A Publication of theNational WildfireCoordinating Group

Sponsored byUnited StatesDepartment of Agriculture

United StatesDepartment of the Interior

National Association ofState Foresters

OCTOBER 1992

FOAM VS FIREPrimer

The National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) has developed thisinformation for the guidance of its member agencies and is not responsiblefor the interpretation or use of this information by anyone except themember agencies. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in thispublication is for the information and convenience of the reader and doesnot constitute An endorsement by the NWCG of any product or service tothe exclusion of others that may be suitable.

Additional copies of this publication may be ordered from:

Boise Interagency Fire CenterATTN: Supply

3905 Vista AvenueBoise, ID 83705

A Publication of theNational WildfireCoordinating Group

Sponsored byUnited StatesDepartment of Agriculture

United StatesDepartment of the Interior

National Association ofState Foresters

OCTOBER 1992

Prepared by:Foam Task Group

Fire Equipment Working TeamNational Wildfire Coordinating Group

In cooperation withThe Canadian Committee on Forest Fire Management

and Forest Fire Equipment Working Group

FOAM VS FIREPrimer

NWCG has been preparing a series of publications entitled "Foam Applica-tions for Wildland & Urban Fire Management" (starting with Volume 1, No.1 in 1988). These documents are available at no charge. They are a seriesof interagency, international publications that contain articles on firefightingfoam, its use and application, with much information on class A foam andfoam delivery systems, etc. in each issue. To start receiving a copy ofthese as they are issued, or to obtain back issues, send your name andcomplete mailing address to:

Publications, USDA Forest ServiceSan Dimas Technology and Development Center

444 East Bonita AvenueSan Dimas, CA 91773-3198

i

NOTE:This document is one of a series of three "Foam vs Fire" publications that areavailable. These are:

1. Primer2. Class A Foam for Wildland Fires3. Air Applications

(to be published in 1994)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1

SURFACTANTS ............................................................................................... 1Wetting Agents ..................................................................................... 1Class A Foam Concentrates................................................................. 1

CLASS A FOAM ............................................................................................... 2Drain Time ............................................................................................ 3Expansion Ration ................................................................................. 3Foam Type ........................................................................................... 3

PROPORTIONING ........................................................................................... 3Batch Mixing ......................................................................................... 3Manually Regulated Proportioners ....................................................... 4Automatically Regulated Proportioners ................................................ 4

ASPIRATING NOZZLES AND COMPRESSED AIR FOAM SYSTEMS........... 4Aspirating Nozzles ................................................................................ 4

Low-Expansion Nozzles ................................................................ 4Medium-Expansion Nozzles.......................................................... 5High-Expansion Nozzles ............................................................... 5Aspirating Nozzle Designs ............................................................ 5

Compressed Air Foam Systems (CAFS) .............................................. 5APPLICATIONS................................................................................................ 6

DIRECT ATTACK ............................................................................................. 6

INDIRECT ATTACK.......................................................................................... 6

MOPUP............................................................................................................. 7

STRUCTURE PROTECTION ........................................................................... 7

SAFETY ............................................................................................................ 7

METRIC SYSTEM AND EQUIVALENTS ......................................................... 8

APPROXIMATE CONVERSION FACTORS .................................................... 9

ii

1INTRODUCTIONThe phrase Fire doesnt like water much is astrue today as the day it was coined. We all knowhow important the proper use of water is whentrying to suppress a wildfire. But, did you knowthat you can change water so that it will work moreeffectively at extinguishing fires?

Thats the purpose of this booklet: To show youhow to get the most firefighting punch from waterthat you can by converting water to class A foam.

Before we go any further, lets review just howwater extinguishes a fire. You remember the firetriangle and that water can break it up by severalmeans. The number one way that water works isto remove the heat by cooling. The fire turns thewater to steam; this robs the fire of the heat that itneeds to burn. The steam that is created alsoreduces the oxygen that is available to the fire.You can also remove the oxygen from the fuel ifyou submerge the fuel in water.

Fog nozzle droplets are three times smaller Water is more slippery, so that it increases

flow in delivery lines Water is attracted to carbon.

SURFACTANTSIf this all sounds pretty good, it is. Surfactantscan make water up to two times more effective.

There are two forms of surfactants presently be-ing used by wildland fire agencies. These arewetting agents and class A foam concentrates.

Wetting AgentsWetting agents have most of the properties listedfor surfactants, but they are designed to preventfoaming. This is to keep bubbles from forming inwater tanks. What may surprise you is that bubblescan actually make your job easier.Class A Foam ConcentratesClass A foam concentrates also have all the prop-erties listed for surfactants. Unlike wetting agentsthough, they are a detergentthese are attractedto carbon and have the ability to be turned intofoam. Class A foam concentrates are similar tocommon household detergent products, but havebeen designed especially for class A fuels.

When class A foam concentrate is added to water,foam solution is produced. The recommendedratio of class A foam concentrate to water isbetween 1/10th of 1 percent and 1 percent, de-pending on the job. It doesnt take very muchfoam concentrate to lower the surface tension ofwater. Only approximately 1/10th of 1 percent, or1 gallon of concentrate to 1,000 gallons of water,will begin to lower the surface tension.

The problem with foam solution in many fire situa-tions is that the solution will still run off the fuelsjust like untreated water does. Of course, foamsolution will spread over the fuel and penetratebetter than plain water will, but it may not stay inplace long enough to absorb all the heat that it iscapable of absorbing.

If we increase the amount of concentrate we addto water (between 3/10ths and 5/10ths of 1 per-cent) and add air, we can change foam solution toa foam. It takes energy to add the air to foamsolution to produce class A foamthis is dis-cussed later in the booklet. By changing foamsolution to foam, water is held in place on the fuellonger so that it can absorb more heat. Foamwraps around fuel so that the water is spread

This all makes water sound like a pretty powerfultool, but there is a problem with water that cutsdown its effectiveness. This problem is calledsurface tension and all water has it. Surfacetension holds water together; this causes water tobead up and run off most fuels. This means thatwater doesnt stay on the fuel long enough toabsorb all the heat that it can. We can lower thesurface tension of water by adding somethingcalled a surface-active agent or surfactant. Weuse surfactants every day when we wash dishesor clothes. Why not use them to fight fire?

When a surfactant is added to water to lower thesurface tension, several things happen:

Water penetrates fuels faster Water spreads over the fuels Increased absorption occurs

FUEL

OXYG

EN HEATFIRE

2uniformly over all the surfaces of the fuel.

Lets stop for a second and review:

WATER + FOAM CONCENTRATE = FOAM SOLU-TION

FOAM SOLUTION + AIR = FOAM

Besides holding the water in place on the fuellonger, class A foam removes heat better thanwater or wet water because of the way water isheld in a bubble. As a bubble, water is in a filmthat surrounds a pocket of air. This allows waterto be converted to steam faster than if the water isin droplets. Foam also attacks the heat leg of thetriangle in three other ways:

The opaque, white surface of foam re-flects heat away from the fuel.

This same foam layer insulates the fuelfrom heat.

Water is stored in the foam blanket whereit can be absorbed by the fuel. By creat-

ing wet fuel, the chance of reignition is re-duced.

The action of the detergent allows thewater to be absorbed by the fuel.

Not only does foam help water absorb heat moreefficiently, foam also works on the other two sidesof the fire triangle. Foam removes the fuel fromfire in much the same way that it protects againstheat. A foam blanket on burning fuel holds inflammable vapors which can prevent the vaporsfrom igniting.

This same foam blanket can help to remove oxy-gen from the fire by separating the fuel and flam-mable vapors from the air. But remember, to cutoff the air supply to the fuel, the foam must spreadcompletely over the fuel surface and then stay inplace for awhile.

Weve just covered a lot of new material, so letsreview what we have learned:

Plain water is NOT as efficient as foam atremoving heat. By adding foam concentrate

to water to make foam solution, efficiencycan be increased by as much as two timesthat of water. When foam solution is turnedinto a foam, all three legs of the fire trianglecan be attacked. Foam holds water in placeso that heat is absorbed and reflected, oxy-gen is separated from the fuel, fuel is insu-lated, and vapors are suppressed.

CLASS A FOAMA few words to the wise on using class A foamfollow.

First, dont confuse class A foam with the foamthat is used on class B fires. These class B foamsare designed specifically for burning flammableliquid fires and class A foam will not work thesame way. Its just not safe to fight a class B firewith class A foam.

Secondly, class A foam is not magic. Its still thewater in the foam that is doing the work on the fire.Every fire has a critical application rate; that is,every fire has a minimum amount of water thatmust be applied to extinguish the fire. This is truefor foam also. But, since the water in foam isbeing used more efficiently, the critical applica-tion rate for a given fire is somewhat lower withfoam than with water. Remember, there is still acritical application rate that must be applied for afire to be suppressed.

Before we discuss how to make foam, there are afew foam properties that need to be understood.These properties are drain time, expansion ratio,and foam type.

FUEL

OXYG

EN

FUEL

OXYG

EN HEATFIRE

FUEL

x xAPPLICATION RATE

TIM

E

Extinguishment

WaterFoam

Critical Application Rate

3WET FOAM- Watery- Large to small bubbles- Lacks body- Fast drain times

FLUID FOAM- Similar to watery shaving cream- Medium to small bubbles- Flows easily- Moderate drain times

DRY FOAM- Similar to shaving cream- Medium to small bubbles- Mostly air- Clings to vertical surfaces- Slow drain times

As you can see, many types of foam can be made,and each type is best suited for a specific applica-tion. Different foam types are produced by alter-ing the amounts of air and/or foam concentrateused to produce the foam. Now that we havecovered the properties of foam, lets discuss howto add foam concentrate to water.

PROPORTIONINGBatch MixingThe process of adding the right amount of foamconcentrate to water is called proportioning. Thesimplest form of proportioning is batch mixing.Batch mixing is the pouring of a measured amountof foam concentrate into a tank of a known volumeof water. It is an easy way to create foam solutionwith no investment in equipment. As simple asthis method is, there are some drawbacks:

Corrosion of the tank, pump, and plumbingincreases when foam solution is used.

Pump priming and cavitation problems canoccur from foam solution passing throughthe pump.

Drain TimeDrain time is the time it takes for a certain amountof foam solution to drain from the foam mass.Drain time is important because it tells you howdurable the foam is and how quickly the foamsolution will be released. Foams with a shorterdrain time are best suited for flame knockdown,immediate wetting, and mopupany time quickcooling is needed. Foams with longer drain timesare better at insulating fuels, such as in exposureprotection.

Expansion RatioExpansion ratio is the measure of foam that isproduced compared to the amount of foam solu-tion used to make the foam. To get the expansionratio, divide the volume of foam by the volume offoam solution. For example,if 100 gallons of foamis made from 10 gallons of foam solution, then theexpansion ratio of the foam is 10 to 1. There arethree categories of expansion ratios you will hearabout when working with foam:

Expansion Ratios

LOW ...............................1:1 to 20:1MEDIUM ..................... 20:1 to 200:1HIGH .........................200:1 to 1,000:1

Low-expansion foam has the widest range ofapplication and is the most common because ofits greater discharge distances. Medium expan-sion foam is usually used for putting down barri-ers, exposure protection, and mopup. High-ex-pansion foam is most effective in creating barriersin heavy fuels and tall brush. Remember that achange in expansion ratio also results in a changein drain time and the volume of water per gallon offoam. This leads us to the third property which isfoam type.

Foam TypeFoam type is a way of describing the combinationof drain time and expansion ratio of low-expan-sion class A foam. A foam with a fast drain timeand a low expansion ratio of 5 to 1 behaves muchdifferently than a foam with a slow drain time anda 15 to 1 expansion ratio. The foam types you willuse are as follows:

FOAM SOLUTION- A clear to milky fluid- Lacks bubble structure- Mostly water

4Remember that the purpose of proportioners is tocreate foam solution to make water work better.All of these devices and methods will improve theperformance of water. They each have a place onthe fire scene. Now that you know how to addfoam concentrate to your water supply, lets dis-cuss how to turn foam solution into foam.

ASPIRATING NOZZLES AND COMPRESSED AIRFOAM SYSTEMSFirefighting foams are mechanically generated byeither low-energy or high-energy systems. Aspi-rating nozzles are low-energy systems, while com-pressed air foam systems (CAFS) are high-en-ergy systems. Each type is used in wildland firesuppression.

Aspirating NozzlesAspirating nozzles use energy from the waterpump to create foam. Energy, in the form of waterpressure, is delivered by the pump to the aspirat-ing nozzle. The nozzle restricts the flow of foamsolution which causes air to be drawn into thefoam solution stream. The air and foam solutionmix in a chamber and are discharged as foam.

Low-Expansion NozzlesLow-expansion nozzles have small openings forair. They can produce a volume of foam up to 20times the amount of foam solution used to makethe foam, or a 20:1 expansion ratio. These nozzlesfocus pump energy into a narrow chamber thatcreates a limited air flow. Smaller volumes offoam are produced, but they are projected greatdistances.

It is difficult to change the mix ratio of thesolution.

Water drawn from a hydrant or water ten-der can not be used directly for foam pro-duction because the foam concentrate mustbe added to a tank.

Foam solution in a water tank makes sightgauges hard to read and can overflowwhen agitated by driving or water recirculation.

Despite these limitations, batch mixing is a com-mon proportioning method for engines, portabletanks, and bladders. In addition to batch mixing,there are manual and automatic proportioningdevices. These are discussed next.

Manually Regulated ProportionersManually regulated proportioners are controlledby the operator and do not adjust the mix ratio ofconcentrate to water when the water flow or pres-sure changes. Manually regulated proportioningdevices include:

Suction-side proportioner In-line proportioner (eductor) Around-the-pump proportioner Direct-injection proportioner

Automatically Regulated ProportionersAutomatically regulated proportioners add the desiredamount of foam concentrate into the water streamand adjust the flow of concentrate to any changesin the water flow or pressure. In other words, youautomatically maintain the desired mix ratio offoam concentrate to water. These proportionerswere designed to overcome the limitations foundin the manual devices. They add the concentrateon the discharge side of the pump to avoid pumpand tank problems. Also, they can be set for anymix ratio between 1/10th of 1 and 1 percent. Mostautomatic proportioners do not limit or restrict thewater volume or pressure, and have no effect onthe number of hoselays, nozzles, or length ofhose which can be used.

Automatic systems include: Balanced-pressure tank Balanced-pressure pump Direct injection

One thing to watch with all proportioning devicesis that when foam concentrate dries, it can plug upthe small tubing, openings, and valves found onall of these systems. After every use, theseshould be flushed and cleaned. General, goodhousekeeping is necessary for each device.

FoamSolution

WaterPump Aspirating Nozzle

(Foam forms in nozzle)

Nozzle Aspirating Foam systems

Low-Expansion Aspirating Nozzle

FoamSolution

Air

(Air drawn into the back)

Foam

5Medium-Expansion Aspirating Nozzle

also low-expansion nozzles that provide severaldischarge patterns. These nozzles offer a varietyof patterns which may include long-range straightstream, fog, or spray, and foam patterns.

Medium-expansion nozzles are generally designedfor lower pressures than low-expansion nozzles.Low pressures are required to build and maintainthe larger bubbles of medium-expansion foam.

Low-expansion nozzles are commonly used fordirect attack because of their extended dischargedistances. They can also be used for pretreat-ment of aerial fuels and mopup. Medium-expan-sion nozzles are best on surface applications atshort distances. They can be used to create firebarriers during indirect attack or prescription burning,and are very useful for rapid mopup.

Advantages of aspirated nozzles are:

Relatively inexpensive and simple They do not require extensive training Easy to maintain Many are attachments to common water

nozzles.

Disadvantages include:

Ability to change the foam type is limited Foam will not cling to vertical surfaces as

well as compressed air foam Water pressure from the water stream is

robbed to produce foam More foam concentrate is used than com

pressed air foam systems.

Compressed Air Foam Systems (CAFS)Compressed air foam systems (CAFS) producehigh-energy foam because compressed air is in-jected into the foam solution. This system in-cludes a water pump, air compressor, foam solu-tion, pressure gauges, and assorted valves; itdoes not require an aspirated nozzle. Foam isproduced differently with CAFS than aspiratingsystems. Air from the compressor is injected intothe foam solution. This air represents storedenergy for use in the discharge of foam. Once theair and foam solution are combined; they mix,agitate, and expand to produce foam. The mixingand agitation occurs in a hose line or a special-ized mixing chamber. When hose is used toproduce the foam, approximately 100 to 150 feetof hose is required. Mixing chambers are usuallyused when foam discharge must occur close tothe pump, as with monitors.

Draw in air

FoamSolution

(Air drawn into the front)Low-Expansion Aspirating Nozzle

Air

FoamFoamSolution

There are two variations in nozzle design basedon where the air is drawn into the nozzle. Air canbe drawn into the back of the nozzle or into thefront.

Medium-Expansion NozzlesMedium-expansion nozzles have much larger airopenings than low-expansion nozzles. They canproduce expansions from 20:1 up to 200:1, de-pending on the design of the nozzle. A medium-expansion nozzle has a wide chamber that drawsin large amounts of air, which in turn slows downthe stream velocity. There are screens locatedinside the chamber that are necessary for bubbleformation.

High-Expansion NozzlesHigh-expansion nozzles work along the samelines as the medium-expansion ones, but put outa larger volume of foam.

Aspirating Nozzle DesignsAspirating nozzles are designed for specific waterflows, water pressures, and mix ratios of foamsolution. Nozzles may be single or variable flowby design. Water pressure is normally between100 and 150 psi. Mix ratio is usually 1/2 of 1percent. Changes in any of these will affect foamproduction.

Single-pattern, low-expansion nozzles are de-signed for only one discharge pattern. There are

6Air and water flowsalong with pressuresfromthe compressor and pump should be roughly matched.Because of the energy provided by the air com-pressor, gallon for gallon, compressed air foam ispropelled farther than discharges from aspiratingor standard water nozzles.

Almost any shutoff or nozzle, full flow or fogpattern, will work with CAFS. The nozzle typeaffects the type of foam which will be discharged.For example, a full-flow shutoff will provide thebest foam, while a variable-pattern nozzle willbreak up the bubbles and create an air-chargedfoam solution. Each application has its place infire suppression; this is discussed later.

The advantages of compressed air foam are many:

The foam type can be easily changed bychanging the ratio of water to air.

Hose lines are considerably lighter thanconventional water lines.

Less foam concentrate is used. CAFS can be pumped higher and farther

than plain water at the same pressure. The air compressor can be used separately

to run pneumatic tools. Bubbles are more uniform, creating a more

durable foam.

The disadvantages of CAFS are also worth list-ing:

The system is more complex than aspirating nozzles, and requires education andtraining.

Maintenance requires more expertise andtime.

The large amount of energy stored in thehose can be difficult to control; thus, if anoperator is not properly trained or preparedit can be unsafe.

Purchase price. Weight of the module.

APPLICATIONSWater that is applied as a foam works on all threesides of the fire triangle. Remember, foam itselfhas no chemical retardant effect. Foams perfor-mance is determined by its drain time, expansionratio, and surface tension. In general, foam appli-cation techniques are the same as those usedwith water. It is still water that is extinguishing thefire; we are just using it in a different form. Waterflow as foam and the foams drain time must fit thesuppression task. Remember that each fire has acritical application rate, even when you are usingfoam. Also remember that if the foam is too dry,the fire may burn underneath surface fuels.

DIRECT ATTACKThe ability of foam to continue wetting and coolingfuels long after the firefighter has left the area is akey to effective foam use. Foam solution or wetfoam should be used for direct attack. Apply foamto the base of a linear flame front. While attackingthe edge, direct a portion of the foam stream ontoadjacent unburned fuels. On wide hotspots, se-cure the edge and move toward the center. Applyfoam long enough to ensure extinguishment, butrealize this may not take very long. Work quickly;as soon as steam is visible, move on. Vaporsuppression, cooling, and wetting have occurred.Leave a foam blanket over the hot fuels to smotherand continue wetting. It is important to return tothe treated area after the foam dissipates to checkfor any missed spots.

Foam can be used to put out fires whose extin-guishment would not be considered with plainwater. Fire inside and at the top of snags, and firewithin log decks, can be extinguished with foam.Torching fires in tree tops can be attacked. Indeep fuel beds, a foam solution may be requiredfor rapid penetration. Remember to choose theright foam type for the job that you have to do.

INDIRECT ATTACKAll foam types may be effectively used in indirectattack. Foam can be used as a firebreak forburning out or back-firing. The foam line should

FoamSolution

WaterPump

PressureGauge

Check Valve

Gated Wye

1/4-turnBall

Valve

AirCompressorPressure Gauge

Check Valve

Min. of 150 ft 1-1/2 in hoseMin. of 100 ft 1-in hose

Compressed Air Foam System

7be at least two and one half times as wide as theexpected flame length.

You will want to wet the entire fuel layer so thatthe fire will not burn under the foam line. Thefoam should be applied at close range so thatpenetration of surface fuels can occur. Applyfoam immediately ahead of the burning crew, butallow time for foam solution to drain out of thefoam and wet the fuels. Another technique forwetting the fuel bed is to apply foam solution firstthrough a conventional nozzle (such as a foresternozzle). After wetting the fuels, apply a blanket offoam to continue wetting and to insulate the fuels.In adverse conditions (such as low humidities andhigh temperatures) reapplication may be neces-sary. Foam can be lofted onto brush, tree trunks,and crowns to add a protective insulating barrier.

MOPUPFoams vapor suppressing, penetrating, smother-ing, and cooling qualities allow firefighters tomove from the suppression phase to mopup morequickly than with plain water. Foam solution andwet foam are best suited for this type of work. Youwill still have to use handtools on deep-seatedfires, but foam will reduce the amount of time thatmopup will require.

When most surface fuels are smoldering or openlyburning, medium-expansion nozzles can be usedto cover an area in foam when the mopup workbegins. Leave the foam alone for approximately a1/2 hour, and watch for steam rising from the foamor an area where foam has dissipated rapidly.This will show you where there is a pocket of heatwhich needs more attention.

Depending on the fuel type, two applications maybe warranted to reduce the time spent on mopup.In addition to increased efficiency, this applicationalso reduces the amount of smoke and vapors towhich firefighters are commonly exposed. Formopup of deep-seated fires, use foam solution orwet foam to penetrate down to smoldering fuels.Mopup wands and hand tools are recommended.

STRUCTURE PROTECTIONThe ability of foam to adhere to sloped, vertical,upside-down, and slippery surfaces is the key tostructure protection with foam. Use a dry or fluidfoam type, depending on the fire situation andstructural requirements. Foam durability is de-pendent on weather and fire behavior conditions.

Apply foam to outside walls, eaves, roofs, col-umns, or other threatened surfaces, lofting it toavoid breaking the bubbles. Try to leave 1/2 inchof foam on all surfaces, even if the excess sloughsoff. The difference in protecting structures withfoam as compared to water, is that foam allowsfirefighters to pretreat a structure before the firearrives and evaluate the scene if necessary.

Medium-expansion nozzles can be used to putdown foam barriers around threatened exposures.This technique allows the fire to burn into thefoam barrier. This can also be used in combina-tion with a low-expansion foam treatment of thestructure.

SAFETYFor any new equipment, there are new proce-dures and techniques to follow. This is also truewhen dealing with new chemicals like foam con-centrates. Learn what Material Safety Data Sheetsare and how they can help you. The U.S. Depart-ment of Agriculture (USDA)-approved foam con-centrates have met the standards for skin and eyetoxicity, lethal dose for fish, and metal corrosion.

Foam concentrates have health effects similar tothose of household detergents.Everyone involvedin handling, mixing, and applying foam should beproperly trained. All containers of concentrate orsolution should be labeled. Concentrates canproduce eye irritation and can dry the skin. Thefollowing precautions should be taken:

When mixing concentrates, goggles, water-proof gloves, and rubber boots should beworn.

Clothing soaked in concentrates should berinsed out.

Eyes splashed with concentrate or solutionshould be flushed with clean water for 15minutes.

Hand lotion should be used to avoid chap-ping.

Concentrate which is spilled should be cleanedup with an absorbent material to preventaccidents.

Care should be taken when walking in afoam blanket since foam wil l conceal objects and holes.

Avoid contaminating water sources with concentrate or solution.

When using CAFS, avoid opening valvesquickly ; since this can result in a firefighterlosing control of the hose or being knockeddown.

8The purpose for including the following metric system equivalents and approximate conversion factors is to meet therequirements of Public Law 100-418. This law requires each Federal agency to use the metric system ofmeasurementby Fiscal Year 1992, in procurements, grants, and other business related activities.

THE METRIC SYSTEM AND EQUIVALENTS

Linear Measure Liquid Measure

1 centimeter= 10 millimeters= 0.39 inch 1 centiliter= 10 milliliters= 0.34 fl ounce1 decimeters= 10 centimeters= 3.94 inches 1 deciliter= 10 centiliters= 3.38 fl ounces1 meter= 10 decimeters= 39.37 inches 1 liter= 10 deciliters= 38.82 fl ounces1 dekameter= meters= 32.8 feet 1 dekaliter= 10 liters= 2.64 gallons1 hectometer= 10 dekameters= 328.08 feet 1 hectoliter= 10 dekaliters= 26.42 gallons1 kilometer= 10 hectometers= 3,280.8 feet 1 kiloliter= 10 hectoliters= 264.18 gallons

Weights Square Measure

1 centigram= 10 milligrams= 0.15 grain 1 sq centimeter= 100 sq millimeters= 0.155 sq in1 decigram= 10 centigrams= 1.54 grains 1 sq decimeter= 100 sq centimeters= 15.5 sq in1 gram= 10 decigrams= 0.035 ounce 1 sq meter (centare)= 100 sq decimeters= 10.76 sq ft1 dekagram= 10 grams= 0.35 ounces 1 sq dekameter (are)= 100 sq meters= 1,076.4 sq ft1 hectogram= 10 dekagrams= 3.52 ounces 1 sq hectometer (hectare)=100 sq dekameters= 2.47 acres1 kilogram= 10 hectograms= 2.2 pounds 1 sq kilometer= 100 sq hectometers=0.386 sq mi1 quintal= 100 kilograms= 220.46 pounds1 metric ton= 10 quintals= 1.1 short tons

Cubic Measure

1 cu centimeter= 1000 cu millimeters= 0.06 cu inch1 cu meter= 1000 cu decimeters= 35.31 cu feet1 cu decimeter= 1000 cu centimeters= 61.02 cu inches

9APPROXIMATE CONVERSION FACTORS

To Change To Multiply By To Change To Multiply By

inches centimeters 2.54 ounce-inches newton-meters 0.007062feet meters 0.305 centimeters inches 0.394yards meters 0.914 meters feet 3.280miles kilometers 1.609 meters yards 1.094square inches square centimeters 6.451 kilometers miles 0.621

square feet square meters 0.093 square centimeters square inches 0.155square yards square meters 0.836 square meters square feet 10.764square miles square kilometers 2.590 square meters square yards 1.196acres square hectometers 0.405 square kilometers square miles 0.386cubic feet cubic meters 0.028 square hectometer acres 2.471cubic yards cubic meters 0.765

cubic meters cubic feet 35.315fluid ounces milliliters 29,573 cubic meters cubic yards 1.308pints liters 0.473 milliliters fluid ounces 0.034quarts liters 0.946 liters pints 0.2113gallons liters 3.785 liters quarts 1.057

ounces grams 28.349 liters gallons 0.264pounds kilograms 0.454 grams ounces 0.035short tons metric tons 0.907 kilograms pounds 2.205pound-feet newton-meters 1.365 metric tons short tons 1.102pound-inches newton-meters 0.11375

Temperature (Exact)F=Fahrenheit C=Celsius

F=(Cx9/5)+32 C=5/9x(F-32)