FINE PARTICLE (2.5 MICRONS) EMISSIONS

Regulation, Measurement, and Control

John D. McKenna

James H. Turner

James P. McKenna

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

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FINE PARTICLE (2.5 MICRONS) EMISSIONS

FINE PARTICLE (2.5 MICRONS) EMISSIONS

Regulation, Measurement, and Control

John D. McKenna

James H. Turner

James P. McKenna

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada

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ISBN: 978-0-471-70963-3

Printed in the United States of America

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CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Overview of Particulate Matter (PM) Control / 11.2 PM / 21.3 PM10 / 41.4 PM2.5 / 10

1.4.1 PM2.5 Monitoring Goals / 101.4.2 PM2.5 Program Objectives / 101.4.3 PM2.5 Data Uses / 101.4.4 Trends in PM2.5 / 111.4.5 Nanoparticles / 19

1.5 The Scientifi c Basis for Ambient Air Quality Standards / 191.6 Primary Standards vs. Secondary Standards / 201.7 PM Effects of Concern / 20

1.7.1 Secondary Effects / 211.8 Who Is Most at Risk? / 211.9 Current Legislation / 22

1.9.1 Federal Legislation / 221.9.1.1 Form of the Standard / 221.9.1.2 Standard Level / 221.9.1.3 Averaging Times / 23

1.9.2 State Legislation / 231.9.2.1 Enforcement Responsibilities / 231.9.2.2 Enforcement Flexibility / 24

v

vi CONTENTS

1.9.2.3 Staffi ng and Other Practical Concerns / 241.9.2.4 National Variations in Enforcement / 241.9.2.5 PermittingA Tool Used to Achieve

Early Enforcement / 241.10 References / 25

2 HEALTH EFFECTS 26

2.1 Results of Recent Studies / 292.1.1 PM2.5 vs. PM10-2.5, PM10, and Coarser

Particles / 302.1.2 Air Pollution Species and Health Effects / 33

2.2 EPA Position on Certain Health Effects / 332.2.1 Premature Deaths / 342.2.2 Respiratory Illness in Children / 342.2.3 Cardiovascular Illness / 37

2.3 References / 38

3 AIR MONITORING 41

3.1 AMBIENT AIR MONITORING METHODS 43

3.1.1 Introduction and Scope / 433.1.2 Terminology / 443.1.3 Summary of Test Method / 483.1.4 Apparatus / 493.1.5 Procedures / 553.1.6 PM2.5 Test Procedures / 553.1.7 PM2.5 Measurement Range / 583.1.8 Calculations / 583.1.9 Calibration and Maintenance / 593.1.10 Precision and Bias / 593.1.11 Endnotes / 603.1.12 References / 60

3.2 EMISSION MEASUREMENT METHODS 62

3.2.1 List of EPA PM Mass Measurement Test Methods / 633.2.2 EPA Stationary (Point) Source PM Mass Measurement Test

Methods / 643.2.2.1 EPA Test Method 5 for Total PM Mass / 643.2.2.2 EPA Test Method 5 Variations: 5A5H / 68

CONTENTS vii

3.2.3 EPA Test Methods for PM10 from Stationary Sources / 723.2.3.1 Method 201: Determination of PM10 Emissions

Exhaust Gas Recycle Procedure / 723.2.3.2 Methods 201A: Determination of PM10 Emissions

Constant Sampling Rate Procedure / 753.2.4 EPA Test Method 17: Determination of PM Emissions from

Stationary SourcesIn-Stack Filtration Method / 753.2.5 Method 202 for Condensable PM (CPM) Measurement / 783.2.6 CPM Issues / 793.2.7 Summary of CTM 39 / 803.2.8 Summary of CTM 40 / 843.2.9 Endnotes / 863.2.10 References / 87

4 EMISSION CONTROL METHODS 91

4.1 FABRIC FILTER/BAGHOUSES 93

4.1.1 Fabric FiltersIntroduction and Theory / 934.1.1.1 Particle Collection and Penetration

Mechanisms / 954.1.1.2 Pressure Drop / 974.1.1.3 Experimental Measurements of K2Specifi c Cake

Coeffi cient / 984.1.1.4 Pressure Drop in Multicompartment

Baghouses / 1004.1.1.5 Gas-to-Cloth (G/C) Ratio / 101

4.1.2 Types of Fabric Filters / 1014.1.2.1 Cleaning Techniques / 1014.1.2.2 Filtration Fabrics and Fiber Types / 102

4.1.2.2.1 Filtration Fabrics / 1044.1.2.2.2 Important Fiber Characteristics / 1044.1.2.2.3 Fabric Types / 105

4.1.2.2.3.1 Woven Fabric / 1054.1.2.2.3.2 Nonwoven Fabrics / 106

4.1.2.3 Shaker-Cleaned Fabric Filters / 1074.1.2.4 Reverse-Air Cleaned Fabric Filter / 110

4.1.2.4.1 Reverse Air / 1104.1.2.5 Pulse-Jet Cleaned Fabric Filter / 113

4.1.2.5.1 Pulse Jet / 113

viii CONTENTS

4.1.2.6 Other Fabric Filter Designs / 1174.1.2.6.1 Sonic Horns / 1184.1.2.6.2 Cartridge Collectors / 118

4.1.3 Fabric Characteristics / 1194.1.3.1 Case Study / 121

4.1.4 Collection Effi ciency / 1224.1.5 Applicability / 1234.1.6 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts of Fabric

Filter Baghouses / 1244.1.6.1 Filtration Processes / 1244.1.6.2 Example / 1254.1.6.3 Treatments and Finishes / 125

4.1.7 Records of Routine Baghouse Operation and Baghouse Maintenance / 1294.1.7.1 Why Keep Records? / 1294.1.7.2 What Records to Keep? / 1294.1.7.3 Baghouse Maintenance / 130

4.1.8 References / 132

4.2 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS 135

4.2.1 Particle Collection / 1354.2.1.1 Electric Field / 1374.2.1.2 Corona Generation / 1374.2.1.3 Particle Charging / 1384.2.1.4 Particle Collection / 139

4.2.2 Penetration Mechanisms / 1414.2.2.1 Back Corona / 1414.2.2.2 Dust Reentrainment / 1414.2.2.3 Dust Sneakage / 142

4.2.3 Types of ESPs / 1424.2.3.1 Dry ESPs / 1424.2.3.2 Specifi c Collecting Area (SCA) / 1434.2.3.3 SCA Procedure with Known Migration

Velocity / 1434.2.3.4 Full SCA Procedure / 1444.2.3.5 SCA for Tubular Precipitators / 1504.2.3.6 Flow Velocity / 1504.2.3.7 Pressure Drop Calculations / 1514.2.3.8 Particle Characteristics / 152

CONTENTS ix

4.2.3.9 Gas Characteristics / 1534.2.3.10 Cleaning / 1544.2.3.11 Construction Features / 1554.2.3.12 Problems and Test Methods Associated with Dry

ESPs / 1554.2.3.13 Wet Electrostatic Precipitator (Wet ESP) / 157

4.2.3.13.1 Designs, Confi gurations, Materials, and Operational Aspects / 157

4.2.3.13.2 Common Elements of Wet ESPs / 160

4.2.3.13.3 Parallel Plate Designs / 1604.2.3.13.4 Tubular Designs / 1614.2.3.13.5 Advantages Associated with Wet

ESPs / 1614.2.3.13.6 Operational Issues / 161

4.2.3.13.6.1 Pre-Scrubbing / 1624.2.3.13.6.2 Washdown Sprays and

Weirs / 1624.2.3.13.6.3 Wet/dry Interface / 1624.2.3.13.6.4 Current Suppression / 1624.2.3.13.6.5 Sparking / 1624.2.3.13.6.6 Tracking / 1624.2.3.13.6.7 Mist Elimination / 162

4.2.3.13.7 Various Other Issues / 1634.2.3.13.8 Effi ciencies and Power

Requirements / 1634.2.3.13.9 Design Factors Affecting Effi ciency / 163

4.2.3.13.9.1 SCA / 1634.2.3.13.9.2 Electrode Designs

Collecting Surfaces / 1634.2.3.13.9.3 Electrode Designs

Discharge Surfaces / 1644.2.3.13.10 Materials of Construction / 1644.2.3.13.11 Wet ESP Verdict / 164

4.2.3.14 Wire-Plate ESPs / 1654.2.3.15 Wire-Pipe ESPs / 1654.2.3.16 Other ESP Designs / 165

4.2.4 Collection Effi ciency / 1674.2.5 Applicability / 1684.2.6 ESP Performance Models / 168

x CONTENTS

4.2.7 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts of ESPs / 171

4.2.8 References / 173

4.3 WET SCRUBBERS 175

4.3.1 Particle Collection and Penetration Mechanisms / 1754.3.2 Types of Wet Scrubbers / 177

4.3.2.1 Spray Chambers / 1774.3.2.2 Packed-Bed Scrubbers / 1784.3.2.3 Impingement-Plate Scrubbers / 1784.3.2.4 Mechanically Aided Scrubbers (MAS) / 1794.3.2.5 Venturi Scrubbers / 1794.3.2.6 Orifi ce Scrubbers / 1804.3.2.7 Condensation Scrubbers / 1804.3.2.8 Charged Scrubbers / 1814.3.2.9 Fiber-Bed Scrubbers / 181

4.3.3 Collection Effi ciency / 1814.3.4 Applicability / 1824.3.5 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts of

Scrubber Systems / 1834.3.6 References / 184

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY VERIFICATION AND BAGHOUSE FILTRATION PRODUCTS 185

4.4.1 ETV Program Overview / 1854.4.2 Air Pollution Control Center (APCT) / 1884.4.3 BFP / 1894.4.4 Test Apparatus and Procedure / 1904.4.5 BFP Published Verifi cations / 1924.4.6 Environmental, Health, and Regulatory Background / 195

4.4.6.1 Outcomes / 1984.4.6.1.1 Pollutant Reduction Outcomes / 2014.4.6.1.2 Human Health and Environmental

Outcomes / 2024.4.6.1.3 Regulatory Compliance Outcomes / 2034.4.6.1.4 Economic and Financial Outcomes / 2044.4.6.1.5 Scientifi c Advancement Outcomes / 2054.4.6.1.6 Technology Acceptance and Use

Outcomes / 205

CONTENTS xi

Appendix A: Methods for Baghouse Filtration Productions Outcomes / 206

4.4.7 References / 210

4.5 COST CONSIDERATIONS 211

4.5.1 EPA OAQPS Methodology / 2114.5.1.1 Costs of Fabric Filters / 211

4.5.1.1.1 Capital Costs of Fabric Filters / 2124.5.1.1.2 Annual Costs of Fabric Filters / 214

4.5.1.2 Costs of Electrostatic Precipitators / 2144.5.1.2.1 Capital Costs of Electrostatic

Precipitators / 2154.5.1.2.2 Annual Costs of Electrostatic

Precipitators / 2164.5.1.3 Costs of PM Wet Scrubbers / 216

4.5.1.3.1 Capital Costs of Wet Scrubbers / 2164.5.1.3.2 Annual Costs of Wet Scrubbers / 218

4.5.2 Edmisten and Bunyard Cost Analysis Methodology / 2184.5.2.1 Capital Investment / 2184.5.2.2 Maintenance and Operation / 2194.5.2.3 Capital Charges / 2194.5.2.4 Annualized Cost / 2194.5.2.5 Annual Operating Cost for Air Pollution Control

Equipment / 2204.5.2.6 Annual Baghouse Operating Cost / 2204.5.2.7 Baghouse Electrical Costs / 2214.5.2.8 Baghouse Annual Operating Cost / 221

4.5.2.8.1 Example 1Baghouse Costs / 2214.5.2.8.1.1 Input Data / 222

4.5.2.9 Maintenance Cost Input Data / 2224.5.2.10 Annual Operating Costs Calculation / 2244.5.2.11 Total Annualized Cost / 224

4.5.3 Example 2Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) vs. Baghouse / 225

4.5.4 References / 227

5 NANOPARTICULATES 228

5.1 What Is a Nanoparticle? / 2295.2 What Is Nanotechnology? / 230

xii CONTENTS

5.3 What Is Nanotoxicology? / 2315.4 Health Concerns/Issues / 2325.5 Ongoing Research / 2335.6 Current Organizations/Research / 2365.7 Diesel Nanoparticulate Matter / 2385.8 Nanofi lters/Nanotechnology in the Fabric Filter Industry / 2395.9 Additional Research Concerning Nanofi ber Filtration / 2425.10 References / 243

Index 247

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW OF PARTICULATE MATTER ( PM) CONTROL

A particle is defi ned in the Random House College Dictionary , revised edition, as a minute portion, piece, or amount; a very small bit; a particle of dust. 1

Particles of dust and smoke preceded the cave man, fouled his cave, and annoyed, hindered, and harmed his descendants to the present.

This book intends to describe matter composed of particles, to distinguish among types and sizes of particles, to describe their health effects (mostly deleterious), to give methods for measuring their concentrations in gas streams, to discuss methods and costs for removing them from gas streams, and to investigate the confl uence of mankind s generation, use, physical control, and legal requirements regarding particles. Emphasis here is on fi ne particles, which in this book are those less than 2.5 m (particles less than 10 m have also been defi ned as fi ne particles). Sizes larger than fi ne particles are coarse particles, although a specifi c case is defi ned by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in its proposed ambient air standards of December 2005: tho-racic coarse particles, which include only those particles between 2.5 and 10 m (PM 10 - 2.5 ). By defi nition, these particles exclude rural windblown dusts, agricultural dusts, and mining dusts. However, this size fraction disappears from the subsequently promulgated standards of 2006. Inhalable coarse par-ticles seems to be a more widely used term for PM 10 - 2.5 .

A subset of fi ne particles (nanoparticles) has received much attention over the last decade or so. Nanoparticles, those whose diameters are in the nano-

CHAPTER 1

1

Fine Particle (2.5 Microns) Emissions, by John D. McKenna, James H. Turner, and James P. McKennaCopyright 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.