Final Review Renal System
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Transcript of Final Review Renal System
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Final Review
Renal System
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1-2
Classification of Hormones
Peptide or protein hormones (large, water soluble)
chains of amino acids
most hormones are peptide hormones; e.g., insulin (pancreas)
Steroid hormones (lipid soluble)
derived from cholesterol
e.g., adrenocorticosteroids (adrenal cortex), estrogen (ovaries), testosterone
(testes) Biogenic amines (small, water soluble)
derived from the amino acid tyrosine
e.g., thyroxins (thyroid), epinephrine (adrenal medulla)
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Anterior
Pituitary
Hormones
gamete maturation
increases growth &
mitosis in most cells
-> indicates tropic
effect on hormone-
secreting organs
increases lactation
increases melanin
production
TSH -> thyroid
ACTH -> adrenalcortex;
secretes corticosteroids
GH -> liver; secretes
somatomedin
FSH & LH-> gonads;
secrete sex hormonesPRL -> testes
secretes testosterone
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1-4 Anterior
Pituitary
Hormones
mnemonics for hormones:
GH growth hormone
PRL prolactinA acidophils
b basophils
FSH follicle stimulating hormone
LH luteinizing hormone
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
TSH thyroid-stimulating hormone
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Control of Posterior Pituitary
Gland Secretions
The hypothalamus regulates the release of two hormones it secretes and stores in
neurosecretory cells which project into the posterior pituitary (pars nervosa)
Oxytocin (OT)- regulated by positive feedback!
stimulates uterine
contractions &
let down of milk
prostate gland
secretion in males
Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) or vasopressin
stimulates water
reabsorption by kidneys
arteriole constriction
hypothalamo-
hypophyseal tract
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Adrenal Glands (suprarenal)
Paired, pyramid-shaped endocrine glands anchored on the superior surface
of each kidney & therefore retroperitoneal
Yellow due
to stored fat
Outer cortex
Inner medulla
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Adrenal Cortex Hormones
(Corticosteroids)
synthesis stimulated by ACTH produced by anterior pituitary
>25 steroid hormones vital to survival
regulate salt, sugar, & sex!
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SALT
mineralocorticoids:
aldosteroneincreases salt & water
retention from kidney; BP
SUGAR
glucocorticoids:cortisol
gluconeogenesis;
anti-inflammatory;
response to longterm stress
SEX
regulates androgens
neural tissue; epinephrine
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Pancreas
Spongy, nodular organ
between
duodenum & spleen;
posterior to stomach
Exocrine:
pancreatic acini
produce alkaline pancreatic
juice that aids in digestion
Endocrine:
pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans) consists of
four types of cells each producing a different hormone
Digestion
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Pancreatic
Hormones
Produced by the following cell types in the
Islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets)
Alpha cells - in response to blood glucose
secrete glucagon blood glucose
Beta cellsin response to blood glucose
secrete insulin blood glucose Delta cells in response to blood nutrient
secrete somatostatin intestinal absorption
F cells - stimulated by protein digestion
Digestion
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Disorder of Beta cells of
Pancreas: Diabetes Mellitus
Results in inadequate uptake of glucose from blood so glucose
spills over into urine; (sweet urine)
Chronic high blood glucose damages small blood vessels retinal blindness,
kidney failure, leg amputations, heart disease, stroke
Type 1 diabetes
Insulin-dependent DM
Autoimmune disease Beta cells are destroyed
Type 2 diabetes
Insulin-independent DM
Decreased insulin uptake by body cells
Digestion
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Ribs
12 pairs (both sexes)
true ribs(17)1) connect individually to the
sternum by separatecartilaginous extensionscalled costal cartilages
false ribs (812)1) costal cartilages do not
attach directly to thesternum
2) 810 fuse to the costal cartilage of rib 7 and thus are indirectlyattached with the sternum
3) 11 and 12 are floating ribs because they have no connection withthe sternum
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Dense Connective Tissue:
Dense Irregular
collagen bundles lie indifferent directions.
Found in the dermis of
the skin and fibrouscapsules where pull is indifferent directions.
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Loose Connective Tissue:
Adipose
found with areolar
under skin
energy reserves
insulating and
protecting
Signet ring appearance.
Tightly packedadipocytes.
Highly vascular.
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Major Arteries of the
Thorax & Abdomen
Subclavian arteriesinternal thoracic arteries
intercostal a. thorax & abdominal walls
Abdominal aortaunpaired arteries to the
unpaired organs of the gastrointestinal tract:1. Celiac trunk
2. Superior mesenteric
3. Inferior mesenteric
Abdominal aortapaired arteries to paired organs:1. Renal kidneys
2. Gonadal gonads (ovaries or testes)
Aorta bifurcates ->common iliac arteries
-> internal iliac artery-> pelvis and perineum
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Major Veins of the
Thorax & Abdomen
Azygos system (unpaired)
drains thorax, pericardium, bronchi
may also drain structures that normally drain
into inf. vena cava or hepatic portal
merges into the superior vena cava
Following drain into the inferior vena cava:
Hepatic veins drain liver
Renal veins drain kidneys
Internal iliac veins drain pelvis & perineum
join common iliac veins
merge w/ inferior vena cava
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Correspond to heart
wall layers
1. Tunica Intima (Interna)
smooth endothelium;reduces friction
2. Tunica Media
circularly arranged
smooth muscle; under
sympathetic innervation
vasoconstriction
thicker in arteries
3. Tunica Externa (Adventitia)- areolar CT w/ elastic & collagen fibers
maintains integrity of vessel; anchors vessel to other tissues
thicker in veins
Vaso vasorum
small vessels w/in
tunica externa;
deliver blood to
large vessels
Tunics
(Layers)
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Centrifuge Separates
Components of Whole Blood
straw-colored liquid
Hematocrit or PCV =
ratio of RBCs to total volume
~42% in women
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Functions of Blood
Transportation
Erythrocytes carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
Plasma carries nutrients, hormones, waste products (to kidneys)
Regulation
Body Temperature
Plasma absorbs and distributes heat throughout the body To cool - blood vessels in dermis dilate and dissipate heat at surface To conserve heat - dermal blood vessels constrict, warm blood is shunted to
deeper blood vessels in the body
pH Levels (a measure of alkalinity or acidity; neutral is 7)
Plasma pH is kept at ~7.4 for normal cellular functioning Fluid Levels
Constant exchange between blood plasma & interstitial fluid in tissues Balance maintained by electrolyte & protein levels in blood Too much fluid absorbed in the blood - high blood pressure
Too much fluid leaves blood for tissues - low blood pressure & edema
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Simple Epithelium:
Simple Cuboidal
One layer of cube-
shaped cells
Nucleus: usually round
For secretion or
absorption of fluids
Examples: line kidney
tubules, cover ovaries,
line ducts of glands
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Transitional
Resembles bothstratified squamous andstratified cuboidal -
basal cells are cuboidalor columnar andsurface cells aresquamous or dome-shaped
Cells can slide over eachother to allowdistention from urine
Examples: lines ureters,
bladder and part ofurethra
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Body Membranes (coverings)
Epithelial membranes have epithelium on top of connectivetissue
1) Mucous membranes (mucosa) line passage ways and cavities opento the outside - digestive, respiratory, urinary, & reproductive tracts Mucus secreted on surface prevents dessication
2) Serous membranes (serosa) line cavities not open to the outside -pleura, pericardium, peritoneum Secrete watery serous fluid (transudate)
Always found as double membranes visceral and parietal
3) Cutaneous membrane is skin (external membrane)
Connective tissue membranes are CT only4) Synovial membranes line joints
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Skeletal Muscle
Long, striated,
multinucleated at
periphery
Voluntary movements,
expressions
Neural stimulation
required
Attached to skeleton
usually
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Smooth Muscle
No striations,tapered, singlenucleus
Often in sheets
Involuntary
May be
autorhythmic Found in walls of
hollow organs
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1-25Parasympathetic division:
Preganglionic axons: long
minimal divergence
Postganglionic axons: shortGanglionic neurons near target:
terminal ganglia or
intramural ganglia in organ
Sympathetic division:
Preganglionic axons: short
extensive divergence
exit spinal cord with anterior
roots of T1L2 spinal nerves
Postganglionic axons: long
Ganglionic neurons in:
paravertebral ganglia, or
prevertebral ganglia
(collateral axons)
myelinated
unmyelinated
unmyelinated
myelinated
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1-26PARASYMPATHETIC:
Conserves energy & replenishes
nutrient stores
Most active when body is at rest or
digesting a meal
Origin: brainstem nuclei for CNs III,
VII, IX, & X &
S2-S4 of spinal cord
SYMPATHETIC:
Uses energyfor mass activation in
emergency
Increases metabolic activity
Brain patterns change
Skins electrical resistance changes
(lie detector test)
Increased alertness
Origin: lateral horns of T1-L2
PARASYMPATHETIC SYMPATHETIC
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Spinal nerves S2-S4 give rise to pelvic
splanchic nerves:
Distal end of large intestine
& rectum
1. increased smooth muscle motility
& secretory activity
2. defecation
Bladder wall and distal ureter
1. contraction of smooth muscle2. urination
Female clitoris and male penis
1. increased vasodilation
2. blood flow up -> erection
Parasympathetic
Division
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Neurotransmitters
Preganglionic axons:
all release Ach; effect is always
excitatory, short-lived & local
Post-ganglionic axons:
Parasympathetic division
all release Ach; can be inhibitory
Sympathetic division
post-ganglionic axons which releaseAch are always excitatory
most sympathetic post-ganglionic
axons release norepinephrine (NE);
effect is long-lasting, widespread;
can be inhibitory
SYMPATHETICPARASYMPATHETIC
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Passive Transport Processes
Movement of substances along (down) aconcentration or pressure gradient
ATP is NOT required Simple Diffusion (gas exchange in alveoli of lungs) Osmosis (diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; IV
solutions are isotonic (0.9% NaCl) to avoid hemolysis)
Facilitated Diffusion Requires the participation of specific transportproteins to move particles from a region of high concentration to lower
concentration (e.g., glucose, urea,vitamins, Cl ions) Bulk Filtration Involves the diffusion of both solvents and solutes
together across the membrane from higher to lower fluid pressure side(e.g. blood against inside wall of a blood vessel)
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Peroxisomes
Small sacs withpowerful oxidaseenzymes
Detoxification
Toxins (ethanol,formaldehyde,phenol) converted tohydrogen peroxide
Catalase convertshydrogen peroxide
to water and oxygen Especially found in
kidney and liver
Self-replicating