Academic Year 2013/14

Final Year Project

Code-switching (Cantonese – English) in Hong Kong TV

Programs

Student Number: 714538

Project Tutor: Marie McCullagh

April, 2014

University of Portsmouth

BA (HONS) Communication and English Studies

Word Count: 5,416 words

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Declaration

I hereby declare that this Independent Project is substantially my own work

and that all relevant attributions have been made.

XChan Hoi Ching

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Abstract

This paper investigate the relationship between the code-switching used in

daily life and the code-switching appeared in the TV programs in Hong Kong. Bilingual

Cantonese-English code-switching has been a common phenomenon in Hong Kong for

decades. The phenomenon of code-switching in Hong Kong spread very fast that not

just appear in daily conversation, but also in some formal meetings or discussions. One

of the main reasons perhaps because of the influences of the TV programs. Whereas

most of the previous studies have focused on the motivations and patterns of code-

switching in Hong Kong, there is a lack of research on the influences of TV programs

to Hongkongese language attitude. This paper aims to put the light on the motivations

of Hongkongese bilingual code-swithcing and the influences of the TV programs to

Hongkongese language habits in terms of code-switching, through questionnaire to

collect data from local Hong Kong people.

Results showed that the most popular motivations of Hongkongese may use

code-switching to show solidarity, social status and avoid some embarrassments.

Moreover, the influence of TV programs in Hong Kong seems to be greater and greater.

Because of the frequency of code-switching appear in TV programs so high, some of

Hongkongese may has been changed their language habit or re-shaped their language

attitude. Some of them might even follow what the actors said in terms of code-

switching phrases and sentences in TV programs. In addition, this phenomenon seems

to develop another bigger problem that Hongkongese language ability are decreasing,

they seems cannot say a popper Cantonese or English and pure Cantonese or English

in one complete sentences.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Topics Page no. Declaration II Abstract III

1. INTRODUCTION 1 – 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4 - 13 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 Different definition of code-switching 4 - 5

2.3 Motivations 5 - 8 2.3.1 To show solidarity 2.3.2 To show social status 2.3.3 To discuss a topic 2.3.4 To express feelings and affection 2.3.5 To persuade audience

2.4 Code-switching in Hong Kong 8 - 10 2.4.1 Background of language use in Hong Kong 2.4.2 Attitudes towards code-switching in Hong Kong

2.5 Code-switching in TV programs 10 - 12

2.6 Conclusion 12 - 13

3. METHODOLOGY 14

3.1 Introduction 14

3.2 Participants 14

3.3 Data collection procedures 14

3.4 Study design and instruments 14

3.5 Limitation of the study 14

4. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 15-24

4.1 Section 1: Motivations for using code-switching 15 - 18

4.2 Section 2: Influences of TV programs 19 - 22

4.3 Section 3: Basic Information 23

4.4 Conclusion 24

5. CONCLUSION 25 – 27

6. LIST OF REFERENCES 28 – 29

7. APPENDICES - QUESTIONNAIRE 30

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 31 - 32

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Chapter 1 Introduction

In many countries, there are some cities or areas are multilingual society,

which means people living there can speak in two or more language for

communication, including written or spoken language. One of the most famous

multilingual societies is Hong Kong.

“As a natural result of language interaction for over a hundred years, it has become

part of the culture for bilingual Hong Kong people to code-mix English into their daily

Cantonese conversations.” (Yen, 2009)

In Hong Kong, it is very easy and common to hear Cantonese - English code-

switching, from the street of the town, from the markets to the meeting rooms of

company’s office. Hong Kong people, no matter who they are, what they are doing,

where they are and when, they would also like to use code-switching to have

conversation. Some of them think that it can show higher classes than others, some

of them think that it is more convenient to express their meaning. No matter why,

Cantonese- English code-switching is already part of Hong Kong culture.

Although Hong Kong is a multilingual society, Chinese are the major ethnic

group (Luke, 1992; Tsui et al., 1999; So, 2000, P.3-34; Ho and Ho, 2004, P.400-412). In

Hong Kong, extremely large numbers of people speak in Cantonese as the mother

tongue, but English is used by 41.8% of the population, showing the British colony

city’s heritage.

Language Usual language Another language

Cantonese 90.8% 5.7%

English 2.8% 41.8%

Mandarin 0.9% 39.2%

Table 1 Percentage of Hong Kong population aged 5 and above with Cantonese, English or Mandarin as their ‘usual language’ and ‘another language’

Source: Hong Kong 2006 Population By-census Main Report Volume I (2007), Table 3.12, p.44.

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Code-switching is a typical and universally known feature of the spoken

language in Hong Kong, like, “the juxtaposition of passages of speech belonging to two

different grammatical systems or sub-systems, within the same exchange” (Gumperz,

1977, P.1). According to Myers Scotton’s (1993, P.127) Matrix Language-Frame model,

the matrix language can be seen as the mother tongue of the speaker or the

morphemes or words of the language which are more frequently used in speech.

Particularly, in the situation of Hong Kong, Cantonese and English are the main two

grammatical systems. Cantonese act as the ‘matrix language’, and English act as the

‘embedded language’, appearing in the sentences of Cantonese with segments of

English, such as

去 canteen 飲茶

heoi3 canteen jam2 caa4

‘Let’s go to the canteen for lunch’

(Gibbons, 1979, P.114)

This is a very common example for Hong Kong people to use code-switching in

their daily life. In this example, ‘canteen’ as the only one word of the English segment

in this Cantonese sentence, however, it can be an entire clause independently.

Although code-switching is very common in Hong Kong, Hong Kong people have

different opinions on it. Some supporters think that using code-switching is cool,

higher classes and convenient, but some of them against think that it is corrupting the

pure language and its culture; also it is not a correct language to use.

The use of code-switching in Hong Kong become more and more common, not

just using in daily conversation, but also in some formal meetings .One of the reasons

of this phenomenon may because of the influences of the television programs. Apart

from the news, many aspects of television programs use code-switching a lot, such as

soap operas and even some formal ceremonies. Some people may be influenced,

some people may resist. So it is worth to investigate the relationship between the

effect of television programs and motivations of using code-switching.

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Therefore, my research question is “Why do Hong Kong people use code-

switching in daily life and how is code-switching in TV programs related to code-

switching in daily conversation?”

In this research, four chapters will be divided. In Chapter 2, some previous

research will be looked at on the definitions of code-switching, motivations of using it,

and also the situation of code-switching in Hong Kong and the in the Hong Kong TV

programs. In Chapter 3, methodology of my research will be described. In Chapter 4,

the data collected in the questionnaires will be analysed, and use some chart, figures,

and tables to show the result clearly. After that, the result will be discussed. In Chapter

5, a conclusion of whole project will be drawn including literature review,

methodology and data and analysis. Furthermore, the questionnaire will be shown in

the Chapter 7 appendices.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

There are already many studies about the code-switching, however, it will

change as time goes by and the society development, so, the code-switching is still

keep on growing and changing in many various places. Depends on places, people and

medias, code-switching have different explanation, reasons of usage and spreading

ways. Some of them may similar; some of them may totally different. So, the aim of

this literature review is going to investigate the differences of code-switching in very

general view and then comparing with the more specific view of Hong Kong, which is

a well-known bilingual city, in terms of definition and motivations. Beside, this

literature review is going to find out the effect of code-switching in TV generally and

the TV programs in Hong Kong.

This literature review will first look at different definition of code-switching

suggested by some sociolinguists and linguists, and the motivations of using code-

switching. Then, this literature review will be more specific to look at the code-

switching development in Hong Kong. Because of the topic is investigating the effects

of spreading code-switching through television, so this literature review will also look

at the books and research papers which are talking about both the code-switching in

TV and the situation of code-switching in Hong Kong TV programs.

2.2 Different definition of code-switching

In general, Code-switching means a speaker changes from one code to another

code intentionally or unintentionally. There are many different ways to change,

including from one style to another, one dialect to another or one language to another,

due to lots of various motivations and reasons, which will discuss about in the later

part.

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From Sociolinguists point of view, if a bilingual teacher is using two different

code and shifting both codes in utterances to try to elaborate or explain some main

points to student, this can be definite as code-switching. However, Joan Swann and

Indra Sinka point out that, “definitions of code-switching vary” (Swann & Sinka, 2007,

P.242). So, in the following part, this literature review will introduce several definitions

which were made by different sociolinguists.

The famous linguist, John J. Gumperz, defines “code-switching” in his book

Discourse Strategy as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages

of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems, within the

same exchange” (Gumperz, 2012) which mentioned in the introduction of this project.

Moreover, he added “as when a speaker uses a second language either to reiterate

his message or to reply to someone else's statement” (Gumperz, 2012).

One well-known sociolinguist, Kathryn Woolard, made another definition of

code-switching as “the investigation of an individual’s use of two or more language

varieties in the same speech event or exchange” (Woolard, 2004, P.73). In this

definition, it is talking about code-switching occurs within the same single utterance,

which is slightly different with the Gumperz’s one.

Another famous sociolinguist, Janet Holmes, has another point of view of code-

switching in terms of lexical borrowing. “The results of lack of a lexical term in the

speaker’s repertoire while in code-switching” (Holmes, 2013, P.34). In addition, as

Holmes says, “speakers have a genuine choice about which words or phrases they will

use in which language” (Holmes, 2013, P.34). It means that a speaker shift codes freely

by changing plenty of lexical words and phrases in various environment and for various

motivations or reasons.

2.3 Motivations

This part will discuss the motivations of why people switch codes. Speakers

may switch codes because of five major reasons, which are “to show solidarity with a

social or ethnic group”,” to show social status in a community”,” to discuss a specific

topic”, “to express affections and feelings”, and “to persuade and impress the

audience” (Rihane, 2012, P.5).

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2.3.1 To show solidarity

In the book Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Janet Holmes mentions that “a

speaker may switch to another language as a signal of group membership and shared

ethnicity within an addressee” (Holmes, 2013, P.45). Code-switching can be used to

show solidarity when talking with people from different or same social or ethnic

groups. A very good example provided by Roger Hewitt to explain this motivation as

two young boys talking with the same Jamaican Creole, who from two different

ethnicities.

White boy: Oh, Royston, ya goin' football on Saturday?

Black boy: Mi na go football! Who for?

White boy: Check some gyal later.

Black boy: Na. Mi na wan check gyal now.

White boy: Rassclaht! Fink ya bent

(Hewitt, 1986)

According to Maybin says, “Cut through the barrier between the local black

and white communities; to establish solidarity” (Maybin, 2002, P.26). That’s the

reason why the white boy would like to use the Creole of the black Jamaican boy in

this example.

2.3.2 To show social status

In our daily life, speakers would like to imply their social classes or social status

by using different codes in a single utterance, like Shabt’s point “Other reasons that

have been found to motivate CS are to sound elitist or classy” (Shabt, 2007). Moreover,

Professor Peter Auer, the author of the book Code-Switching in Conversation:

Language, Interaction and Identity mentions that “Code-switching carries a hidden

prestige which is made explicit by attitudes” (Auer, 2002). On the other hand, Dr Hayat

Al Khatib conducted a research in 2003 and points out that the speakers would like to

use code-switching to “show power over the less powerful” (Al-Khatib, 2003, P.409).

As Yasir Suleiman says that, “the phenomenon of CS is very common and is looked

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upon as something prestigious and a sign of education and competence in more than

one language” (Suleiman, 1999). In order that, based on the above research and

literature, a summary can be made that code-switching is related to the social status

or classes, which people would like to use code-switching to reflect one’s social status

or classes. People can use two or more codes competently imply that they are well-

educated, so, it is another way to distinguish oneself to the others.

2.3.3 To discuss a topic

For bilingual speakers, topic seems to be another serious motivation to use

code-switching. When Janet Holmes talks about the topic of code-switching, she

mentions that “people may switch code within a speech event to discuss a particular

topic” (Holmes, 2013, P.46). Clearly, this shows that speakers may tend to speak in at

least two languages in one same utterance in some specific topics.

“Taboo words and topics are often codes-witched so as to avoid to be

expressed in the speaker’s native language” (Leung, 2006). There is a good example

from the Lebanese society. In the Lebanese society, it is easier to discuss emotional

and sexual topics in a language that is totally different with the native Arabic language,

for example, English or French. For Lebanese, these kind of topics are labelled as

“taboos”, it makes them feel more relax and comfortable to talk about these “taboos”

with a totally different language with their community’s one.

Another good study is made by Hamdan G. Al Shalawi from Arizona State

University and Khalid M. Abalhassan from the University of Indiana. They asked one

question to twelve bilingual Saudi student which is “why did you code-switch to

English language?” Although the answers from those twelve students are different,

but Abalhassan and Shalawi state that one student’s answer get their attention, the

student said “I can’t say taboo words in Arabic” (Abalhassan & Al Shalawi, 2000, P.180).

2.3.4 To express feelings and affection

Sometimes, speakers use code-switching to express some feelings or point of

views, such as gladness, nervous, sadness, irritation and many other affections. “A

language switch is often used to express disapproval” Janet Holmes says. In other that,

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a person may switch code to express their anger. She gives a good case study to

discuss about expressing feelings by code-switching.

In the town of Oberwart two little Hungarian-speaking children were playing in the

woodshed and knocked over a carefully stacked pile of firewood. Their grandfather

walked in and said in Hungarian.

“Szo! ide dzuni! jeszt jeramunyi mind e kettutoko, no hat akkor!”

[Well Come Here! Put All This Away, Both of You, Well Now.]

When they did not respond quickly enough he switched to German:

“Kum her!”

[Come Here]

(Holmes, 2013, P.48)

In this case, the Grandfather use more than one languages, which are

Hungarian and German. He switched from Hungarian to German to express his angry

and straight attitudes towards the children’s behaviour.

2.3.5 To persuade audience

Janet Holmes mentions the term “metaphorical switching” in her book and

defines it as “code-switching for rhetorical reasons” (Holmes, 2013, P.50). For getting

attraction or persuading audiences, speaker’s speech or rhetoric may use code-

switching to achieve these purposes. Adina Nerghes agrees that code-switching has

the power to draw the audience’s attention and make the speech become more

persuasive by saying “code-switching will draw the participant's attention and will

enhance their motivation to carefully scrutinize the message presented” (Nerghes,

2011).

In rhetoric and persuasion, speakers using code-switching seems easier to

achieve their goal, and to persuade their audience via drawing audience’s attention.

Also, as mentioned before, in section 2.3.2, code-switching reflecting a higher social

class, which can also make the speeches or the speakers seems like more reliable and

believable. All these findings are matched to the conclusion that Nerghes makes in her

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study that “code-switching is an effective strategy that leads to systematic processing

of information especially when associated with strong arguments” (Nerghes, 2011).

2.4 Code-switching in Hong Kong

2.4.1 Background of language use in Hong Kong

According to the history, Hong Kong has been governed by Britain as a colonial

port for a century. Under the British government, English become Hong Kong official

language. This policy made a large number of Hong Kong people start to learn English,

for working or studying purpose. Although most of Hong Kong people speak in

Cantonese, which is their mother language, English is widely spoken among Hong Kong

people.

Base on this special background, the schools in Hong Kong prefer to use

English-medium education in the classes for developing student a good English

standard. Li, as a famous linguist in Hong Kong, he studied about the effect of using

code-switching inside and outside the classroom and its reasons. In this case, he states

that “Thanks to the nine-year compulsory education policy since 1978, Chinese

Hongkongers have developed basic literacy skills in English. When conversing with one

another in Cantonese, therefore, English is a useful additional linguistics resource for

meaning-making.” (Li, 2012 P.83)

As said before, Hong Kong people even feel difficult to use pure Cantonese to

express feeling. This time, Li comments on this by saying that “One important factor

is the ‘medium-of learning effect’” (Li, 2012, P.1), which means using code-switching

in the classes is the main reason why switching code is so hard to avoid.

However, not every student can understand the English content at all. So,

some bilingual teachers start to use some Cantonese to explain to Hong Kong students

for a better understanding. Li points out that there are three main situations to use

code-switching, they are “(a) help clarify difficult concept; (b) help introduce or

consolidate students’ bilingual lexicon; (c) help build rapport by reducing social

distance” (Li, 2012, P.84)

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In the end of Li’s study, he refer to many studies made by other linguists to

sum up that using code-switching in classroom have pedagogical merits, “Used

judiciously in classroom settings, switching to English in the middle of Cantonese

instruction, or switching to Cantonese while teaching in English may potentially have

pedagogical merits” (Li, 2012, P.84)

2.4.2 Attitudes towards code-switching in Hong Kong

As stated in the introduction, code-switching can be found in everywhere in

Hong Kong, from the street to the classroom, from youth to elderly, from daily

conversation to advertisements. Some of the Hong Kong people even found that it is

hard to express some specific terms or phrases in Cantonese. This situation even

surprising some linguistics professors from western countries, Ingrid Piller is one of

them. In 2012, she watched a film called Multilingual Hong Kong and she found out

the real situation. She mentions that “All too soon it becomes clear to the viewer that

the interviewees have a hard time using ‘pure’ Cantonese, i.e. saying the

sentence without resorting to English loanwords for ‘present’ and, particularly,

‘project.’” (Piller, 2012)

Although most of Hong Kong people don’t think Cantonese-English code-

switching is a good use of language, they still can’t change their habit to switch code

in their conversation. She adds that “However, when asked what they think of code-

switching a fair number of them say that it’s bad, that it’s a sign of laziness, that it’s

disgusting or that it’s a sign that a person cannot speak proper Cantonese nor proper

English.” (Piller, 2012)

Moreover, she also gives some examples from the film which proves code-

switching can show the solidarity and expression of feeling, to support the literature

review in the motivation part. She says “Other interviewees, however, celebrate their

code-switching and code-mixing and say it’s an expression of their Hong Kong identity.

One interviewee even says that mixing Cantonese and English increases her levels of

happiness!” (Piller, 2012)

One of the interviewees sums up code-switching as “mixing Cantonese and

English is like wearing jade jewellery with foreign clothes” (Piller, 2012) It means that

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Hong Kong people think that it is a higher class behaviour of using code-switching,

which can respond to show social status that discussed in the motivation part.

2.5 Code-switching in TV programs

As we all know, mass media always representing the social life of the society,

especially in the drama of the television.

Mao-chin Chiu, who come from Taiwan and have a study on the code-switching

and identity constructions in Taiwan TV commercials.

To the influence of mass media, she claims that “Mass media is a mirror of

society, and language codes used by protagonists representing distinct social classes

can be associated with language attitude held by different classes in the real speech

community.” (Chiu, 2012, P.28)

Mass media not only representing the real life in the community, it may also

influence or even re-shapes the attitudes of the audiences, including their habits,

behaviours and the use of languages. She mentions that “Codes used by stereotypical

Elite (a class of persons or a member of such a group, enjoying superior intellectual,

social, or economic status) and Non-Elite (common, ordinary images) might further

influence and even re-shape the audience’s language attitude.” (Chiu, 2012, P.28) This

conclusion matches the motivation of suggested by Rihane which can persuade

audience by code-switching in mass media.

However, Chiu and Rihane’s researches are too general and not specific

enough to the Hong Kong’s TV programs situation, but John Lee’s research do. Lee is

a professor comes from City University of Hong Kong, he did a research in 2012 of

investigating “the motivations behind the use of mixed code, on the basis of a large

dataset of speech transcribed from television programs broadcast in Hong Kong within

the last four years by Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB)” (Lee, 2012, P.165), the

programs are two drama series, three current-affairs shows, a news program, and a

talk show.

In his research, he points out that there are four main motivations shown in

the TV programs to use code-switching, but not pure Cantonese or English “A key

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finding is that four main motivations –‘register’, ‘personal name’, ‘principle of

economy’, and ‘specificity’ --- account for more than 95% of the embedded English

segments.” (Lee, 2012, P.167)

Register means that the speaker cannot find any equal ‘low Cantonese’ word,

but feel strange to use ‘high Cantonese’ word like 派對paai1 deoi3 (party), so s/he will

use the English term instead. Lee gives an example of this:

開始喇我地個 party

hoi1 ci2 laa1 ngo5 dei6 go3 party

‘Our party is starting’

(Lee, 2012, P.167)

Then, personal name means Hong Kong people like to call someone’s English

name instead of Chinese name, because it seems friendly and to show a closer

relationship. Lee gives an example:

Teresa, 我地整得靚唔靚?

Teresa ngo5 dei6 zing2 dak1 leng3 m4 leng3

‘Teresa, did we make it nicely?’

(Lee, 2012, P.167)

Moreover, principle of economy means the equivalent English terms or words

are shorter or easier to use than Cantonese/Chinese. The example he provides is the

world ‘check-in’ (two syllables) compare to its Cantonese equivalent 辨理入境手續

baan6 lei5 dang1 gei1 sau2 zuk6 (six syllables).

你 check-in 左未呀?

nei5 check-in zo2 mei6 aa3

‘Have you checked in already?’

(Lee, 2012, P.166)

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Finally, specificity means using a more general or specific expression of English

instead of low or high Cantonese. For example, the words ‘book’ means “to make a

reservation for which no money or deposit is required” (Lee, 2012, P.166).

我想 book 三點。

ngo5 soeng2 book saam1 dim2

‘I want to book 3 o’clock’

(Lee, 2012, P.166)

By comparing the motivations of using code-switching suggested by Rihane

and Lee, some of them are similar, but some of them are not. For example, Rihane

suggests that people will use code-switching because of the topic, which is similar to

Lee’s register. It is because Rihane’s one is more general world-wide motivation, but

Lee’s one is more specific to Hong Kong people habits.

2.6 Conclusion

In conclusion, there are many different definitions made by different

sociolinguists with the flow of time, however, this project will follow the Janet Holmes’

definition because it is the most updated. Moreover, according to Rihane, motivations

can be concluded by five major reasons, they are “to show solidarity with a social or

ethnic group”,” to show social status in a community”,” to discuss a specific topic”, “to

express affections and feelings”, and “to persuade and impress the audience”. But it

is too general to the topic area, which is “Hong Kong TV programs”, so John Lee’s

motivations will be mainly considered, which are ‘register’, ‘personal name’, ‘principle

of economy’, and ‘specificity’. In addition, based on Professor Chiu saying, the mass

media like TV programs, are powerful that can “re-shape” the audiences attitude,

including the language habits, to support the TV programs may influence the audience.

Also, the literature review talked about the language background of Hong Kong and

how Hong Kong becomes a bilingual society at the end.

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Chapter 3 Methodology 3.1 Introduction

As mentioned in the literature review, the motivations of using code-switching are

slightly different in various cities. So, this questionnaire will focus on the motivations of code-

switching in Hong Kong. Moreover, as Professor Chiu said that, the mass media can influences

the audiences, so the influences of Hong Kong TV programs will be another focus point in this

research, which is more specific to Hong Kong situation rather than global situation.

3.2 Participants

To be more objective, in this research, 20 participants who come from Hong Kong are randomly selected in the internet to participate.

3.3 Data collection procedures

The researcher obtained verbal approval from the participants. The questionnaire

administer to the participants after a brief introduction. The whole data collection was

completed online. The complete survey is provided in Appendix.

3.4 Study design and instruments

The questionnaire separate in three parts. The first part is asking about the

motivations of using code-switching, the questions are based on the factors suggested by

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Rihane. It is because this study wants to investigate Honkongese motivations of using code-

switching in an objective way, so it is better to use a general standard rather than a local

standard suggested by Lee. The second part of the questionnaires is investigating the

influences of Hong Kong TV programs. However, there are no references can be refer to set

the questions, so the questions are mainly based on my own experiences. The third part will

be the interviewees’ basic information for reference.

3.5 Limitation of the study

The sample size of the study is small, which is limited to only twenty people. This study

limits the degree of generalization, which the results of the study may suit the target place

only, Hong Kong. Moreover, since the theme of the research limits to the English – Cantonese

code-switching, so some other codes are not suitable like Putonghua - Cantonese code-

switching.

Chapter 4 Data analysis and discussion

Professor Chiu has said that the media can re-shape the audiences’ attitudes

toward language. (Chiu, 2012, P.28) Therefore, this survey is going to explore the

influence of code-switching in TV programs on code-switching in Hongkongese daily

conversation. In this survey, 20 Hongkongese participated and completed the

questionnaire. The results will be shown below.

4.1 Section 1: Motivations for using code-switching

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Figure 4.1 The relationship between code-switching, social status and solidarity

As the figure 4.1 shows, all interviewees tend to use code-switching to chat

with friends. 75% of interviewees generally use code-switching to talk to their parents.

The percentage of those using code-switching to talk to Relatives and the elderly is

much lower than those who will code-switch when talking with “Friends” and

“Parents”. 70% of interviewees usually do not use code-switching with relatives and

90% of interviewees usually do not use code-switching when talking with the elderly.

There is a slight difference of 20% in “Others”.

The results show that Hongkongese prefer to use code-switching with friends

and their parents, but not relatives and the elderlies. As the interviewees said, friends

are in the same class with them, so it is a relaxed atmosphere in which to use code-

switching. Also, they think that using code-switching is a mark of group membership.

As regards Parents, most of interviewees think that it is acceptable to use code-

switching because they have a close and good relationship. However, the rest of the

interviewees thought that it is impolite to use code-switching to talk to parents

because of the difference in social status. This is the same reason, which interviewees

did not like to use code-switching to talk with relatives. As regards the elderly, respect

and politeness are two of interviewees considerations, the third being education level.

Interviewees think most of the elderly people in Hong Kong don’t understand English.

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

Friends Parents Relatives Elderlies Others (liketeachers,

colleagues andmanager)

100%

75%

30%

10%

60%

0%

15%

70%

90%

40%

Q.1 WHO YOU TALK TO WILL USE CODE-SWITCHING?

Yes No

XXI | P a g e

As well at this, interviewees think that using pure Cantonese to talk with the elderly

can show that they are part of the same language group, which can make the elderly

feel more comfortable. For the others, interviewees give some examples like teachers

and colleagues, whom they will use code-switching to talk to because they have a good,

friendly relationship. However, they will not use it when talking to managers, because

they have a higher social status.

To sum up, these results demonstrate how the use of code-switching is related

to solidarity, social status and level of education. From my point of view, interviewees

use code-switching with their friends because they are in the same “membership

group” (Holmes, 2013, P.45) and have the “same social class” (Shabt, 2007). However,

they will not use it when talking with relatives and the elderly perhaps because

relatives and the elderly often use pure Cantonese, and so they have to use pure

Cantonese to demonstrate a “shared ethnicity within an addressee” (Holmes, 2013,

P.45). And also, relatives and elderlies have a higher social class. The results also show

that the relationship between speakers and audiences and also the “education level”

(Suleiman, 1999) are of consideration when using code-switching.

Figure 4.2 The function of using code-switching

In figure 4.2, 80% of interviewees expressed a preference for using code-

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Q.2 Talking taboos Q.3 Express feelings Q.4 Persuade someone

80%

40%

15%20%

60%

85%

Q.2 - 4 WHEN WILL YOU USE CODE-SWITCHING WHEN YOU ARE.... . .

Yes No

XXII | P a g e

switching to talk about societal taboos. It is also a big trend for interviewees (85%) to

refuse to use code-switching when they want to persuade someone. Also, when

interviewees want to express their feelings, they prefer to use pure Cantonese,

although those using code-switching is slightly higher at 20%.

80% of interviewees think that using some English terms to talk about taboos

can make the conversation more relaxed and comfortable. When using pure

Cantonese, to discuss taboos they can feel uncomfortable and embarrassed. Though

there are huge differences between using code-switching and pure Cantonese,

supporters of Cantonese think that it is just the psychological effects of using code-

switching to be less embarrassed. These results are reinforced by Leung, who

expressed the view, that code-switching can often be used to avoid embarrassment

(Leung, 2006).

However, it is not the same situation with question 3, which is a half-half score.

40% interviewees think that code-switching is already part of their habitual language

use, so they use code-switching very naturally, but do not purposefully use code-

switching to express their emotions. For the rest 60% of interviewees think that it is

easier to express their emotion and feelings by using their mother language, which is

Cantonese. In this case, this is slightly different than Holmes’ example.

As mentioned in the literature review, Holmes states that code-switching has

rhetorical function to persuade someone (Holmes, 2013, P.50). In contrast, it is not

the same case this time. Interviewees think that using pure Cantonese to persuade

someone is easier because this is their mother language, which they are more familiar

with. Only 15% interviewees say that they feel more comfortable to switch code when

persuading someone.

In conclusion, the results show that Hongkongese usually use code-switching

to avoid embarrassment when talking about societal taboos, but not to express

feelings or persuade someone. In my opinion, it might be because English represents

western thought, which is more open than Chinese thought represented through the

use of Cantonese. However, Cantonese is Hongkongese mother language, so it is more

convenient and easier to use Cantonese to express feelings and engage in persuasion.

XXIII | P a g e

4.2 Section 2: Influences of TV programs

Figure 4.3 The frequency of code-switching appear in the TV programs

According to the figure 4.3, the majority of Hongkongese think that the

frequency of code-switching in the TV programs in Hong Kong is “acceptable” (80%),

whereas 20% believed that code-switching was used “too much.

80%

20%

Q.5 Do you think code-switching in the TV programs in Hong Kong are too often?

Acceptable

Too much

XXIV | P a g e

Base on the information provided from the interviewees who think it is

acceptable, the language used in on-screen conversations is similar to daily

conversation, the interviewees expressed the view that the frequency of code-

switching reliably represented every day conversation. A small group of Hongkongese

thinks that code-switching is too commonly used on-screen, because, they believe,

the language ability of children and teenagers may be influenced by these TV

programs.

In conclusion, in my point of view, this result matches Professor Chiu saying

that the mass media is like a “mirror of society” (Chiu, 2012, P.28), Hongkongese use

code-switching in daily conversation, so they think that it is normal to hear code-

switching in TV programs. However, the small group of interviewees’ worry is

reasonable. As Piller has found that the average Hongkongese find it difficult to speak

in pure Cantonese (Piller, 2012), and so code-switching represents a down grading of

Cantonese language ability.

Figure 4.4 The interruption of code-switching in TV programs

In question 6, all interviewees think that the Code-switching will not interrupt their

understanding of the programs.

Why? It is because code-switching is already habitually used. Interviewees

stated that they started to learn English when they were studying kindergarten, and

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0

100%

Q.6 DO YOU THINK CODE-SWITCHING IN THE TV PROGRAMS IN HONG KONG WILL

INTERRUPT YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE PROGRAMS?

Yes No

XXV | P a g e

then keep learning English in secondary and also tertiary school, they have achieved

good ability in English, so it is not a problem to understand the English in TV programs,

even though it is commonly a mix of English and Cantonese.

In my opinion, this situation may be explained by Li’s research, “nine-year

compulsory education policy” (Li, 2012 P.83) and the “medium-of learning effect” (Li,

2012, P.1) has developed a very good English base for many Hongkongese.

Figure 4.5 The influences of media and TV programs

In question 7, 80% of interviewees stated they use code-switching similarly to

the way actors on television often do and 20% of interviewees will not. Those 80% of

people said that they are not following those actors on purpose, but do so

unintentionally. The rest of interviewees think that this is childish behavior.

In my point of view, these results may show the increasing power of media and

the influence of TV programs, which can “re-shape audiences’ language attitude”

(Chiu, 2012, P.28).

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%80%

20%

Q.7 DO YOU USE CODE-SWITCHING IN YOUR DAILY CONVERSATION L IKETHE ACTORS DO?

Yes

No

XXVI | P a g e

Figure 4.6 Hongkongese attitudes towards code-switching in TV programs

How about Hongkongese attitude towards code-switching? Figure 4.6 shows

that more than half of people think it is neutral. However, there is an interesting

finding that although many Hongkongese use code-switching in daily life, they think it

is a negative development. The interviewees’ reasons are the same as those given by

Piller’s research.

Those who think it is negative said that using code-switching may affect their

writing skills in both Chinese and English. In my opinion, it is a sign of lower language

ability, implying that they “cannot speak in either proper Cantonese or English” (Piller,

2012).

Sometimes, using code-switching is “act like” cool but not really cool at all, like

Piller’s research states that “mixing Cantonese and English is like wearing jade

jewellery with foreign clothes” (Piller, 2012).

10%

60%

30%

Q.8 What do you think about code-switching in TV programs?

Positive Neutral Negative

XXVII | P a g e

4.3 Section 3: Basic Information

Demographic Profile Variable Frequency Percentage

Age 16-25 11 55%

26-40 4 20%

41-55 3 15%

56 or above 2 10%

Total 20 100%

Education Level Tertiary 12 60%

Secondary 5 25%

Primary 2 10%

No school 1 5%

Total 20 100%

Mother language Chinese 20 100%

English 0 0%

Total 20 100%

Second language Chinese 0 0%

English 20 100%

Total 0 100%

Table 4.1 Demographic profiles of respondents

In this research, most of the respondents fall into the age group of 16-25 (55%)

followed by three small portions making up the total number of respondents, 20% of

age group 26-40, 15% of age group 41-55 and 10% of age group 56 or above. For the

education level, 60% interviewees are tertiary level, 25% are secondary level. Only

10% and 5% are primary level and no school. All of the interviewees’ mother language

is Cantonese and their second language is English.

The table above shows that the main respondents are 16-25 teenagers, who

have a tertiary education level and speak Cantonese as mother language and English

as a second language.

XXVIII | P a g e

4.4 Conclusion

Based on the data collected from the survey in part one, Hongkongese

motivations for using code-switching in daily life were usually used to show solidarity

and social status, to discuss specific topics like taboos, and sometimes to express

feelings. However, they do not use it to persuade someone.

Part two found that Hongkongese think that the frequency of code-switching

that appears in TV programs is acceptable and their understanding of those TV

programs is not affected by code-switching. But, when using code-switching,

Hongkongese people only usually emulate actors unintentionally. Most Hongkongese

seems to feel neutrally towards code-switching in TV programs, but by contrast, the

percentage of those who view it negatively is higher than those who view it positively.

From my point of view, Hongkongese seem to be greatly influenced by the TV

programs that use code-switching. This can be explained by professor Chiu who stated

that these TV programs may “re-shape the audience’s language attitude.” (Chiu, 2012,

P.28)

Although Hongkongese tend to use code-switching in their daily life, and

generally feel it is neutral, the percentage of those who view it negatively is higher

than those who feel positively about code-switching. This shows that many

Hongkongese have recognised the problems associated with excessive code-switching,

which can result in down graded language ability. As Piller states, Hongkongese often

view code-switching as though “it’s a sign of laziness, that it’s disgusting or that it’s a

sign that a person cannot speak proper Cantonese nor proper English.” (Piller, 2012)

The conclusion tends to be made that TV programs influence Hongkongese

language habits greatly, and may even re-shape the Hongkongese attitude towards

language. An example of this would be the increasing prevalence of daily language

habits derived from on-screen language usage. Although Hongkongese feel neutrally

towards code-switching, some think that the problems associated with code-switching

are increasing, the most serious of these being the overall decrease in language ability.

XXIX | P a g e

Chapter 5 Conclusion Hong Kong is a world known bilingual or even trilingual city.

Although Hongkong's mother language is Cantonese, it is still very

common to hear many English terms embedded within the Cantonese

sentences in daily conversation. According to Holmes’ definition, this

phenomenon is called “code-switching”. Code-switching has been a very

popular linguistics topic for many years, but the focus in Hong Kong is just

Hongkongese motivations and patterns to speak in code-switching only,

but not related to the media. But in the case of Hong Kong that, media is

one of the reasons code-switching has spread so fast in Hong Kong

obviously. With the increasing power and influence of media in Hong Kong,

it is important to investigate the significance of the relationship between

code-switching and media, especially TV programs. TV programs are the

most easily accessible entertainment in Hong Kong and can reach a large

audience - no matter the age, the occupation or the social status, the vast

majority of Hongkongese watch TV. This study aims to investigate the

relationship between code-switching in TV programs and code-switching

in Hongkongese daily conversation.

According to the survey in Chapter 4, Hongkongese are generally

motivated to use code-switching for several reasons Rihane suggests that

these motivations include; wanting to display membership of an ethnic

group, to distinguish social status and to avoid embarrassment through

using certain English terminology. However, in contrast to Rihane's

suggestions, Hongkongese prefer to use pure Cantonese when expressing

XXX | P a g e

emotion or when taking part in negotiation or attempting to persuade

others.

Motivation Use of language Reasons Example

To show solidarity 1. Code-switching to

friends, parents and

teachers

2. Pure Cantonese to

relatives, elderlies and

managers

1. To show the Close

relationship with

audiences

2. Represent they are in

the same membership

我一陣要去canteen食晏。

(I will have lunch at canteen

later)

To show social

status

1. Code-switching to

Friends, Parents and

teachers

2. Pure Cantonese to

relatives, elderlies and

managers

To distinguish the different

social statues

我地聽日會去Disneyland玩

呀。

(We are going to Disneyland

tomorrow.)

To discuss a topic Code-switching To avoid embarrassments 我覺得sex係中國人的禁

忌。

(I think sex is the taboo of

Chinese people.)

To express

feelings and

affection

Cantonese More easy to express their

feelings

Shut up! 你企出去班房。

(Shut up! You stand out of

the classroom.)

To persuade Cantonese More easy to understand 希望你會buy我個idea.

XXXI | P a g e

It is interesting to note that even though Hongkongese generally

feel code switching is a poor language habit they are unable to stop using

it. This is demonstrated by Piller's research in 2012.

Table 5.1 Sum up the motivation of Hongkongese to use code-switching

In conclusion, “the media is like a mirror” (Chiu, 2012, P.28) which

reflects the real situation in Hong Kong. On the one hand, code-switching

commonly appears in TV programs because Hongkongese use code-

switching very often in daily life. On the other hand, the influence of

media is huge, and can itself change Hongkongese language habits, as the

audiences are influenced to use code-switching more regularly in

emulation of the actors on screen. As Chiu said in her research, the mass

media “might further influence and even re-shape the audience’s

language attitude.” (Chiu, 2012, P.28), and this is what Hong Kong people

are facing. Therefore, the relationship between code-switching in TV

programs and code-switching in Hongkongese daily conversation is

cyclical in nature- even though Hongkongese think this is a negative

development, they cannot stop using it in their daily life because code-

switching is already part of their life. Also, the media continuously

promotes code-switching in many ways, including TV programs, thereby

influencing the language habits of the people of Hong Kong. This

demonstrates the inter-related nature of Hongkongese code-switching.

audience (Hope you will buy my

idea.)

TV programs - reflect the real situation of Hong

Kong

XXXII | P a g e

Reference List 1. Abalhassan, K. M., & Al Shalawi, H. G. (2000). Code-switching Behavior of Arab

Speakers of English as a Second Language in the United States*. Intercultural Communication Studies, X(1), 179-188.

2. Al-Khatib, H. (2003). Language Alternation among Arabic and English Youth Bilinguals: Reflecting or Constructing Social Realities? International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, VI(6), 409-422. Retrieved December 25, 2012

3. Auer, P. (2002). Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity. London: Rouledge.

4. Brice, A. & Brice, R. (2009). (Ed.s). Language development: Monolingual and bilingual acquisition. Old Tappan, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

5. D. C. S. Li, Cantonese-English code-switching research in Hong Kong: a Y2K review, in World Englishes 19(3), 2000, pp.305—322.

6. Das, Sonia (2011). Rewriting the past and reimagining the future: The social life of a Tamil heritage language industry. American Ethnologist 38 (4): 774–789.

7. Gumperz, J. J. (1987). Discourse Strategy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved December 14, 2012

8. Goldstein, B.; Kohnert, K. (2005). Speech, language and hearing in developing bilingual children: Current findings and future directions. Language, Speech and Hearing services in Schools 36 (3): 264–67. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2005/026).

9. H. Cao, Development of a Cantonese-English code-mixing speech recognition system, PhD dissertation, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011.

10. Hok Shing C. (2003).Aspect of the Syntax,the Pragmatics,and the Production of Code-Switching: New York. Peter Lang Publishing.

11. Holmes, J. (2012). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (6th ed.). Wellington: Longman. 12. Li Wei, ed. (2000). The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge.

XXXIII | P a g e

13. Lee. J, (2012). A Corpus-based Analysis of Mixed Code in Hong Kong Speech. 2012 International Conference on Asian Language Processing,pp. 165-168. Retrieved March 18, 2013, from http://www2.ctl.cityu.edu.hk/~jsylee/publications/ialp2012.pdf

14. Leung, C. (2006). Code switching in print advertisements in Hong Kong and Sweden. MA Thesis, Lunds Universitet, Linguistics and Phonetics.

15. McArthur, T.B., & McArthur, R. (Eds.).(2005). Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.mx/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT363& dq=intra+word+switching&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VaVGUaylPMediAfMv4HoBw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQConcise#v=onepage&q&f=false

16. Myers-Scotton , C. (2006). Multiple voices: an introduction to Bilingualism, Blackwell 17. McClure, Erica (2001). Oral and Written Assyrian-English Code-switching. In Rodolfo

Jacobson. Code switching Worldwide II. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001. Page 166. Print.

18. MacSwan, Jeff (2000). The architecture of the bilingual language faculty: Evidence from code switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 3 (1): 37–54.

19. MacSwan, Jeff (2013). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In T. Bhatia and W. Ritchie. Handbook of Multilingualism (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell.

20. Shabt, P. C. (2007). The Relationship Between Gender and Types of Code-Switching Among Lebanese Youth. Beirut: American University of Beirut.

21. Suleiman, Y. (1999). Language and society in the Middle East and North Africa: Studies in variation and identity. UK: Curzon Press.

22. Swann, J., & Sinka, I. (2007). Style Shifting, Codeswitching. In D. Graddol, D. Leith, J. Swann, M. Rhys, & J. Gillen (Eds.), Changing English (p. 242). Abingdon: Routledge.

23. Torres, Lourdes (2007). In the Contact Zone: Code-Switching Strategies by Latino/a Writers. Melus 32 (1): 75–96.

24. Woolard, Kathryn (2004). Codeswitching. In A. Duranti. A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 73–94.

XXXIV | P a g e

Chapter 7 Appendices - Questionnaire University of Portsmouth

We are pleasant to inform you that we are doing a research of motivations of code-switching and the influences of code-switching in TV programs under the linguistic analysis course. All data collected will be used under academic aspect and disposed after the assignment.

Section 1: Motivations of using code-switching 1) Who you talk to will use code-switching?For

example, friends/parents/relatives/elderly? Why?

2) Will you use code-switching when you are talking about some taboos like emotional or sexual topics (or any others)? Why?

Yes/ No

3) Will you use code-switching when you are as gladness, nervous, sadness or irritation (or any others)? Why?

Yes/ No

4) Will you use code-switching when you want to persuade someone? Why?

Yes/ No

Section 2: Influences of TV programs 5) Do you think code-switching in the TV programs in

Hong Kong are too often? Why? Acceptable / Too much

6) Do you think code-switching in the TV programs in Hong Kong will interrupt your understanding of the programs? Why?

Yes/ No

7) Do you use code-switching in your conversation like the actors do? Why?

Yes/ No

XXXV | P a g e

Can you give some examples? 8) What do you think about code-switching in TV

programs? Why? Positive/ Neutral / Negative

Section 3: Basic Information 9) Age: 16-25 25-40 40-55 above 55 10) Education level: Primary / Secondary / Tertiary Education 11) Mother language: Cantonese/English/Others: ____________ 12) Second language: Cantonese/English/Others: ____________

Please circle the appreciate choice and write your answer clearly.

We would like to express grateful for you generous help again.

Chapter 8 Bibliography 1. Abalhassan, K. M., & Al Shalawi, H. G. (2000). Code-switching Behavior of Arab

Speakers of English as a Second Language in the United States*. Intercultural Communication Studies, X(1), 179-188.

2. Al-Khatib, H. (2003). Language Alternation among Arabic and English Youth Bilinguals: Reflecting or Constructing Social Realities? International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, VI(6), 409-422. Retrieved December 25, 2012

3. Auer, P. (2002). Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity. London: Rouledge.

4. Brice, A. & Brice, R. (2009). (Ed.s). Language development: Monolingual and bilingual acquisition. Old Tappan, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

5. Brown, Keith (Ed.), (2006). Encyclopedia of language & linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier, United Kingdom.

6. Chan, Elaine (2002). Beyond Pedagogy: language and identity in post-colonial Hong Kong. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 23 (2), pp. 271–285.

7. Chen, Katherine & Carper, Gray (2005). Multilingual Hong Kong: A sociolinguistic case study of code-switching (video recording). Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities & Sciences.

8. Chen K. H. Y., The Social Distinctiveness of Two Code-mixing Styles in Hong Kong, in Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, MA: Cascadilla Press, 2005, pp.527-541.

9. Clyne, Michael (2000). Constraints on code-switching: how universal are they? In Li Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. Routledge.

10. Cromdal, Jakob (2001). Overlap in Bilingual Play: Some Implications of Code-Switching for Overlap Resolution. Research on Language and Social Interaction 34 (4): 421–51. doi:10.1207/S15327973RLSI3404_02.

11. D. C. S. Li, Cantonese-English code-switching research in Hong Kong: a Y2K review, in World Englishes 19(3), 2000, pp.305—322.

12. Das, Sonia (2011). Rewriting the past and reimagining the future: The social life of a Tamil heritage language industry. American Ethnologist 38 (4): 774–789.

13. Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse Strategy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved December 14, 2012

XXXVI | P a g e

14. Genessee, Fred (2000). Early bilingual language development: one language or two? In Li Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. Routledge.

15. Goldstein, B.; Kohnert, K. (2005). Speech, language and hearing in developing bilingual children: Current findings and future directions. Language, Speech and Hearing services in Schools 36 (3): 264–67. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2005/026).

16. H. Cao, Development of a Cantonese-English code-mixing speech recognition system, PhD dissertation, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011.

17. Hok Shing C. (2003).Aspect of the Syntax,the Pragmatics,and the Production of Code-Switching: New York. Peter Lang Publishing.

18. Holmes, J. (2012). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (6th ed.). Wellington: Longman. 19. Kroskrity, Paul V (2000). Language ideologies in the expression and representation of

Arizona Tewa identity. In P. V. Kroskrity. Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities, and Identities. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. pp. 329–59.

20. Li Wei, ed. (2000). The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge. 21. Lee. J, (2012). A Corpus-based Analysis of Mixed Code in Hong Kong Speech. 2012

International Conference on Asian Language Processing,pp. 165-168. Retrieved March 18, 2013, from http://www2.ctl.cityu.edu.hk/~jsylee/publications/ialp2012.pdf

22. Leung, C. (2006). Code switching in print advertisements in Hong Kong and Sweden. MA Thesis, Lunds Universitet, Linguistics and Phonetics.

23. McArthur, T.B., & McArthur, R. (Eds.).(2005). Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.mx/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT363& dq=intra+word+switching&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VaVGUaylPMediAfMv4HoBw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQConcise#v=onepage&q&f=false

24. Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual Speech: A typology of Code- mixing. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

25. Myers-Scotton , C. (2006). Multiple voices: an introduction to Bilingualism, Blackwell 26. McClure, Erica (2001). Oral and Written Assyrian-English Code-switching. In Rodolfo

Jacobson. Code switching Worldwide II. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001. Page 166. Print.

27. MacSwan, Jeff (2000). The architecture of the bilingual language faculty: Evidence from code switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 3 (1): 37–54.

28. MacSwan, Jeff (2013). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In T. Bhatia and W. Ritchie. Handbook of Multilingualism (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell.

29. Pujolar, Joan (2000). Gender, Heteroglossia and Power. A Sociolinguistic Study of Youth Culture. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

30. Reyes, Iliana (2004). Functions of code switching in schoolchildren's conversations. Bilingual Research Journal 28 (1): 77–98. doi:10.1080/15235882.2004.10162613.

31. Shabt, P. C. (2007). The Relationship Between Gender and Types of Code-Switching Among Lebanese Youth. Beirut: American University of Beirut.

32. Suleiman, Y. (1999). Language and society in the Middle East and North Africa: Studies in variation and identity. UK: Curzon Press.

33. Swann, J., & Sinka, I. (2007). Style Shifting, Codeswitching. In D. Graddol, D. Leith, J. Swann, M. Rhys, & J. Gillen (Eds.), Changing English (p. 242). Abingdon: Routledge.

XXXVII | P a g e

34. Torres, Lourdes (2007). In the Contact Zone: Code-Switching Strategies by Latino/a Writers. Melus 32 (1): 75–96.

35. Woolard, Kathryn (2004). Codeswitching. In A. Duranti. A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 73–94.

36. Winford, Donald (2003). Code Switching: Linguistic Aspects. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2003. 126-167. Print.