1918Stalemate

War in the Wider WorldBulgaria joined in the war on the side of Germany and A-H in October 1915. Italy stayed out of the war to begin with, but joined on the side of Britain, France and Russia in 1915. German colony of Togoland was captured by the British and French forces in the first month of the war. German-controlled Cameroon was attacked in August 1914 and eventually captured in February 1916. South Africans fighting for the British Empire, conquered German South West Africa. British and Indian troops fought the Turks in Mesopotamia. In the pacific region, ANZACs captured German colonies Western Samoa and New Guinea within a few weeks of the outbreak of war. August 1914, Japan captured German colonies in the Pacific Ocean.

Battle of Verdun

Fought from 21 February to 18 December 1916. Longest battle of First World War and took place in hills north of Verdun-sue-Meuse in northeastern France as French troops defended against a major German attack. Verdun was regarded as the strongest city in France. Falkenhayn, commander of the German army, wanted to ‘bleed France white’ because so many men would die defending the city. German assault began at 7.15am on 21 February. By 24 February French had retreated to a third line of trenches just 8km from Verdun. General Joffre was replaced by General Phillipe Petain who ordered every spare French soldier to Verdun. Over the next 5 months, tons of supplies and thousands of soldiers poured into Verdun. Fighting followed the pattern of attack and counterattack until the autumn. Size of German attacks reduced as Britain had launched major attack on German troops at the River Somme and an attack by the Russians on the Eastern Front meant German troops were needed there too. Germany called off their attacks. French lost more men than the Germans but thought of themselves as the winner.

Weapons of Trench WarfareArtillery – name given to large guns that fire bombs (or shells) over long distances.Machine guns – became well-know as deadly weapons during First World War.Gas attacks – First used April 1915 by Germans.Rifles, bayonets, grenades and flamethrowers – rifle was standard issue, bayonet was 40cm knife attached to the end.Tanks – British invention, bulletproof. First used in 1916.

PasschendaeleAlso known as Third Battle of Ypres. Took place from July to November 1917. Fought between troops from Britain and its empire against German forces for control of the hills south and east of the Belgian city of Ypres. Well known for not only the number of casualties but also for the muddy ground upon which the battle was fought. Ypres had been site of battles in 1914 and 1915. General Haig was convinced he could achieve a quick breakthrough here and then advance north to capture the Belgian ports which were being used by the Germans as submarine bases. Assault began on 18 July with artillery bombardment of over 4,500,000 shells. This lasted 10 days. Area had seen heaviest rainfall in 30 years and exploding bombs turned ground into a sea of thick, sticky mud filled with deep craters. When the ground attack began on 31 July, the troops had to carry boards and lay them down in front of them in an attempt to get over the mud. Within a week, the British had lost 30,000 men. British attacked again and again, and by October the fighting had reached village of Passchendaele, about 8km from starting point. Attacks called off in November as conditions on the battlefield were getting worse. 400,000 soldiers from Britain and its empire killed and injured. Germans lost over 300,000 soldiers. Haig’s reputation was further discredited.

Battle of the SommeTook place between 1 July and 18 November 1916. British and French against German forces. Largest battle of the First WorldWar on Western Front with more than 3 million men taking part. Around 1 million wounded or killed making it one of the bloodiest battles ever to have taken place in human history. Had been planned since summer 1915 in the hope of breaking the stalemate. Britain had one million fresh recruits following a major recruitment campaign. When Germans attacked Verdun, Britain led an attack at the Somme to draw troops away from Verdun. 24 June 1916 British and French artillery began huge bombardment of German trenches. 7:30am on 1 July 1916 first wave of British soldiers went ‘over the top’. Britain suffered 60,000 casualties on the first day with 20,000 fatalities - highest number of casualties and deaths ever recorded in a single day by the British army. Despite losses Haig continued to send men ‘over the top’ but major breakthrough he hoped for never happened. Attacks stopped in November due to approaching winter. British and French troops gained a strip of land about 25km long and 6km wide but had lost around 620,000 men. Germans lost around 500,000. Sir Douglas Haig, commander of the British army was criticised after the battle and nicknamed ‘The Butcher of the Somme’.

War in the AirWhen the fighting began, aeroplanes were very slow, clumsy and unreliable. Mainly used for reconnaissance. August 1914, British pilots spotted thousands of German soldiers preparing to surround British troops on the Western Front. British Army ordered soldiers to withdraw from the area in a move which may have saved 100,000 troops. In September, during the First Battle of the Marne, aeroplanes spotted a gap in the German lines. French and British troops attacked the gap and were able to split the German Army and drive it back.Enemy pilots would fight each other in the air. At first, they fired pistols and threw bricks but soon machine guns were fitted that could shoot between the propellers. Pilots would take part in ‘dogfights’ in the skies above the trenches. Every time a pilot shot sown another plane, he claimed a ‘kill’ and those with the most kills were known as ‘aces’.Both sides used aircraft to drop bombs on enemy positions. These ‘bomber planes’ could only carry small bombs that the pilots dropped over the sides, so military engineers worked to develop aeroplanes that fly for a long period of times and bomb enemy cities. By 1917, Germans had developed the Gotha bomber and began bombing British towns and cities. In one raid, in June 1917, a 20-bomber raid on London killed 162 people, including 18 children at a primary school in Chelsea. British hit back with their own long-ranger bomber (the Handley Page).War in the air also fought by airships that were used for reconnaissance and bombings. Germans made the most use of airships and developed one known as a Zeppelin. Zeppelins bombed French, Belgian and British cities. As aeroplanes improved it became easier to shoot down Zeppelins so use of them declined.

GallipoliSoon after war broke out in 1914, Turkey joined on Germany’s side. Before long, Turkey and Russia were fighting each other in the Caucasus Mountains region, and Russian generals appealed to their French and British allies for help. If Britain and France could get control of Dardenelles they would be able to get supplies by sea to Russia. As well as opening up a sea route, the British felt that an attack on Turkey would distract Turkey’s allies, especially the Germans. Churchill,head of the British Navy, believed that an attack on Turkey would mean Germans would have to send soldiers to help which would give British and French troops a chance to mount huge attacks and break through enemy lines. Also hoped a quick defeat of Turkey would mean countries near to Turkey, such as Greece, Bulgaria and Romania, would join in on Britain’s side and attack Austria-Hungary. Defeat of A-H would leave Germany isolated and surrounded.Gallipoli Campaign can be divided into three phases. Phases 1 and 2 were naval campaigns, while Phase 3 was a military campaign on land. Land attack was mainly ANZAC (Australia and New Zealand Army Corps) troops, but also included soldiers from Britain and its Empire, and France. Attack by ANZAC troops went badly wrong and thousands were gunned down within minutes of leaving their boats. 12 December troops were secretly led away at night to waiting boats by British military leaders. Gallipoli campaign regarded by many as a failure but there were also some achievements. Failure: Turkey not knocked out the war, Bulgaria joined Germany, Churchill resigned, over 200,000 Allied deaths, Russians remained short of supplies. Success: Campaign diverted Turks from helping Germany or A-H, no troops died during the evacuation, a few British submarines managed to get through the Dardanelles, attack Constantinople and sink Turkish warships and supply ships which seriously affected Turkey’s war effort.

War on the SeaBoth sides knew it was vital to try to control the seas. Firstly so they could protect boats bringing in supplies and secondly to stop supplies getting to its enemy. November 1914, British declared that the North Sea was a ‘War Zone’ and that any ships entering it did so at their own risk. This stopped ships reaching Germany which had devastating effects on industry, food and medical supplies. Both sides cautious with their navies. May 1916 saw the one major sea battle in the war, at Jutland. Germany hatched plan to bring British out in the open so he could take them on. Plan failed as British had captured a German code book in 1914 and could decode all the radio messages. Britain lost 14 ships and 6,100 sailors. Germany lost 9ships and 2,550 sailors. Germany claimed it as a victory but the British pointed out that the Germans fled the area of battle first, their fleet needed major repairs before it could sail again and they made no impact on the blockade. After Jutland, there were no more large naval battles for the rest of the war. Germans relied more and more on their submarines (U-boats) to wage an underwater war against their enemy. U-boats sank an average of two supply ships a day. May 1915, German U-boat sunk a British passenger liner, the Lusitania which contained 128 Americans and increased tensions between the US and German governments. By February 1917, Germany had built over a hundred U-boats and another series of attacks began. Five hundred supply ships heading for Britain destroyed in eight weeks and by April, Britain was said to onlyhave six weeks’ food supply left. British responded by introducing convoy system – supply ships sailed close together in large groups, protected by British warships. Between July and August 1917 only five of the eight hundred ships bringing supplies to Britain were sunk.

Conflict and Tension: First World War 1894-1918End of The War

New tactics and technology - Advances at SeaThe hydrophone was a new technological breakthrough that helped to locate submarines. It is a microphone that can be used underwater to listen for underwater sound. By 1918, hydrophones could detect submarines several miles away.

Creation of the first aircraft carrier was another new development. October 1918, a British ship became the world’s first aircraft carrier when an aeroplane landed on the deck of HMS Argus. War ended a month later and the ship played no part in the conflict.

New tactics and technology - TanksFirst ever tanks used by the British at the Battle of the Somme in 1916. Very slow and most of them broke down before they even got to the German trenches. Battle of Cambrai 1917, over 400 tanks crossed no man’s land, crushed German machine gun positions. Battle of Amiens in August 1918, around 600 tanks led an attack on German positions. By 5th day of the advance less than 50 tanks were still working. By 1918, Germans had developed guns that could punch a hole through the side of a tank and long-range ‘anti-tank guns’ than could blow them up from a distance.

USA Enters the WarWhen war broke out in 1914, the USA refused to take sides or support any particular alliance. American neutrality did not mean that the USA remained totally unconnected to the war. American companies sold food, weapons and other goods to Britain and its allies. American banks also let money to Britain and its allies which was used to buy weapons and food, mainly from the USA.

Ships transporting American weapons, foods and other goods to Europe were a target for German submarines (U-boats). In America, anti-German feeling grew as increasing numbers of ships were sunk by German U-boats. Following sinking of Lusitania with 128 Americans on board, many Americans demanded that the USA declare war on Germany.By 1917, the German tactic to starve Britain and France by sinking any ships sailing in British waters had resulted in eight American ships being sunk in just a few months. Demands to declare war grew louder again. Final straw came in April 1917, when America discovered the Germans were trying to forge a secret alliance with Mexico, and they finally declared war on Germany.Entry of America was a great boost for Britain and France and a devastating blow for Germany. Although it would no longer be fighting a war on two fronts it was racing against time to mount a concentrated attack on the Western Front against Britain and France before the American troops arrived.

New tactics and technology – Air WarfareAt start of the war, aeroplanes were mainly used for reconnaissance. Over the next four years, air warfare developed at a fast pace.• Aeroplanes constructed with stronger materials and so became more manoeuvrable.• Anthony Fokker, working for Germans, developed first synchronised mechanism that

allowed machines guns mounted in front of the pilots to fire between the propeller blades.

• Stronger planes meant they could have larger fuel tanks so they could travel greater distances.

• Could hold larger bombs and ‘bomb racks’ for multiple bombs. Made long-range attacks possible.

• Aeroplanes could even carry torpedoes to attack enemy submarines or warships.• At first, aeroplanes flew either alone, or in small groups of two or three. By 1917, pilots

were flying in large patrols or formations.• 1917, pilots could communicate with ground troops by radio, rather than by dropping

weighted messages.

Key Wordsdesert abdicate

Bolshevik neutrality

hurricane bombardment salient

home front armistice

Commanding the troopsMarch 1918, as the Ludendorff Spring Offensive threatened to completely overwhelm the British and French lines, a crucial decision was made. It was clear that better coordination between the different commanders was essential to deal with the German breakthrough. In a series of meeting, Allied generals and politicians agreed that there would be a ‘commander-in-chief’ who would plan and direct all of the British, French and American troops against the German Army. This was known as a ‘unified command structure’.

Ferdinand Foch, and experiences and well-respected French general, was chosen.

New tactics and technology – infiltration tactics

In the early stages of the war, the standard method of attacking a trench was to bombard the enemy with shells (hoping to destroy their positions), followed by a rush forward of troops in an attempt to overwhelm any remaining defenders. Process not successful and incurred heavy casualties for not much ground.New technique developed in the later stages of the war. First suggested by the French, it was proposed that a specially trained team of elite soldiers, armed with light machine guns, grenades and flamethrowers, should advance shortly ahead of the main attack to locate and destroy any German machine guns. However, the Germans were the first to try this new tactic after they translated a captured copy of a booklet detailing the technique.

This new technique resulted in high casualties. A later version saw soldiers sneaking towards the enemy, often crawling, in an attempt to get as near to the enemy as possible before attacking key areas, such as control centres or artillery placements.In 1917, Germans began training small units of soldiers in this new method of attack. Germans called them Sturmmann, which means ’storm man’ but is usually translated as ‘stormtrooper’. September 1917, stormtroopers used successfully at the Battle of Riga, on the Eastern Front. Used again during the battles of Caporetto and Cambrai.

Troops from other countries soon adopted similar tactics, known as ‘infiltration tactics’.

New tactics and technology - artillerySeveral improvements made to artillery guns, shells and tactics. By the end of the war:

• Special shells were developed that could destroy barbed wire and explode on contact with the ground.

• ‘creeping barrage’ was perfected.

• Anti-aircraft guns were developed to shoot down enemy planes

• Guns became a lot bigger and more accurate. By March 1918, the Germans had developed guns that could fire a 106-kilogram shell up to 130-kilometres (80 miles).

• Mine warfare or mining had become increasingly used. Tunnels were built, usually by ex-miners, under the enemy’s trenches, so that explosives could be placed and blown up to destroy and key location.

Russia leaves the war

November 1917, new government in Russia announced that they would make peace with Russia’s enemies. In early December, a peace conference began between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary and, on 15 December, the fighting stopped on the Eastern Front.

Previous Russian tsar had fought at the front with his army but was a poor leader. The government of Russia was left in the hands of his German wife and her advisor, Rasputin. By 1916, over a million Russians had been killed in the fighting, and both soldiers and civilians had completely lost their enthusiasm for the war. By the beginning of 1917, discontent had turned to open opposition and riots and strikes broke out all over Russia. Soldiers on the front-lines were refusing to follow orders, and many deserted. The Tsar abdicated in 15 March and he and his family were immediately seized and imprisoned.

New government ordered a new attack on Germany in July 1917, which ended for in a heavy defeat. After this, whole sections of the Russian army deserted. At the same time, the Germans smuggled Vladimir Lenin back into Russia which led to a second revolution in November 1917. Lenin and his supporters overthrew the government and he declared that Russia was going to make peace with its enemies.March 1918, the Russians signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies. It was harsh on Russia which lost some of its best farmland and natural resources. British and French were angry that the Russians had broken their alliance.Russia’s withdrawal from the war meant that the Germans could pull their troops away from the Eastern Front and move them to the Western Front. Germany no longer had to fight a war on two fronts and could concentrate all their military power into beating the British and French.

Conflict and Tension: First World War 1894-1918End of The War

The Hundred DaysAfter stopping Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive, the Allied armies quickly began to prepare for their own attack. General Foch decided to launch a series of attacks at different points which would stretch the enemy and wear them down to breaking point. British, French, Belgian and other Allied forces would attack along the northern part of the front-lines, while the French and Americans would attack in multiple places along the eastern part of the Western Front.

Attacks began at Amiens on 8 August when British, Australian, Canadian and French forces broke through German lines. Allied losses were reported at 6500, while the Germans lost 30,000 men and a further 17,000 were taken prisoner. General Ludendorff called it ‘the black day of the German Army’.

By early October the Allies had completely broken through the defences and the Germans were in retreat. As they retreated, the Germans burned bridges, destroyed roads, cut down trees and poisoned water wells so advancing enemy forces could not use them. This collapse forced most of the German military leaders to accept that the war should be ended.

Ludendorff’s Spring OffensiveFollowing the withdrawal of Russia, the Germans decided to gamble everything on an all-out attack to win the war before the Americans arrived. General Ludendorff devised a plan to attack at several points along the British and French lines. Main attack would happen near Arras. Trenches were not particularly well built here and Germans hoped to exploit this weak spot.Attack would start with an intense, five-hour artillery bombardment, known as a hurricane bombardment. Germans planned to fire one million artillery shells at the British lines – over three thousand shells per minute.

• Germans would use stormtroopers to burst through the enemy lines and create panic among enemy troops.• Attacks would take place in three other places, and gaps in the lines would allow a larger German force to break through and

surround the British, forcing their surrender.• French would also surrender because they could not fight on without British support.The plan is sometimes known as the Spring Offensive.

Artillery bombardment began at 4.40am on 21 March 1918. This was followed by the release of poison mustard gas, and then a massive attack by thousands of stormtroopers.British were totally outnumbered and confused. Thousands fled or surrendered. By the end of the first day, 20,000 British soldiers had been killed, 35,000 had been wounded, and another 21,000 had been taken prisoner. This was to become the biggest breakthrough on the Western Front for three years. The stalemate had been broken.

Between March and April 1918, the Germans had lost over 220,000 men and did not have enough soldiers in reserve to replace those that had been killed or injured.Stormtroopers had performed too well and there were too many men deep into French territory. Food and weapons took too long to get to the troops and they were running out of both. German advance began to slow down as troops stopped in capturedFrench villages to loot for supplies. British and French troops also began to fight back and the American troops began to arrive.

German advance meant there was a bulge in their front-lines which meant they could be attacked from different sides – this is what General Foch did. By June, American soldiers were arriving at a rate of 50,000 per week and Foch kept soldiers in reserve.July 15, Ludendorff ordered one final attack, which ended in disaster. It was their last major attack of the war. It had cost the Germans around half a million men and now the Allies were about to launch their own huge attack.

Home FrontsOrdinary civilians left at home were known as the ‘home front’. One of the most direct ways they were involved in the conflict was when they were the victims of enemy bomb attacks. In order to provide the soldiers with the vast amount of guns, bullets, shells, ships, aeroplanes, trucks and tanks they needed countries had to increase production.In some countries, such as Germany and Britain, the government took over certain industries to make sure enough of what was needed was produced. With so many men away fighting, women were needed to do their jobs.

Food ShortagesIn most countries there were shortages of food. Both Britain and Germany tried to starve each other by using their navies to block food supplies by sea.With goods in short supply the prices went up. German government responded by setting maximum prices and introduced compulsory ‘meatless’ days.Blockade of Germany remained in place until Treaty of Versailles was signed in June 1919.Britain introduced rationing to make sure that food was equally shared out.

Impact of war on GermanyBy September 1918, Germany was close to collapse. Deadly ‘flu’ epidemic sweeping the country, killing thousands already week from a poor diet/starvation. On the battlefields, Germany and its Allies were close to defeat. 29 September, General Ludendorff told shocked German politicians and generals that he thought Germany should ‘abandon the war as hopeless’.28 October, Germany Navy was ordered out to sea to attack British ships. Sailors refused and news of their mutiny spread. Country was in chaos. Kaiser had lost control and army generals refused to support him. On 9 November he abdicated and secretly left Germany.

Armistice

With Friedrich Ebert as the new leader of Germany, he sent a group of representatives to France to negotiate an Armistice. Main terms included:• All fighting on land, sea and in the air, should end

within six hours• All land occupied by German troops in Belgium,

Luxembourg and France were to be evacuated within 15 days

• Allies were to occupy land in Germany to the west of the River Rhine up to a distance of 30Km

• German troops had to withdraw from A-H, Romania and Turkey

• Germany must immediately hand over ten battleships, six battle cruisers, eight cruisers and submarines, give up its largest weapons and hand over railway trains, railway carriages and rail trucks

• The naval blockade would continue• Germany would pay a financial settlement for all

damage caused.

Germans had been told they must sign whatever was placed in front of them, because situation in Germany was so chaotic and the new government needed an end to the war.

At 5.10am on 11 November 1918, the German representatives signed to agree to the terms. The war was to end at 11.00am later that day.

Why was Germany Defeated?• The war at sea and the British naval blockade of Germany

• The USA enters the war

• Failure of the Ludendorff Spring Offensive

• Impact of the Bolshevik (Russian) Revolution

• The development of the tank

• The defeat of Germany’s Allies

• The German Revolution