A Guide to the Microfilm Edition of

TERRORISM:Special Studies,

1 985-1 9S8First Supplement

UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS OF AMERICA

A Guide to the Microfilm Edition of

TERRORISMSpecial Studies,

1985-1988First Supplement

Project CoordinatorGregory Murphy

Guide compiled byEric Gallagher

A microfilm project ofUNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS OF AMERICA

An Imprint of CIS

4520 East-West Highway • Bethesda, MD 20814

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Terrorism [microform].

(The Special studies series)Accompanied by printed reel guide, compiled by Eric Galllagher.

I. Terrorism. I. Murphy, Gregory, 1960-II. Gallagher, Eric, 1963-[HV6431] 303.6-25 90-12304ISBN 1-55655-108-8 (microfilm)

Copyright © 1989 by the University Publications of America.All rights reserved.

ISBN 1-55655-108-8.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Editorial Note iv

Reel Index

Reel!1979 11982 11984 21985 2

Reel 21985 cont 61986 6

ReelS1986 cont 10

Reel 41986 cont. •. '.. 181987 19

ReelS1987 cont 251988 31

Subject Index 33

in

EDITORIAL NOTE

The executive branch of the U.S. government requires a massive amountof information to make policy decisions. The many departments, agencies,and commissions of the government devote much of their energies togathering and analyzing information. However, even the resources of the U.S.government are not adequate to gather all the information that is needed;therefore, the government contracts universities, colleges, corporations, thinktanks, and individuals to provide data and analyses. Because the greatmajority of these studies aredifficu It to find and obtain, University Publicationsof America (UFA) publishes some of the most important ones in its SpecialStudies series. The Terrorism, First Supplement, collection consists of studieson terrorism that became available during the period 1985-1988.

IV

REEL INDEXFrame

ReeM1979

0001 Consequences of Nuclear Terrorism.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Brian M. Jenkins. August1979.35pp.It is not the primary purpose of this paperto argue the probability of nuclearterrorism, which in the final analysis remains a matter of speculation, butinstead to presume that a serious incident of nuclear terrorism hasoccurred, and then to examine the consequences. Will it significantly alterthe political landscape of the world? Will it change attitudes about nucleararms or nuclear energy? Will it lead to a new international regime ofcooperation and control? Will it increase the likelihood of further use ofnuclear weapons by states or terrorists?

1982

0036 Mass Casualties: A Lessons Learned Approach, Accidents, CivilUnrest, Natural Disasters, Terrorism.National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C.R. Adams, S. Edelstein, andM. Silverstein. October 1982. 350pp.Proceedings of the International Assembly on Emergency Medical Ser-vices (1st) held on June 13-17, 1982. Prepared in cooperation withMaryland Institute for Emergency Medical Services Systems, Baltimore.Report examines clinical implications of civil disturbances, crisis manage-ment, and mass casualty incidents. It includes a free paper forum.

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1984

0386 Conflict Forecasting Project.Rochester University, New York. Department of Political Science. BruceB. tie Mesquita. April 1984. 180pp.An expected utility approach to the study of international and comparativepolitics offers both the opportunity to deduce propositions about potentiallyconflictual policy formation and, to evaluate the usefulness of thosepropositions as explanations of actual behavior. Many studies that haveapplied such a framework to international conflict have used the modelproposed in The War Trap. Although this model has proven helpful inexplaining both intuitively obvious cases of international disputes andseemingly counterintuitive ones, still it possesses several serious short-comings. The main goal of the Conflict Forecasting Project is to correctsome of those shortcomings. Here is a refined version of the expectedutility formulation set out in the The War Trap. The model has beenreconstructed, protection added against interpersonal comparisons, andan introduction brought into the model for resistance by an opponent forpolicy changes.

1985

0562 Recent Trends in Palestinian Terrorism.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. B. Hoffman. March 1985.19pp.It is generally believed that, inthe aftermath of Israel's invasion of Lebanonin June 1982, there has been an appreciable decline in Palestinian terroristactivity. However, a statistical examination of data in the Rand Corpora-tion's Chronology of InternationalTerrorism presents a ratherdifferent andconsiderably less sanguine picture. First, there was little change in the totallevel of Palestinian terrorism against Israeli targets when measured oversix-month intervals since January 1982, although for a time there was adecline of operations within Israel itself. During 1984, however, there wasan alarming increase of terrorist attacks in Israel. Second, surrogateattacks on Jewish and Israeli targets outside of Israel by European andLatin American terrorist groups increased dramatically during the sixmonths following the invasion but then plummeted in an equally dramaticfashion after December 1982. Third, even though surrogate operations inEurope and elsewhere declined, the level of attacks on Israeli interests andcitizens in Europe has remained constant since the July-December 1982time frame. Fourth, almost as many attacks are staged by Palestinian andArab terrorists against Palestinian and Arab targets as are committedagainst Israeli and Jewish targets.

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0583 Supplemental Proceedings of the 10th Annual Symposium on theRole of Behavioral Science In Physical Security—Outthlnklng theTerrorist: An International Challenge.Defense Nuclear Agency, Washington, D.C. Barbara Curtis and LawrenceVisniesky. April 24, 1985.44pp.These supplemental proceedings represent an additional paper and averbatim transcript of the International Panel and a presentation by Mr.Arnaud de Borchgrave at "The 10th Annual Symposium on the Role ofBehavioral Science in Physical Security—Outthinking the Terrorist: AnInternational Challenge," in Springfield, Virginia, April 23-24,1985.

0627 Conceptual Framework for Analyzing Terrorist Groups.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Bonnie Cordes, Brian M.Jenkins, KonradKellen, Gail Bass, and Daniel Relies. June 1985.125pp.This report documents a study undertaken to develop a methodology foranalyzing terrorist groups. A conceptual framework for analysis was de-vised and was then used to test several hypotheses concerning terroristgroups and their actions. The study also resulted in the creation of anextensive database of information on twenty-nine selected terrorist groups.The report describes an analytical framework developed at Rand forstudying the characteristics of terrorist groups and illustrates how thatframework can be used to address broad questions about terrorists andtheir actions. This conceptual framework is based on data concerning 150specific attributes of terrorist gro ups. These attributes fall into the f o (lowingcategories: (1) Organization; (2) Leadership; (3) Demography; (4) Ideol-ogy, doctrine, and goals; (5) Psychology, mindset, and decisionmaking;(6) Funding and logistics; (7)Operations and modus operand!; (8) Commu-nications; (9) External relations; (10) Environmental and governmentresponse.

0752 An Analysis of Left- and RIght-WIng Terrorism In Italy.Defense Intelligence College [location unavailable]. Kenneth R. Langford.July 1985. 94pp.The purpose of this study was to analyze, in terms of intelligence principles,left- and right-wing terrorism in Italy. Italian terrorism is deeply rooted inpolitical and socioeconomic developments of the post-World War II era.The events surrounding these developments were closely examined in anattempt to understand the rise of Italian terrorism. The second, but equallyimportant purpose, was to present a study which applied indications andwarning (I&W) analytical techniques to the terrorist problem in a givenregion. The scope of this study included a systematic review of significantevents peculiar to Italy's post-World War II years. Beginning with politicaland socioeconomic developments immediately following the war, events

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were traced and discussed through the violent outbreak of terrorism in Italy.Government countermeasures were identified in Italy's bidto cope with theterrorist menace. Indications and warning methods were applied to keyevents to better understand the phenomena of Italian terrorism. Thisanalysis demonstratedthat the methods may be successfully applied, withcertain restraints. Additional application of I&W analysis to other terroristproblems should be encouraged to strengthen the intelligence base inthismostly untouched arena of analysis. The thesis concluded with a prognosisof the future directions of terrorism in Italy.

0846 Generational Changes In Terrorist Movements: The Turkish Case.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Sabri Sayari. July 1985.17pp.The purpose of this paper is to provide some information concerning thecomposition of the terrorist movement in Turkey, with special emphasis onthe generational changes among the terrorists, and the implications ofthese changes for the behavior of the armed extremists.

0863 Shl'a Terrorism, the Conflict In Lebanon and the Hijacking of TWAFlight 847.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Bruce Hoffman. July 1985.4pp.Why is the United States the target of a terrorist campaign waged byLebanese Shi'a extremists? The answer, to a great extent, lies in thetraditional sectarian rivalries and present internal power struggle for controlof Lebanon. By way of the hijacking of TWA flight 847, the United Stateshas become the unwilling pawn in this contest.

0867 Future Course of International Terrorism.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Brian Michael Jenkins.September 1985. 14pp.Presented at the International Conference on Current Trends in WorldTerrorism Held at Tel Aviv, Israel, July 1-4,1985. International terrorismemerged as a problem in the late 1960s and despite increased governmentefforts to combat it, terrorism remains a serious problem in the 1980s. Willterrorism continue? Yes. The author concludes that: (1) probably it willincrease; (2) large-scale incidents will become more common; (3) at thesame time, he doesn't think terrorism will enter the mindboggling world ofhigh technology or mass destruction; (4) in terms of tactics, targets, andweapons, terrorism will be for the foreseeable future a continuation of thepast; (5) states will continue to exploit terrorism—to use it for their ownpurposes. We may enter a protracted worldwide guerrilla war; and (6)terrorists will create crises, forcing governments and corporations to divertmore and more sources toward combatting them.

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0882 Aftermath of the Achilla Lauro.Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Brian Michael Jenkins.November 1985.5pp.The president, I believe, did the rightthing in ordering American fighters toforce down the Egyptian airtineranddeliverthe four hijackers of the AchilleLauro—the murderers of an American citizen—to justice. It was anopportunity that we could not afford to miss. The handling of the aftermath,however, has been terrible. We humiliated a friend. We bashed an ally. Wesnatcheddiplomaticdisasterfromthe jaws of rare victory against terrorists.And despite current efforts to repairthe damage, we remain pugnacious inmood, mistaken in the belief that by applying bold military force and bullyingreluctant governments to action, we can defeat terrorism.

0887 A Ranking of Sabotage/Tampering Avoidance TechnologyAlternatives.Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Rich/and, Washington, and U.S. NuclearRegulatory Commission, Washington, D.C. W.B. Andrews, A.S. Tabata-bai, T.B. Powers, P.M. Dating, B.A. Fecht, B.F. Gore, T.D. Overcast, W.R.Rankin, R.E. Schreiber, J.J. Tawil. November 1985. 133pp.Pacific Northwest Laboratory conducted astudy to evaluate altemativestothe design and operation of nuclear powerplants, emphasizing a reductionof their vulnerability to sabotage. Estimates of core melt accident fre-quency during normal operations and from sabotage/tampering eventswere used to rank the alternatives. Core melt frequency for normaloperations was estimated using sensitivity analysis of results of probabil-istic risk assessments. Core melt frequency for sabotage/tampering wasestimated by developing a model based on probabilistic risk analyses,historic data, engineering judgment, and safeguards analyses of plantlocations where core melt events could be initiated. Results indicate themost effective alternatives focus on large areas of the plant, increasesafety system redundancy, and reduce reliance on single locations formitigation of transients. Less effective options focus on specific areas ofthe plant, reduce reliance on some plant areas for safe shutdown, andfocus on less vulnerable targets.

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Reel 21985cont.

0001 Symposium on International Terrorism Held In Washington, D.C., onDecember 2-3,1985.Defense Intelligence Agency, Washington, D.C. Martha Crenshaw, AlexP. SchmkJ, Ted R. Gurr, Michael Stohl, and Paul Wilkinson. December1985.337pp.Ideological and Psychological Factors in International Terrorism; Goalsand Objectives of International Terrorism; Methodologies f orthe Analysisto Oppositional Terrorism; State Supported Terrorism; Support Mecha-nisms for International Terrorism; State Response to International Terror-ism; and Future Trends in International Terrorism.

0338 Combatting Terrorism: A Guide for U.S. Naval Forces Afloat.Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Hubert Broughton.December 1985.91pp.The U.S. Navy's forces afloat do not have a single source document thataddresses antiterrorism and counterterrorism. The increase in terrorismworldwide has stimulated the concern that vulnerable maritime vessels willbecome terrorist targets. U.S. Navy ships in a restricted maneuveringsituation, at anchor in a harbor, or moored pierside may offer an attractivetarget to a terrorist group. To deal with this potential terrorist threat,personnel manning U.S. Navy ships must be educated in the fundamentalsof terrorism; the ships' security program must be evaluated and modifiedaccordingly; various watches, sentries, and teams must be trained in newanti- and counterterrorist procedures; and contingency plans must bedeveloped to deal with potential terrorist incidents. This study provides aguide for the development of effective antiterrorist and counterterroristprograms for any ship type in the U.S. Navy.

1986

0429 Terrorism: Challenge and Response.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Cornell Fuller.April 7, 1986.31pp.Terrorism as a means of political and social influence has been, andcontinues to be, a serious problem in the United States. But effective lawenforcement and changing political and social conditions have kept it fromgetting out of hand. International terrorism directed against U.S. citizensand property abroad will continue to be a major proble m for the foreseeablefuture. International terrorist organizations, supported by totalitarian states,are engaged in declared war against the United States and the West, the

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initial phases of which have been decisively won by terrorists as a result of:(1) apathy in the West; (2) lack of unity; and (3) the cowardly response toterrorist attacks by most western governments. Although terrorists haveheretofore been successful, this essay identifies vulnerabilities which canbe exploited through a coordinated western response. These vulnerabili-ties are examined in light of specific responses that should be taken usingnational elements of power. With in this context, the author concludes thatregional, international, and bilateral cooperation to facilitate pursuit of aproactive campaign against terrorists will quickly isolate and renderineffective international terrorists and their supporters.

0460 Spain's ETA.Defense Intelligence College, Washington, D.C. Franz Porter. February14, 1986. 30pp.The peaceful transformation of Franco's Spain into a modern constitutionalmonarchy is an important political achievement. During the 1960s and1970s, the regime confronted its most severe security problem in theBasque region. This paperdiscusses the ETA, a Basque nationalistgroup,and its activities. It concludes that the greatest future threat may be inpossible linkages with European leftist groups. However, past indicationsare that such linkages are not likely in any other mode than the occasionalsupport mode under which they now operate.

0490 Legal Limitations on the Use of Airpower against Terrorist Activity.ACSC/EDCC, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. Robert Kaszczuk. [1986].33pp.International law, particularly the law of war, supports the use of airpowerin an armed response to terrorism. The study evaluates national self-helpin relation to counterterrorist and antiterrorist operations. The study tracesthe development of the law of self-help and its applicability today againstthis new form of warfare. The study concludes that the United States canlegally justify direct military action against terrorists, but it must considerother factors, such as international public opinion.

0523 The Red Army Faction: Four Generations of Terror.Defense Intelligence College, Washington, D.C. Charles Bay. March 7,1986.43pp.The year 1985 began with the reemergence of one of the most notoriousterrorist organizations in Europe, the Red Army Faction (RAF) of WestGermany. The RAF, whose demise has been pronounced on numerousoccasions by West German authorities, has been the primary terroristthreat within that country since the late 1960s. From inception to date, theRAF has gone throug h a series of generational changes that produced itspresent-day offspring which, although smaller and less experienced thanpredecessors, is no less fervent and far more violent.

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0566 The Use of Terrorist Tactics as Instruments for Causing Change InJapan:1920-1936.Defense Intelligence College, Washington, D.C. JoH. Kinkaid. February21, 1986. 61pp.Thefollowing pages set the stage fordiscussion of thegroups and methodsused in, and the results of the use of, terrorist tactics in Japan during the1920s and 1930s. This is not meant to be, nor could it be, an exhaustivestudy. Events from the opening of Japan to the period of primary concernare summarized to provide the reader, who may not be familiar withJapanese history and the unique situation which pertained, adequatebackground information to understand what occurred in the period be-tween the world wars. Internal and external events during the twenties andthirties are then examined as is the makeup and motivations of some of thegroups who played roles in the various terrorists acts. The key actsthemselves are outlined and finally conclusions are drawn about themeaning of the events.

0627 The IRA: An Examination of a Terrorist Organization.Defense Intelligence College, Washington, D.C. Timothy Collins. June 2,1986.30pp.This paper examines the IRA as a terrorist group, looking at its historicalbackground and analyzing the group as it changed fromf ighting the Britishrule in all Ireland, battling the new Irish State, to the struggle in NorthernIreland. Topics discussed: the IRA's ideology, sources of financial andmoral support, organization, and the future.

0657 OtherTerrorlst War: Palestinian versus Palestinian.Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Bruce Hoffman. January1986.5pp.The brutal assaults at the Rome and Vienna airports—like the hijackingsof a TWA aircraft in June, an Italian cruise in October, and an Egypt Airplane in November—again demonstrate anew how terrorists unscrupu-lously use the lives of Americans and other foreign nationals to advancetheir own parochial goals. Indeed, the latest incidents, in which fiveAmericans were among the nineteen killed, were carried out less to harmIsrael (the ostensible target of the terrorists) than to discredit Palestinianleader Yasir Arafat.

0662 Terrorism In the United States during 1985.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Bruce Hoffman. February.1986.12pp.Presented before the American Jewish Committee National Affairs Com-mission National Task Force on Anti-Semitism and Extremism on February3,1986, at Los Angeles, California. Events throughout 1985 demonstrated

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repeatedly the threat posed to U.S. interests and citizens by terroristsabroad. The United States is—and has long been—the number one targetof a variety of f oreig n terrorist organizations. Indeed, of the approximately450 acts of terrorism during 1985 recorded in the Rand Corporation'sterrorism chronology, a quarter (111) were directed against Americantargets. At the same time, however, the United States itself—as has alsolong been the case—has remained relatively insulated from these escala-tions of terrorist violence. Moreover, a preliminary examination of 1985statistics from Rand's chronology reveals that there was a decline in thenumber of terrorist incidents in this country fromfifty-one incidents in 1984to twenty-fourduring the past year. However heartening this developmentmay be, or howeversmall this total appears in comparison with the world-wide figure, we should not be lulled into thinking that the United States iseither immune to violence from political extremists within its own bordersor that the terrorist acts which occur here do not warrant attention.

0674 Safeguards against Terrorists: A Handbook for U.S. Military Person-nel and Families.Air War College. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. Carroll T. Eddie, Jr.February 1986.36pp.The authorcontends that Americans overseas, and particularly senior U.S.military personnel, are popularterrorist targets, thus military personnel andtheir families need to be aware of the terrorist threat and have sufficientknowledge and training to protect themselves. This paper presents manypractical safeguards which, if followed, would contribute to the security,productivity, and war-fighting readiness of military people, their families,and associates. The paper covers the nature of the terrorist threat; theimportance of prior family awareness, study, training, and preparation;physical security measures; and kidnap prevention.

0710 International Terrorism: Soviet Connectivity.Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. Freder-ick L Morgenstern. February 1986.26pp.Reviews the nature of terrorism and definitional complexities associatedwith this highly emotional and violent form of combat. Transitions tointernational terrorism and its special problems. Reviews the literatureconcerning international terrorist objectives. Relates these to massiveSoviet support and involvement albeit the great difficulty in finding a Sovietholding a "smoking gun." The evidence although mainly circumstantialpoints overwhelmingly to Soviet complicity. The author concludes thatinternationalterrorismis but aform of Soviet expansionism with documen-tation of the Soviet connection from the U.S. Ku Klux Klan (KKK) to IrishRepublican Army (IRA) to the attempted assassination of Pope JohnPaul II.

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0736 Court Depositions of Three Red Brigadlsts.RA A/D Corporation, Sanfa Monica, California. S.E.Moran. February 1986.258pp.The Red Brigades, Italy's major left-wing terrorist group, first gainedinternational attention in 1978 when its members kidnapped and laterassassinated former Prime Minister Aldo Moro. Since then, the group hassurvived a number of government-sponsored attempts at extermination,including the highly effective efforts of DK3OS, the counterterrorist agencyheaded until 1982 by General Alberto Dalla Chiesa. The Red Brigades(Brigate Rosse, or BR) were founded in 1968. The group engaged indomestic terrorism until December 1981, when it entered the realm ofinternational terrorism by kidnapping an American, General James L.Dozier, the chief of administration and logistics at NATO land forcesheadquarters, in Verona. A crack Italian police squad rescued GeneralDozier in January 1982, but two years laterthe BR resurfaced to assassi-nate Leamon Hunt, the U.S. director-general of the civilian and militaryforces monitoring observance of the peace treaty in the Sinai peninsula.Then in March 1985, in an effort to call attention to a referendum on wageindexing, the BR killed Christian Democrat economist Ezio Tarantelli. TheBR has published communiques after each operation and has issued otherdocuments at frequent intervals, providing a wealth of information foranalysts.

ReelS1986cont.

0001 The Peace Movement and Terrorist Organizations In the FederalRepublic of Germany.Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. DietrichK. Kraushaar. March 1986.32pp.This document presents an investigation of the possible relationshipbetween the peace movement and terrorist groups in the Federal Republicof Germany. The focus is on the thesis that the peace movement providesa climate of opinion for terrorists and that political/military leaders shouldrecognize and understand the threat of terrorist attacks. A description ofthe origins and components of the peace movement and terrorist organi-zations will provide the necessary background.

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0033 Irish Terrorism—A Problem of British Design.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. John O'Connell,Jr. March 15, 1986. 28pp.Northern Ireland has been literally destroyed and rebuilt several times asa result of the fighting between the Irish and the British. There is no doubtthat the present-day Irish Republican Army is aterrorist organization in thefull sense of the term. However, this was not always the case. During thepast 800 years, the Irish have continually fought for independence from theCrown—a dream for all "true" Irish. The United Kingdom has been able tostave off this desire through oppression, inaction, and just a generalinability to deal with the Irish people as more than subjects of the Crown.In addition, the Protestant Plantation of the 1600s initiated a basis fordisagreement that enabled England to "close her eyes" to the Anglo-Irishproblem on the basis that it was a religious problem, not a political one. Inspite of numerous efforts on the part of the Irish people to have theirgrievances heard, all rhetoric has been basically wasted asthe English arenot really interested. Although the United Kingdom would like to believeotherwise, the cause of terrorism in Ireland is that conventional means ofdealing with England have yielded no results and forced the Irish into asituation that is the ideal breeding ground for terrorism, i.e., the perceptionof social injustice, support from elsewhere around the world, and anideology that a better way can be achieved. It must be realized that Britishinaction has caused Irish action. The blame for the problems of NorthernIreland falls squarely on the shoulders of the Crown.

0065 Terrorism as a Perceived Threat to U.S. Armed Forces ServingOCONUS and the Army's Program of Addressing That Threat.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Sam Raines.March 27, 1986.69pp.The basic question is whether the Army's initiatives toward terrorismcounteraction are actually filtering down to the soldier level and what theperceptions of Army efforts at countering terrorism are as viewed primarilyfrom the Battalion Command level. A follow-up area of interest is the levelof comfort with information, preparedness, and general feelings of vulnera-bility as expressed at the Battalion Command level of responsibility. Toassess these areas it was necessary to conduct research as to the currentand projected trends in terrorism, the threat against U.S. forces servingoverseas, and then to highlight those programs currently directed by thedepartments of state, defense, and army. The heart of the paper revolvesaround a survey administered to the U.S. Army War College ResidentClass of 1986. This survey captured perceptions of the class relative toterrorism preparation, counteraction, programs, and to a degree meas-ured the feeling of vulnerability of those serving outside the United States.

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The effort was to capture the family "perception." For comparison a recentsurvey of State Department personnel was used to project parallel percep-tions of other Americans who are serving overseas. It was determined thatwhile there are numerous ongoing efforts by the Department of the Army,the actual, expected result is not reaching the soldier level or meeting hisneeds. Further, the Army appears to have a significant weakness in itspreparation/information program and there are very real feelings of vul-nerabilities and lack of preparedness among families serving abroad. TheArmy should conduct a detailed examination of current programs andinitiate, with renewed emphasis at every level of command, a terrorismcounteraction program that is applicable for soldiers and families of allranks. Inthe wake of recentterroristthreats, the Army cannot affordto treatterrorism as anything less than a high priority issue.

0134 International Terrorism as a Lawful Form of Warfare: An Idea WhoseTime Should Not Arrive.ACSC/EDCC, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. John Humphries. April1986.54pp.The United States is facing a significant challenge worldwide from terror-ism. The challenge comes from the international scope and the statesponsorship involved in contemporary terrorism. In fact, internationalterrorism is increasingly referred to as a new form of warfare. The law ofarmed conflict, however, excludes terrorists as lawful combatants andterrorism as a legitimate type of warfare. Customary international lawprohibits state sponsorship of terrorists and their activity. Protocol I to theGeneva Conventions attempts to redress the law of armed conflict. TheProtocol affords certain terrorists treatment as lawful combatants ratherthan common criminals. Protocol I also absolves nation-states of anyliability to other governments arising from its support of terrorism. Thisanalysis evaluates the legal consequences of adhering to the customaryinternational law outlawing terrorism and of ratifying Protocol I to legalizeterrorist wartime. The study concludes that it is not in the United States'national interest to recognize terrorism as an acceptable warfarestrategem.

0188 Fixing the Blame: International Terrorism and Attacks on Americans.RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California. B. Hoffman. April 1986.5pp.By fixing our attention on flamboyant figures like Qaddafi and attemptingto link terrorist acts to foreign governments, we try to compensate for theterrorists' inherent elusiveness and to divine a target for possible retali-ation. But we run the risk of deluding ourselves, of possibly hitting the wrongtarget, aggravating an already tense situation and having little, if any,positive effect on terrorist attacks against Americans.

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0194 America's Response to International Terrorism.Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Richard R. Crawford.April 2, 1986. 58pp.The growing threat of terrorism as it affects national interest is examinedalong with the problems of developing an effective deterrence strategy todeal with it. Also considered are the terrorist groups and their close ties tosponsoring states, which is a network of nations including the Soviet Union.Legislative measures that have already taken effect are discussed, as wellas public opinion and support for the use of force. Recommended actionsto counter terrorism are based on the philosophy of Just Cause, and theprinciple that any response must be proportionate to the threat and highlydiscriminate in its application. Only through multinational cooperation canthere be a viable deterrence strategy. Responsible nations must jointogetherandworktowardthe objective of denying the terrorists theirgoalsby making terrorist acts counterproductive and costly. The terrorists andtheir sponsor-states must fear the consequences of their actions. To beeffective, only responses that include economic sanctions, political isola-tion, and limited surgical strikes against approved targets within terroristsponsor-states that have been positively identified as instigators of terroristactivities will combat and defeat these outlaws.

0252 Terrorism: Challenge and Response.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Cornell Fuller.April 7, 1986.29pp.Terrorism as a means of political and social influence has been, andcontinues to be, a serious problem in the United States. But effective lawenforcement and changing political andsocial conditions have kept it fromgetting out of hand. International terrorism directed against U.S. citizensand property abroad will continue to be a major problem forthe foreseeablefuture. International terrorist organizations, supported by totalitarian states,are engaged in declared war against the United States and the West, theinitial phases of which have been decisively won by terrorists as a result of:(1) apathy in the West; (2) lack of unity; and (3) the cowardly response toterrorist attacks by most western governments. Although terrorists haveheretofore been successful, this essay identifies vulnerabilities which canbe exploited through a coordinated western response. These vulnerabili-ties are examined in light of specific responses that should be taken usingnational elements of power. Within this context, the author concludes thatregional, international, and bilateral cooperation to facilitate pursuit of aproactive campaign against terrorists will quickly isolate and render inef-fective terrorists and their supporters.

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0281 The Military, the Media, and International Terrorism.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Philip W. Leon.April?, 1986.67pp.After a brief respite in 1983 and 1984—with the notable exception of thebombing of the Marine Corps barracks in Beirut in October 1983—U.S.military facilities overseas have once again become prime targets forterrorists. Terrorist groups such as the Red Army Faction in West Ger-many, the Red Brigades in Italy, and various Muslim groups in the Medi-terranean and Middle East regions, have vented their anger and dissatis-faction on American soldiers, sailors, and airmen who are often stationedin isolated duty posts worldwide. Whether it is "ban-the-bomb" leftists inEngland, independence advocates in Puerto Rico, or Communists in thePhilippines, international terrorism puts American servicemen and theircommanders before the camera's eye and subject to the scrutiny of anincreasingly aggressive news media. Terrorist acts make good news. Thestudy seeks to advise public affairs officers and commanders of some ofthe assets available to them when a terrorist incident involving theAmerican military occurs. To gather my data, I traveled to the most activeterrorist spot today, West Germany, and talked with public affairs officersat European Command, U.S. Army Europe, and U.S. Air Forces in Europe.There I shared information obtained at the various headquarters andinterviewed personnel experienced in dealing with the media during aterrorist situation and, in one case, with personnel who had actually beenendangered by a terrorist act. American military commanders need not bevictimized by the news media if they rely upon their public affairs profes-sionals to control volatile situations.

0348 Terrorism: The Challenge and the Response.U. S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. John J. Tarpley.April?, 1986.24pp.International terrorism is a complex and increasingly lethal challenge tointernational order, to the United States, and to the community of demo-cratic nations. This essay reviews the definitional problems and nature ofterrorism. The act of terrorism has been practiced for centuries for manyreasons with varying degrees of success. In recent years, terrorism hasemerged as a sophisticated strategy for use as a political weapon. It isessential to recognize that terrorism has purposes and goals; it is arelatively new mode of warfare which poses a significant threat to theAmerican system of government and way of life. The inability of agovernment to respond effectively to terrorist incidents undermines theconfidence of both its citizens and its allies. Terrorists attempt to inspireand manipulate fearto achieve their purposes. The last two decades have

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seen a dramatic increase in international terrorism; this trend is likely tocontinue. The terrorist incidents of 1985 illustrate that terrorism is increas-ingly directed against the United States and the other western democra-cies. Our responses to terrorism must have legal and moral foundationsand must be politically feasible. The United States has a clearly statedantiterrorism policy and an effective governmental structure to deal withterrorism. Our national strategy must embrace the whole range of threatsto American citizens, property, and interests. The strategy can be dividedinto three broad categories: defensive, managerial, and long-term. Terror-ism can be managed and controlled, but not eliminated.

0372 Terrorism: Challenge and Response—The Search for NationalStrategy.U.S. Army War College,CarlisleBarracks,Pennsylvania. Douglas Dearth.April22, 1986. 124pp.The fundamental issues are the lack of agreed-upon definitions of terror-ism among U.S. government agencies and the resultant lack of coherencein U.S. policy and strategy to respond to the threat. Government andacademic definitions were examined, and were found to be inadequate forstrategy formulation. A new theoretical typology of international anddomestic terrorism is postulated, and the political and military implicationsof the functions of positive intelligence and counterintelligence in support-ingcounterterrorism and antiterrorism strategies, respectively. Atypologyof response options is presented, indicating the limitations of defensiveand crisis management procedures, as well as the costs and risksassociated with offensive measures. The United States must formulateand execute an offensive strategy, employing military options of retaliation,elimination, and preemption. The ultimate goal of offensive and defensivestrategies is to achieve effective deterrence against the terrorist threat.Both conventional and special operations forces have complementaryroles to play in the execution of an effective offensive counterterrorismstrategy.

0496 Covert Action as an Instrument of National Policy.Air War College, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. B.T. Morland. May1986.35pp.The relationship of covert action to national security policy is described asone of the many elements of power used in generating national securityand foreign policy. Covert action is defined and the legal basis for U.S.covert action is described. The planning of covert action and the conditionsnecessary forthe successful execution of covert action are discussed andapplied to several examples of covert action. The failure modes for covertaction are also discussed.

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0531 Countering State-Sponsored Terrorism: A Law-Policy Analysis.Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. James P. Terry. May 30,1986.73pp.State-sponsored terrorism has become another means of conductingforeign affairs. This threat of low-intensity conflict requires that weconfronta host of new legal, political, military, and moral questions. The UnitedStates has been working hard to develop a strategy within the construct ofinternational law. The elements of conventional (treaty) and customaryinternational law underpin the United States counterterrorism strategywhich was recently exercised during the April 15, 1986, defensive raidagainst Libya. That defensive response emphasized the United States'concern for the principles of necessity and proportionality, target discrimi-nation, exhaustion of noncoercive remedies, andthe interests of ourallies.The United States must, however, place greater emphasis on the under-lying causes of state-sponsored terrorism.

0604 Embassy Security: State Department Efforts to Improve SecurityOverseas.United States General Accounting Office, National Security and Interna-tional Affairs Division, Washington, D.C. June 1986. 45pp.Security of U.S. overseas personnel and facilities against terrorist threats;FY 1985 Security Supplemental Funds Appropriated and obligations bymajor category as of January 31,1986; Department of State organizationfor security; disagreements identified by GAO involving security improve-ments at posts and comments from state department.

0649 The Revolutionary Left and Terrorist Violence In Chile.United States Air Force. William Safer. June 1986.25pp.This report provides an understanding of the current political situation inChile by reviewing events leading up to the 1973 coup that established amilitary government there. In particular, it discusses the Movimiento de laIzquierda Revolucionaria (MIR), which has become the principal opposi-tion to the current government of Augusto Pinochet. The author reviewsMIR's operations, membership, funding, and relations with other politicalelements in Chilean society. He concludes that a political solution to thetroubles in Chile does not presently appear possible since Pinochet will notdeal with the relatively moderate political elements in Chile. The situationis polarized and the prospects for terrorist violence are increasing.

0674 Sendero Lumlnoso: Origins, Outlooks, and Implications.Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Frank Jones. June1986. 147pp.The Sendero Luminoso, or Shining Path, rebellion in Peru was launchedduring the summer of 1980. Although the group was relatively unknown,

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and initially dismissed as a weak and unimportant movement among theIndian peasants of the Andean highlands, the Sendero guerrillas haveproven to be a resilient and dedicated threat to the Peruvian democraticregime. This thesis examines the Sendero Luminoso question from threedifferent perspectives. Their use of Maoist strategy and tactics as inter-preted by Abimael Guzman is discussed at length. The counterinsu rgencyprogram is analyzed to explain its failures and offer suggestions forimprovement. Finally, the problem is reviewed from the aspect of thecentral government during the last two decades. It is concluded thatalthough Sendero Luminoso poses no immediate threat to assume power,the guerrillas possess the capability to inflict damage for at least the nearfuture. Recommendations for U.S. policy regarding Peru and SenderoLuminoso are included in the final chapter.

0821 The Conspiracy Theory of Terrorism: Analysis and Application.[Organization unavailable.] June 30, 1986. 94pp.The conspiracy theory of terrorism is one of many theories which attemptto explain terrorism. The literature relating to conspiracy theory is frag-mented and opinionated, causing problems in understanding the positionsof those who attest to conspiracy theory. This thesis consolidates much ofthe literature and relates the impact of conspiracy theory ideology to thepolitical decision-making process. This study analyzes literature from thetwo opposing viewpoints of the conspiracy theory of terrorism. The data isobtained primarily through books, journals, magazines, newspaper ar-ticles, and government documents. The opposing viewpoints of conspir-acy theory are both supported in the literature. Terrorism has become asource of power in politics. There are many similarities in the decision-

making processes used by the two sides. The conspiracy theory ofterrorism may or may not be valid, but it has contributed to the beliefs andactions of many governments and people in powerful decision-makingroles.

0915 The Existence of Violence In Nonviolent Protest Groups.California State University, California. Gail A. Keefe. Summer 1986.89pp.The 1980s have ushered in a new, more aggressive era of protest. Thepeace movement, i.e., the antinuclear movement, has gained momentumsince the early eighties and may well be the largest nonviolent protestmovement in the world today. Not only is the movement gaining momen-tum in the United States and Western Europe, it is also gathering supportin the Eastern bloc countries. There is the possibility of violence eruptingduring a nonviolent demonstration. This thesis describes the situations inwhich violence may occur, it reviews theories that relate to nonviolentprotest groups and their propensity to become violent, and it providesrecommendations to control peaceful demonstrations. Information forthis

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protest study was taken from criminal justice, sociology, political science,and religious journals. Additionally, several well-written books on thesubject were reviewed and the Journals of Dissent and Social Changeindex compiled by John Liberty for the California State University, Sacra-mento, Library was used extensively. Information gathered by the authorat Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, during the 1983 antinucleardemonstrations was incorporated into this study. The current peace move-ment is committed to nonviolence and it has much to lose, nothing to gain,by the use of violence. There are no direct acts of violence recorded againstpersons in the United States, however, the European movement is muchmore aggressive. The movement has turned toward acts of violenceagainst property and has used a more direct approach recently. Thepossibilityforviolence exists in everyform of demonstration, rally, ormarchthat any large protest movement is involved in. The literature suggests thatleft-wing movements are in danger of losing sight of their nonviolent goalsand resorting to more militant action.

Reel 41986cont.

0001 Conducting Anti-Terrorism Operations and Contingency Planningfor Risk Reduction of the Terrorist Threat.Michigan State University, Michigan. James C. Harper. August 1986.184pp.Terrorist acts have increased in alarming numbers in many areas of theworld today. Americans, once virtually immune from becoming terroristtargets, are being singled out as targets of choice by a rising number ofterrorist organizations. Relatively safe forms of transportation, like cruiseships and American-based airlines, have experienced dramatic acts ofterrorism directed at Americans using those services in both 1985 and1986. Media coverage of these events has compounded the fear of manyAmericans about when and where the next act of terrorism may occur. Asairports have been the victims of some of the most vicious terrorist actsoccurring in the past year, airport security has come under increasingscrutiny by television documentaries, such as "60 Minutes," and by manysectors of the American public. While experts predict that acts of terrorismare about to occuron American soil, what are security off icials at Americanairports doing to prepare for this potential threat? What lessons have welearned from terrorist acts which have happened at other airports aroundthe world, such as the December 1985 attacks at the Rome and Vienna

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airports? Airport antiterrorism operations and contingency planning can bethe weapons which airport security managers use to successfully battle theincreasing trend of terrorist acts on airports today.

0187 Implications of the Achilla Lauro Hijacking for the MaritimeCommunity.Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Jeffrey D. Simon. August1986. 10pp.The Achilla Lauro hijacking can serve as an important reminder to theshipping industry that in this age of rising terrorism worldwide, no group orcommercial interest is immune from attack. To view the seizing of thecruise liner as an "isolated incident unlikely to recur," would not only bewishful thinking, but also potentially dangerous thinking if it prevents themaritime community from becoming more attentive to the threat ofterrorism.

0199 How International Businesses Cope with Terrorism.Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Susanna W. Pumell. Decem-ber 1986. 17pp.This article deals with four issues. First, why and where terrorists attackbusinesses. Second, the strategies that American firms have e mployed tocounterthose threats.Third, the costs to thefirmofboththe terrorist attacksand the company's response, and finally some observations on the hos-tage experience.

1987

0216 Should Our Arsenal against Terrorism Include Assassination?Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Brian Michael Jenkins.January 1987. 15pp.Among the countermeasures that the United States might employ againstterrorists, why not assassination? Do we deny ourselves an effectiveinstrument simply because terrorists do not fit neatly into our traditionalmethods of law enforcement or waging war? This essay examines thearguments for and against assassination as a means of combattingterrorism.

0231 International Terrorism.Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama.Mohammed Khawaldeh. March 1987.24pp.Remarks on the definition and evolution of world terrorist activities lead intothe purpose of terrorism and the motives behind its actions; it also shedsa light on the international connections, to achieve various objectives, witha suggested checklist to counter-terrorism. The lack of understandingbetween different nations, and the uncooperative attitude in combattingterrorism is indicated as the main setback to eliminating world terror.

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0255 State-Sponsored Terrorism.U. S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Ahmed BadaninMakki. March 2, 1987.23pp.Terrorism, one of the most widely discussed issues of our time, is also oneof the least understood. Terrorist attacks are directed to the United Statesand the Western Hemisphere. The Palestine Liberation Organization(PLO) and the moderate Arab leaders believe that the United States canfind a fair solution to the Middle East crisis. Other Arab countries believethat the only way to find a fair solution is through violence. The PLO is notinvolved in international terrorism but there are other extremist organiza-tions conducting terrorist attacks. The PLO wants a fair understanding tothe Palestinian question and they want to go back home. Maybe theextremists want to send a message to the whole world, telling the world tothink about the Palestinians and to find a fair solution to their difficultproblems. Some countries support the extremists with money, weapons,and housing, because they believe that the only way to solve the Palestin-ian question is violence. The United States, as a superpower and havingagood relationship with Israel, should participate positively to findafair andacceptable solution to the Middle East crisis. I believe that the Arabs andthe PLO do not want to throw Israel in the sea but they need a betterunderstanding of their question.

0278 Terrorism: The Military Challenge.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Gary Nelson.March 16, 1987.30pp.International terrorism is a matter which touches each and every one of us;it threatens international orderand can paralyze democratic nations to thedegree that they are unable to respond. Terrorism has become a usefulcapability for aggressive nations unable to mount a successful militarychallenge against a militarily superior state. This essay reviews the recentexperiences in dealing with this new form of conflict exploring the variouselements of power with special emphasis on the role for the military.Furthermore, it discusses the nature of international terrorism, defines thethreat and explores the goals of the terrorists. It then traces the evolutionof U.S. policy and finally determines the strategic implications for themilitary to meet the challenge.

0308 The Media and Terrorism.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. James Kessler.March 17, 1987.27pp.Media coverage of terrorism in a democracy is a critical problem. Theelimination oreventhe restriction of media coverage would have a markedeffect on counterterrorism measures. But, success at any cost is not a

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concept with which Americans are comfortable. Indeed, it could be arguedthat restricting autonomy and freedom of the press is in itself a victory forterrorism. Hence we face a real dilemma: the free media that have helpedshape our democracy and have contributed to its strength also haveprovided our enemies with the means to strike at our democratic founda-tion. While there will always be some mutual suspicion between the mediaand the government in a democracy, cooperation in times of crisis canproduce a common-sense approach to counterterrorism measures.

0336 Terrorism—A Global Perspective.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Stephen R.Gwin. March 21, 1987. 37pp.The trends in international terrorism pointtoward an escalation throughtheremainder of this decade and into the 1990s. Increases will be reflected inboth the number and the lethality of attacks, mostly as a result of theavailability and use of sophisticated technology by terrorist groups. Theexporting of terrorism has been a major factor in Europe the last few yearsand is probably a foreboding of what the United States can anticipate. Thetrend toward the use of high technology and a confluence of other factorsindicate an increased probability of eventual nuclearterrorism. In combat-ting terrorism, the world community will realize success only through a well-coordinated global program. Such a program will require a universallyacceptable definition of terrorism; one which clearly distinguishes betweenterrorism and illegal forms of warfare. A close study of profiles on terroristleaders, such as the infamous Carlos, provides acleardistinction betweenterrorists and freedom fighters. In addition to the coordinated global effort,a sustained victory in the war against terrorism will require an adjustmentof international political structures to establish a "planetization" perspec-tive by all the states of the world community.

0373 Terrorlsm: Crime or War?U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. J.M. Brusitus.March 23, 1987.22pp.Terrorism is one of the most important challenges facing western democ-racies today. Even though democratic governments will agree that terror-ism is a threat, there is no consensus among members of the internationalcommunity in defining what it is. Consequently, the only response at timesis a vindictive "eye-for-an-eye" which sometimes creates a moral dilemmaforbelievers in democratic values and human rights. The perplexing issuefacing the civilized world is agreeing on whether the act which we callterrorism and the actors whoperpetrate it are criminals engaging in acrimeor soldiers engaging in a legitimate act of war. If we cannot agree on acommon ground there can neverbe any consensus on what an appropriateresponse should be. In addition, definitive answers to the precise legal

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status of terrorists will remain confused, while obtaining appropriate re-dress within international forums such as the United Nations will be difficult.Each crisis event must be taken in context and if it does not fit theparameters of the laws of land warfare, then it is outside the realm ofwarfare and falls in the realm of criminality. If that is the case, then adecision must be made as to what law or laws have been violated. Withoutconcerted efforts by the international community to address the crimeversus warfare issue more assiduously than in the past, success in re-sponding to terrorism through the use of the law will remain innocuous.Consequently, the use of military force may do nothing more than producea catharsis which is transitory and counterproductive.

0395 The Iranian Hostage Rescue Attempt.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Charles S.Thomas. March 23, 1987.24pp.On April 24,1980, the United States military's attempt to rescue the fifty-three American hostages held in Tehran suffered ignominious defeat in theIranian desert. A combination of some training defects, command andcontrol problems, adverse weather conditions, and bad luck caused earlycancellation of the mission. Eight men died in the effort and the hostagesremained in captivity for a total of 444 days. It was a good idea—Americanpride and honor had been badly injured and this was an opportunity to showthe world Americans were capable of dealing with international terrorismin a carefully calculated and measured way. But flawed planning andexecution spelled doomfor the endeavor and made an already bad politicalsituation even worse. This paper examines what led up to the raid, whatwas planned, what went wrong, and what lessons can be drawn fromexperience.

0419 Assassination: A Military View.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Charles Eden.March 23, 1987.26pp.Assassination is a topic with which most Americans have only a passingfamiliarity. Such unfamiliarity then leads to confusion and misunderstand-ing. This article seeks to provide a definition of assassination which willallay that misunderstanding. By providing a definition we seek to edify. Aclear-cut definition, however, is not easy to produce and it is here that thecontribution to the accumulation of knowledge is made by drawing acontrast to a more familiar term, murder. An examination of the historicalperspective, the worldwide use and impact of assassination and theinternational legal view is briefly conducted. The impact of assassinationupon the United States is also reviewed. The conclusion provides somehope that by knowing better what assassination is, and collaterally, what

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not, the American public can be reassured of the propriety of militaryactions.Terrorism.National Security and International Affairs Division of the General Account-ing Office. Washington, D.C. April 1987.25pp.The report concerns how often and under what circumstances lawsimposing sanctions on nations supporting terrorism have been invoked.Federal agencies—primarily State, Treasury, Commerce, and Transpor-tation—have identified thirteen laws that authorize the president to invokesanctions against nations supporting terrorism. No central source identi-fies individual sanctions with specific laws. However, through research anddiscussions with agency officials, they were able to identify sanctions since1979 associated with all of the laws. The sanctions included such things asimport embargoes, export license controls, freezing assets, terminatingnew loans and credit extensions, restricting arms sales and foreignassistance, terminating airservices, and curtailing other activities betweenthe United States and the nations designated as supporting terrorism.Details regarding the sanctions and the laws are included in appendices Ithrough III.

0470 Terrorism: American Concerns.Air Command and Staff College, Air University. Maxwell Air Force Base,Alabama. Harold Korntved. 40pp.This research analysis evaluates and discussesthe apparent concerns ofthree separate audiences regarding terrorism in the United States, oragainst our personnel or property overseas. The three audiences includethe high school student, the college student, and the senior militarymember.

0510 America Strikes Back.Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base,Alabama. James Casford. April 1987.35pp.After repeated warnings from the U.S. government, elements of the U.S.Sixth Fleet and the U.S. Air Force bombed targets in and around the Libyancities of Benghazi and Tripoli on April 14, 1986. The attack came inretaliation to several Libyan-sponsored terrorist attacks on U.S. concernsthe weeks preceding. This paper examines the effects of the bombing asa deterrent of future terrorist attacks and further examines current andprojected U.S. counterterrorist policies.

0545 Successful Antlterrorism Policies.Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base,Alabama, Dale Waters. April 1967. 39pp.Many antiterrorism policies have been very successful in countering

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domestic and international terrorism. The success of such policies hasbeen disguised by a false perception of the terrorist threat. The studyevaluates trends in domestic and international terrorism to demonstrateproblems with perceptions. Specif iccounterterrorist policies are evaluatedseparately to determine their effectiveness. The study concludes with rec-ommendations for a comprehensive antiterrorism program based onpolicies with proven success.

0584 Coping with Terrorism: A Concept Paper.Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. John E.Killeen and Robert A. Hoffman. April 1987. 186pp.An analysis is provided concerning the serious, adverse effects of interna-tional political terrorism on the United States and other democratic nations.Adiscussion is presented regarding what terrorism really is and how it hasgrown in importance and power. Evidence is presented to suggest thatinternational terrorism will probably become an even greater problem in thefuture. The basic thesis argues that the United States is not copingeffectively with terrorism. A large measure of this failure is attributed to thefact that many American leaders do not recognize terrorism for what it trulyis—a form of indirect, low-intensity warfare being waged against western-style democracies. The absence of a comprehensive, coherent nationalstrategy is pointed out. The authors state that development of a systematicstrategy which employs the full range of national instruments of power inan integrated fashion is the key to making progress in fighting terrorism.Thoughts on how this national strategy maybe created are provided alongwith some specific recommendations for the Department of Defense andthe U.S. Air Force.

0772 An Ethical Response to State-Sponsored Terrorism.University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Thomas JosephBegines. April 6, 1987. 154pp.This thesis delineates the parameters of an ethical response at the nationallevel to the use of terrorism by a dejure or de facto state. After deriving aphilosophically relevant definition of terrorism which focuses on the natureof such acts per se, the article shows how it is that different cultures canhave radically dissimilar and sometimes antagonistic structures of values,some of which promote terrorism. In Chapter 3, the author explores andrebuts the most prominent religious and secular justifications offered forthe use of terrorism. These discussions furnish the basis forthe assertionof five normative principles that ought to govern morally acceptableresponses to terrorism, and for the delineation of proactive, passive, andactive measures that constitute an ethical response to state-sponsoredsponsored terrorism.

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0001 West Germany's Red Army Faction.Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, D.C. May 1987.3pp.This reference aid outlines various aspects of West Germany's Red ArmyFaction (RAF)—its origins and development, idealogy, organization, linksto other terrorist groups, chronology of terrorist events, and brief biogra-phies and photographs of current leadership.

0004 Combatting Terrorism—A Response In Kind.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Tom Lum. May13, 1987. 21pp.Outside of armed conflicts representing nations with forces in uniforms,another kind of war has emerged waged by terrorists. For the past twentyyears terrorists have waged war against nations for a variety of reasons.No rules of war govern theirconduct nor do they observe any. Methods ofcombatting terrorism vary from nation to nation. Few nations agree totallyon how to combat this form of lawlessness. This essay examines oneapproach and suggests another. President Reagan's ultimate decision tobomb Libya is examined through a discussion of the events, repercussionsof these events, and world opinion of these events that preceded hisdecision. A harsher, more controlled and personal approach to combattingterrorism is suggested and discussed.

0025 Counter-terrorism: Role of INTERPOL and the U.S. National CentralBureau.General Government Division of General Accounting Office, Washington,D.C. June 1987. 44pp.The report presents information on (1) the role of the International CriminalPolice Organization (INTERPOL) and the United States National CentralBureau (USNCB) in combatting terrorism and on (2) USNCB proceduresforsafeguarding the privacy of U.S. citizens during the exchange of coun-terterrorism-related information with U.S. and foreign law enforcementagencies.

0070 Misperceivlng the Terrorist Threat.Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Jeffrey D. Simon. June 1987.21pp.While the United States has been relatively free of terrorist incidents within

: been as fortunate. American tourists, businessmen, and facilities overseashave also been the targets of international terrorists over the years. Thishas led to growing frustration and anger on the part of the American public

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and pressure on the government to do something about the terrorist threat.However, it is extremely difficult to counter a threat that is worldwide inscope, that is characterized by a multitude of diverse groups with varyingtactics, and that stems from a complex array of political, economic, andethnic/religious causes. Misperceptions of the terrorist threat to U.S.national security have led to attempts to design high-level policies tocounter what are essentially low-level threats. Acknowledging that terror-ism is not likely to threaten the nation's vital interests unless each episodeis allowed to be perceived as a crisis may be the first step toward creatingan effective and practical response.

0093 Arms Transfers to the Irish Republican Army.Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Laurence N. Schuetz.June 1987. 167pp.This paper describes the arms transfer relationship of a nongovernmentalorganization, the Irish Republican Army (IRA). Open source information isused to develop models of munitions, financial, and training relationships.These models are then explained in terms of (1) systemic influences,(2) supplier rationales, objectives, and interests, and (3) recipient demandfactors. Finally, the implications of these relationships are briefly ad-dressed in the summary and conclusions. The closing section alsoincludes suggestions for future research, based upon an assessment ofpossible sources of detailed arms transfer data, and methodologicalchallenges.

0261 The Use of Military Force to Counter International Terrorism—APolicy Dilemma.U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth,Kansas. Edward Houle. June 5, 1987. 188pp.This study examines the use of military force as part of a proactivecampaign to counter intemationalterrorism. This study includes an exami-nation of the threat from international terrorism as it has grown from 1968to the present day. Initiatives by the international community to confrontterrorism are reviewed to provide a framework for investigating U.S.counterterrorist policy. Primary emphasis is placed on actions by theUnited Nations in this review of international initiatives. The major portionof the thesisfocuseson the development of U.S. counterterrorist policy andthe role of military force in that strategy. The study begins with the Nixonadministration. The review of national policy follows two tracks; thedevelopment of a government organization to deal with the problem andevolution of the policy itself. With U.S. policy outlined, the study reviewspossible options for overt military operations as part of a proactivecampaign against international terrorism. The author found that the threat

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from internationalterrorism has increased significantly over the past fifteenyears. More importantly, state sponsorship has emerged as the mostsignificant threat development since 1980. Actions by the internationalcommunity, specifically the United Nations, have not successfully met thechallenge. Further, U.S. policy and organizational development has beenmarginally effective. Despite this, U.S. policy advocates the use of militaryforce in proactive strikes against terrorism. The study shows that U.S.policy and organizations must be updated to meetthe growth and changingnature of the threat. Military force, to include proactive operations, shouldbe included in this update as an option for U.S. leaders. However, themilitary option will be applicable in only af ew cases. The decision to employmilitary force must be made very carefully. The execution of that optionmust then be conducted with clear objectives and under tight control.

0449 The Operational Level of Euroterrorlsm.U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth,Kansas. Jeffrey Wayne Anderson. June 5, 1987. 65pp.In the past few years the number of terrorist events and activities through-out the world has increased dramatically. Many of these terrorist actionshave been directed against the United States or other members of theNATO Alliance. This increase in terrorism in Western Europe led Vit-torfranco Pisano to coin the term "Euroterrorism." Further, Claire Sterlingexamined a number of terrorist activities and through the biographies ofwell-known terrorists concluded that there was in fact an internationalconspiracy of terrorism and that the Soviet Union was the controllingnation. This research examines recent events of Euroterrorism to deter-mine if these seemingly unrelated events have an operational level. Thisis done by attempting to describe the events of Euroterrorism by acampaign plan as defined in JCS Publication 2. This research finds that infact terrorist activities in Western Europe do follow a campaign plan and,therefore, have an operational level. The study further examines thesources of this plan and refutes the work of other authors that accuse theSoviet Union of state-directedterrorism. Instead, this paperconcludes thatthe Soviet Union is responsible for state support of terrorism through itssurrogates or puppet states, but does not direct the actions of the variousEuropean terrorist groups. Likewise, no other state appears to direct theiraction. The paperthen concludes that the events of Euroterrorism followessentially national-level campaign plans while the variousterroristgroupsreceive support but not direction from external nations. Finally, a derivednational campaign plan forthe Red Army Faction is presented.

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0514 The Study of the Physical and Psychological Impact of Terrorism onAmericans and Their Families Residing In Europe.California State University, Sacramento, California. Gary Thomas Kostick.July 23, 1987. 112pp.The purpose of this study is to gather and examine data which exploreshow Americans and their families residing in Europe perceive the threat ofterrorism and its impact on their lives. A review of the literature relevant tothe study of terrorist victimization was conducted. Additionally, the re-search instrument consisted of a twenty-six-question self-administeredsurvey questionnaire. The survey was administered to 300 U.S. Air Forcepersonnel and their families who were living in Europe during mid-1987.Although Americans in general indicate that they feel safe in Europe, thereis a definite concern regarding the threat of terrorism and personal safety.The survey results indicate that 60 percent feel they could be personallytargeted, while another 23 percent consider themselves or are viewed byothers as "very scared." The study also concludes that there is little beingdone to prepare Americans for coping with the unique pressures andsituations that one may ultimately face in a potentially terrorist environ-ment. Programs need to be either established, updated, or expanded tomeet this need. Although the survey results indicated that the terroristthreat level is currently perceived as fairly low, this is only temporary. Byall indications the level of the perceived threat runs in cycles. When terroristactivities, increase, so will the pressures, anxieties, and problems impact-ing Americans. For this reason, future research should be directed atdetermining if certain categories of individuals are more susceptible to thepressures encountered when living in a terrorist environment. Terrorismwill remain a serious problem, and Americans must be prepared to face thephysical and psychological challenges accompanying residence in aterrorist environment.

0626 The Reporting of Terrorism by the Media.California State University, Sacramento, California. Steven E. Hodgkins.1987.85pp.Over the past two decades, the impact of terrorism has significantlyincreased. The acts themselves have become drastically more brutal. Inorder for terrorists to achieve their goals and instill fear, they must spreadtheir message. The news media of the free world is the vehicle terroristshave selected to transmit that message. Some agree the media is beingmanipulated by terrorists, in that terrorist attacks have been designedspecifically for the news cameras, and the press cannot ignore the action-packed drama terrorism produces. Some believe publicity given to terror-ists increases the likelihood of future acts of terrorism. Others find fault with

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journalists forthe way they report terrorist incidents. Still other experts feelthe news media aids in assuring the safety and release of hostages. Thegoal of this study is to examine the subject of media-covered terrorism andto determine if we are proceeding in the proper direction in reporting onterrorist violence. Information for this research comes from the availableprofessional journals and periodicals, books written by experts in the fieldsof terrorism, journalism, law enforcement, and psychology, and variousnewspaper and magazine articles. These diverse disciplines provide awell-balanced account of the major issues involved with the topic. Terror-ism has been successful in the past and it is safe to assume terrorism willcontinue well into the future. Both terrorists and the media benefit fromeach other. Responsible journalism is a must, but terrorism should bereported and not supported. It is highly unlikely our news media will becensored by the government, but self-imposed reporting guidelines areneeded and must be followed by journalists. Future research is needed todetermine the psychological implications involved with the viewing ofextensive terrorist violence on television.

0711 Countering Terrorism In the Late 1980s and the 1990s, Future Threatsand Opportunities forthe United States.Airpower Research Institute, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base,Alabama. Stephen Sloan. August 1987.31pp.Although terrorism has been practiced since before the dawn of recordedhistory, it has never constituted the worldwide threat it does today. Theproliferation of arms and the very real potential for nuclear terrorismcombine with immediate worldwide mobility and highly sophisticatedtechnology to put terrorism near the top of threats that must be effectivelycountered. Some terrorist groups practice local terrorism, others practiceinternational terrorism. The United States has its own terrorist groups; forexample, the Armed Forces of Puerto Rican Liberation (FALN), the BlackLiberation Army, and the Jewish Defense League. And it is probable thatspilloverfromthe Middle East will reach the United States. But thegreatestdanger may well be from new extremist groups. One group that is "ripe"f orsuch development is that of Central and South American immigrants forwhom the "American Dream" seems impossibly remote; and there isreason to believe that the Cuban intelligence service will continue topromote terrorist group development here. Alternatives for counteringterrorism will depend on the group's organization and operation, the needforacounterterrorist cadre, the needforpsychological operations, and theneed for integration of counterterrorism efforts.

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0742 On Terrorism: An Analysis of Terrorism as a Form of War.Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Donald J. Hanle. Sep-tember 1987.244pp.This thesis examines the proposition that terrorism is a form of war. To dothis, this paper first analyzes warfare in terms of what it is and how itfunctions. This is done by surveying classical military thinkers such asThucydides, Sun Tzu, Machiavelli, von Clausewitz, and Liddell Hart, toname just a few. This provides an understanding not only of the nature andpurpose of war, but of the basic immutable principles under which itoperates. These offer a means to construct a paradigm with whichterrorism can be tested to determine whether it is a form of war. Once theconstant elements of war are analyzed and understood, the variablefactors are then examined. Here the study focuses upon the evolution ofwar, highlighting what changes and why. From this it is possible tounderstand not only why terrorism came into being, but the environment inwhich it operates as well. The second part of this study begins with ananalysis of the terroristic method of force employment, followed by anexamination of seven major types of terrorism to determine which, if any,qualify as a form of war. These include: psychotic, criminal, mystical,revolutionary, repression, military, and state-sponsored terrorism. Ofthese, three are found to qualify as a form of war—military, revolutionary,and state-sponsored terrorism. These three types of terrorism are thenanalyzed as forms of warfare in terms of how they employ force, as well asto what end that force is used. What becomes apparent is that not only doesthis terroristic force operate in the same basic manner as that employed intraditional warfare, it has the same basic capabilities and weaknesses ofclassical military force. The latter is significant because it suggests thatcountervailing strategies must be based upon classical principles of warand combat. These general countervailing strategic guidelines are pre-sented in the final part of this work. The significance of this study, then, isthat it determines that terrorism, or certain types of terrorism, are indeeda form of war. Moreover, these not only have the same end but operate inessentially the same manner as the more classical or traditional forms ofwarfare. Consequently, the only proper means to neutralize these forms ofterrorism is to treat them as a form of war and apply military force againstthem in accordance with the principles of war and combat.

Frame

1988

0986 The Terrorist Threat to the U.S. Army In Western Europe.U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Vittorfranco S.Pisano. February 16, 1988.29pp.This study addresses the terrorist threat to the U.S. Army in WesternEurope. In so doing, it examinesthe sociopolitical environment out of whichterrorism is born, the objectives and dynamics of specific terrorist groupsthat retain offensive potential, the lessons to be drawn from recordedincidents, detectable current trends, and the extent to which countermea-sures represent a realistic protective shield. The emphasis is on theterrorist situation, indigenous as well as transnational/international, in theFederal Republic of Germany and the Republic of Italy, since the vastmajority of U.S. Army troops stationed in Europe are located in those twoallied countries. In the introductory portions of the text and, to a lesserdegree, throughout it, an effort is made to delineate the nature of terrorism.This study concludes with a rapid examination of the counterterroristsetting and some observations as to the best means for the U.S. Army tocope with the terrorist phenomenon in the region.

SUBJECT INDEX

The following index is a guide to the major subjects of this collection. The firstArabic number refers to the reel, and the Arabic number after the colon refers to theframe number at which a particular subject begins. Hence 1: 0213 directs theresearchertothe subject that begins at Frame 0213 of Reel 1. By referring to the ReelIndex that constitutes the initial section of this guide, the researcher can find the mainentry for this subject.

Achilla Lauromaritime implications 4:0187response 1:0882

Airplane hijackingsItaly 2:0657Lebanon 1:0863see also Security

Armed Forces of Puerto RlcanLiberation (FALN)

5:0711Attacks, surrogate

1:0562see also Palestine Liberation

Organization (PLO)Black Liberation Army

5:0711Business, International

motivation for attacks 4:0199Casualties

1:0036Chile

Movimiento de la IzquierdaRevolucionaria (MIR) 3:0649

Communicationsbetween law enforcement agencies

5:0025within terrorist organizations 1:0627

Conspiracy theory of terrorism3:0821see also Soviet Union

CounterterrorlsmInternational Criminal Police

Organization (INTERPOL)5:0025

Italian counterterrorist agencyDIGOS2:0736

media 4:0308U.S. policies 3:0372; 4:0001,0545see also Italy; United States

EgyptU.S. response to Achilla Lauro

incident 1:0882Federal Republic of Germany

military bases 5:0986peace movement 3:0001see also Red Army Faction (RAF)

Funding and logisticsIrish Republican Army (IRA) 2:0627twenty-nine selected groups 1:0627

Generational changesIrish Republican Army (IRA) 2:0627Red Army Faction (RAF) 2:0523Turkey 1:0846

Government responseinternational cooperation 2:0429;

3:0252;4:0231,0336methods of analysis 1:0627;

2:0001resources devoted 1:0867see also Achilla Laura; Federal

Republic of Germany; Italy;Security; United States

Great Britainsee United Kingdom

Ideological factorsIrish Republican Army (IRA)

2: 0627; 5:0093various groups 1:0627; 2:0001;

4: 0772; 5: 0986see also Psychological factors

International Criminal Police Organi-zation (INTERPOL)

5:0025Iran

hostage rescue attempt 4:0395Irish Republican Army (IRA)

arms transfers 5:0093history 2:0627; 3:0033Soviet connection 2:0710

Israel1: 0562;4:0255

Italyairplane hijackings 2:0657history 1:0752military bases 5:0986Red Brigades depositions 2:0736;

3:0281Japan

2:0566Jewish Defense League

5:0711KuKluxKlan(KKK)

Soviet connection 2:0710Leadership

of terrorist groups 1:0627

Lebanon1:0562,0863

Libya3:0188; 4:0510; 5:0004

Media Influenceincentive to violence 4:0308;

5:0626military guidelines for media 3:0281public perception 4:0470, 0545;

5:0070,0514Naval vessels

2:0338see also Achilla Laura; United

StatesNuclear sabotage

reactors 1:0001.0087; 5:0711weapons 1:0001;4:0336

Organizationgeneral 1:0627Irish Republican Army (IRA) 2:0627

Palestine Liberation Organization(PLO)

1:0562; 2:0657; 4:0255Peace movement

possibilities for violence 3:0915Peru

Sendero Luminoso 3:0674Predictions

Conflict Forecasting Project 1:0386general 2:0001increases in violence 1:0867;

4:0584;5:0711Irish Republican Army (IRA) 2:0627

Psychology1:0583,0627; 2: 0001

Red Army Faction (RAF)conspiracy theory 5:0449generational changes 2:0523military bases 3:0281photographs 5:0001

Securityairports—United States 4:0001behavorial studies 1:0583embassies 3:0604maritime 2:0338; 4:0187military bases 2:0674; 3:0065,

0281,0604;5:0514,0986see also Government response;

United StatesSpain

2:0460Soviet Union

connections to internationalterrorism 2:0710; 3:0194;5:0449

Turkey1:0846

United Kingdom2:0627see also Irish Republican Army(IRA)

United Statescivil disturbances 1:0036incidents, violent 2:0662; 5:0070investigation methods 2:0001national strategy 4:0584national terrorist organizations

2:0710; 5:0711

responseairpower—legal limitations

2:0490assassination 4:0216, 0419covert action 3:0496international attacks 3:0194,

0348,0372military tactics 4:0278; 5:0261national attacks 4:0001naval vessels 2:0338recognition as legal warfare

3:0134; 4:0373, 0584;5:0742

rescue attempts—Iran 4:0395restraint of media 4:0308sanctions 4:0445state-sponsored attacks—

general 3:0531; 4:0255,0445,0772

state-sponsored attacks-Libyan 3:0188; 4:0510;5:0004

see also Achilla Lauro; SecurityUnited States National CentralBureau (USNCB)

5:0025War Trap

1:6386

The Special Studies SeriesAfrica, 1962-1988Asia, 1980-1988

China, 1970-1980Drugs,1972-1986

Europe and NATO, 1970-1988Immigration, 1969-1988

International Trade, 1971-1988Japan, Korea, and the Security of Asia,

1970-1980Latin America, 1962-1988Middle East, 1970-1988

Multinational Corporations, OPEC, Cartels,Foreign Investments, and Technology Transfer,

1971-1988Nuclear Weapons, Arms Control, and the Threat

of Thermonuclear War, 1969-1988The Soviet Union, 1970-1988

Terrorism, 1975-1988Vietnam and Southeast Asia, 1960-1980

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