Final Review Commercial
description
Transcript of Final Review Commercial
![Page 1: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Final Review Commercial
![Page 2: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Power Plants• Carburetor Heat• Mixture
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Fuel Injection• Auxiliary Fuel Pump• Fuel Flow Indicator• Vapor Lock• Exhaust Gas Temperature• Cylinder Head Temperature
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Mixture• Best Economy Mixture• Best Power Mixture
![Page 5: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Abnormal Combustion• Preignition• Detonation
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Turbocharging Systems• Manifold Pressure Gauge• Critical Altitude• Service Ceiling• Overboost
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Constant Speed Propellers• Blade Angle• Pitch Angle• Governing Range• Propeller Control• Efficiency
![Page 8: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Oxygen Systems• Continuous Flow• Diluter Demand• Pressure Demand
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Oxygen Masks• Oronasal Rebreather
–Color Coded Red Pilot• Quick Donning
–Diluter Demand–Pressure Demand
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Oxygen Service• Aviator Breathing Oxygen• Oxygen Duration Charts• FBO• Never deplete below 50 psi
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Pressurization• Outflow Valve• Safety/dump Valve• Isobaric Range• Differential Range
![Page 12: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Oxygen Requirements• Part 91
–12,500 to 14,000 over 30 minutes
–14,000 for crew members–15,000 for passengers
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Human Factors• Hypoxia• Hyperventilation
![Page 14: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Ice Control Systems• Anti-icing• De-icing
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Landing Gear Systems• Electrical Gear Systems• Hydraulic Gear Systems• Electrohydraulic Systems
![Page 16: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Airspeed Limitations• VLE
• VLO
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Emergency Extension• Hand Crank• Hand Pump Hydraulic System• Freefall System• Carbon dioxide pressurized
system
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Fundamental Flight Maneuvers
• Straight and Level• Turns• Climbs • Descents
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Four Aerodynamic Forces
• Lift• Thrust• Drag• Weight• When are they in equilibrium?
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Bernoulli’s Principle
• As the velocity of a fluid increase, its internal pressure decreases
• High pressure under the wing and lower pressure above the wing’s surface
![Page 21: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Controlling Lift
• Increase airspeed• Change the angle of attack• Change the shape of the airfoil• Change the total area of the wings
![Page 22: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Angle of Attack
• Directly controls the distribution of pressure acting on a wing. By changing the angle of attack, you can control the airplane’s lift, airspeed and drag.
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Angle of Attack
• Angle of attack at which a wing stalls remains constant regardless of weight, dynamic pressure, bank angle or pitch attitude.
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Flaps
• Plain• Split• Slotted• Fowler
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Ground Effect
• Within one wingspan of the ground• An airplane leaving ground effect will
experience an increase in what kind of drag?
![Page 26: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Drag
• What kind of drags rate of increase is proportional to the square of the airspeed?
• Parasite Drag• What kinds of drag make up parasite
Drag
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Load Factor
• Ratio between the lift generated by the wings at any given time divided by the total weight of the airplane.
![Page 28: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Load Factor
• A heavily loaded plane stalls at a higher speed than a lightly loaded airplane.
• It needs a higher angle of attack to generate required lift at any given speed than when lightly loaded.
![Page 29: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Aircraft Stability
• Achieved by locating the center of gravity slightly ahead of the center of lift
• Need a tail down force on the elevator
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Turns
• The horizontal component of lift.• Load Factor and Turns• The relationship between angle of bank ,
load factor, and stall speed is the same for all airplanes
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Density Altitude
• High• Hot • Humid
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Surface Winds
• Headwind or tailwind component– a 10 knot headwind might improve
performance by 10%– a 10 knot tailwind might degrade
performance by 40%
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Performance Charts
• Experience Test Pilots• Factory new Airplanes• Repeated Tests using Best Results• Format -Table -Graphic
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Cruise Charts
• Range is the distance an airplane can travel with a given amount of fuel
• Endurance is the length of time the airplane can remain in the air
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Cruise Charts
• Maximum range is at L/Dmax or best glide speed
• Maximum endurance is about 76% or best glide speed
• Generally close to stall speed
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Excessive Weight
• Higher takeoff speed• Longer takeoff run• Reduced rate and angle of climb• Lower maximum altitude
![Page 37: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Excessive Weight
• Shorter range and endurance• Reduced cruise speed and
maneuverability• Higher stall speed• Higher landing speed and longer
landing roll
![Page 38: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Forward CG Effects
• Higher takeoff speed and ground roll• Reduced rate and angle of climb• Lower maximum altitude• Reduced maneuverability
![Page 39: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Forward CG Effects
• Higher stalling speed• Reduction in performance caused by
increased tail-down loading• Reduced pitch authority
![Page 40: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Beyond Aft CG Effects
• Decreased stability and increased susceptibility to over control
• Increased risk of stalls and spins of which recovery may be difficult or impossible
![Page 41: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Weight Shift Computations
Weight of Cargo Moved Distance CG moves
Airplane weight = Distance Between Arm locations
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Elt
• Frequency 121.5 and 243.0• Battery
– 1 hour of cumulative use– One half the battery useful life
• Test during 5 minutes after the hour
![Page 43: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Diverting for Emergencies
• Time is of the essence• Turn to new course as soon as possible• Use rule of thumb computations,
estimates and shortcuts
![Page 44: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Engine Temperature
• Oil cools the internal portion of the engine
• High temperature is often a sign of low oil level
![Page 45: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Heating System
• Heating in most aircraft is by exhaust manifold-type
• Crack in the system can allow carbon monoxide into the cabin
• If your aircraft backfires during run up, have it checked
![Page 46: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Engine Failure(Takeoff)
• Lower the nose and maintain a safe airspeed
![Page 47: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Turbulence
• Slow to maneuvering speed• Maintain a level attitude• Do not chase the pitot static
instruments
![Page 48: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Spatial Disorientation
• Rely on instrument indications• Ignore body sensations
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Emergency Descent• Reduce the throttle to idle• Roll into a bank angle of
approximately 30-45 degrees• Set propeller to low pitch ( High
RPM)
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Emergency Descent
• Extend landing gear and Flap as recommended by the manufacturer
• Do not exceed VNE, VLE, VFE, or VA if turbulent
![Page 51: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Best Glide Speed
• Gear and Flaps retracted• Propeller to low RPM (High Pitch)• Pitch • Trim
![Page 52: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Best Glide Speed
• Checklist• Any deviation from the best glide
speed will reduce the distance you can glide
![Page 53: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Lost Procedures
• Climb• Communicate• Confess• Comply• Conserve
![Page 54: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Lost Procedures
• Radar• DF Steer• Emergency Frequency 121.5
![Page 55: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Short Field Takeoff & Landing
![Page 56: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Takeoff
• Objective - Knowledge of elements• Positive and accurate control of aircraft
with shortest ground roll and steepest angle of climb
• Proper airspeeds VR, VX, and VY
![Page 57: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Takeoff
–Maintain VX =5/-0 KTS• After clearing the obstacle accelerate to
VY +5/-5• Retract the landing gear and flaps after
a positive rate of climb or as recommended
![Page 58: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Common Takeoff Errors
• Failure to use the entire runway• Improper positioning of the flight
controls and wing flaps• Improper engine operation during short
field takeoff and climb out
![Page 59: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Common Takeoff Errors
• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
• Poor directional control• Improper use of brakes
![Page 60: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Short Field Landing
• Consider the wind conditions, landing surface and obstructions– Height of obstructions dictate how
steep the approach will have to be
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Short Field Landing
–Descent angle will be steeper than a normal approach. Aim point will be closer to the obstacle
–Aim point will be short of the touchdown point
–Select a go around point, normally before descending below barriers
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Common Errors• Improper use of landing performance
data and limitations• Failure to establish approach landing
configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
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Common Errors
• Failure to maintain a stabilized approach• Improper technique in use of power, wing
flaps and trim
![Page 64: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Common Errors
• Improper removal of hand from throttle• Improper technique during round out
and touchdown
![Page 65: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Common Errors
• Poor directional control after touchdown
• Improper use of brakes
![Page 66: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Soft Field Takeoff & Landing
![Page 67: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Common Errors
• Improper initial positioning of the flight controls or wing flaps
• Allowing the airplane to stop on the takeoff surface prior to initiating takeoff
• Improper power application
![Page 68: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Common Errors
• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
• Poor directional control
![Page 69: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Common Errors
• Improper use of brakes• Improper pitch attitude during liftoff
– Dragging tail of aircraft on ground
![Page 70: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Common Errors– Settling back to the runway because
of too high or too low a pitch attitude• Failure to establish and maintain
proper climb configuration and airspeed
• Drift during climbout
![Page 71: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Soft Field Landing• Maintain crosswind correction and
directional control throughout the approach and landing
• Touch down softly, with no drift, and with the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway
![Page 72: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Soft Field Landing
–Maintain some power to assist in making a soft touchdown
–Hold it off to slow airspeed and establish a nose high pitch attitude
![Page 73: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
Soft Field Landing
–After touchdown maintain back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the ground
–Maintain full back pressure• Maintain after landing proper position
of the flight controls and taxi speed
![Page 74: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Common Errors• Improper technique in use of power,
wing flaps and trim• Inappropriate removal of hand from
throttle• Improper technique during roundout
and touchdown
![Page 75: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Common Errors
• Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
• Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown
![Page 76: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Common Errors
• Poor directional control after touchdown
• Improper use of brakes
![Page 77: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
Steep Turns
![Page 78: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Enter Steep Turn
• Heading toward reference point roll into a coordinated turn with an angle of bank of 50o +5/-5
• As the turn begins, add back pressure to increase the angle of attack
![Page 79: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
Enter Steep Turn
• As you go through 30o, add power if necessary to maintain entry altitude and airspeed
![Page 80: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Enter Steep Turn
• Trim to relieve excess control pressure• Begin rollout one half the angle of
bank 20-25 degrees before your reference point
• Look and clear before all turns.
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–To recover from an excessive nose-low attitude reduce the angle of bank
–Add back elevator pressure to raise the nose
–Reestablish the desire angle of bank
![Page 82: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
Maintain Altitude +100
• Maintain entry altitude and airspeed throughout the entire maneuver
• During rollout release the back pressure or if using trim apply
![Page 83: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
Common Errors
• Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
• Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
![Page 84: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
Common Errors
• Inappropriate control applications• Improper technique in correcting
altitude deviations• Loss or orientation
![Page 85: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
Common Errors
• Excessive deviation from desired heading during rollout
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Chandelles
![Page 87: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
Altitude
• FAA requires the maneuver be performed no lower than 1,500 ft AGL
• Pick an altitude that is easy to identify on your altimeter
![Page 88: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
Bank
• Establish but do not exceed 30o angle of bank
• Enter using a smooth coordinated level turn
![Page 89: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
Apply Power and Pitch
• After establishing a level 30o banked turn start a climbing turn by applying back elevator pressure to attain the highest pitch attitude at the 90o point
![Page 90: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
Common Errors
• Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion– Pitch up too fast will cause a stall– Pitch too slow or allow the pitch to
decrease will cause you to reach 180o point at too high an airspeed
![Page 91: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
Common Errors
–Adjust power prior to the maneuver to establish cruise flight and increase after bank is established and as pitch is being increased
–No other power changes are made
![Page 92: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
Common Errors• Uncoordinated use of flight controls
– Maintain coordinated flight– Compensate for torque and aileron
drag– Check the ball in the inclinometer
![Page 93: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
Common Errors
• Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes– During the first 90o of turn the bank
is constant– At the 90o point you should have
reached the maximum pitch
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Common Errors
–During the second 90o, pitch attitude remains constant and the bank is slowly reduced
–At the 180o point, the pitch attitude is constant and the roll out to wings level is completed
![Page 95: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
Common Errors– Plan and time the pitch and bank
changes while dividing you attention • Factors related to failure to achieve
maximum performance– Improper pitch– Improper bank
![Page 96: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
Lazy Eights
![Page 97: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
Objective
• Lazy eights require smooth coordinated use of the flight controls– At no time are you straight and level– Maneuver requires constantly
changing control pressure
![Page 98: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
Plan,Orient and Maneuver At 45o
Altitude Increasing
Airspeed Decreasing
Pitch Attitude Maximum
Bank Angle 15o
![Page 99: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
Plan,Orient and Maneuver
At 90o
Altitude Maximum
Airspeed Minimum
Pitch Attitude Level
Bank Angle 30o
![Page 100: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Plan,Orient and Maneuver
At 135o
Altitude Decreasing
Airspeed Increasing
Pitch Attitude Minimum
Bank Angle 15o
![Page 101: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
Plan,Orient and ManeuverAt 180o
Altitude Entry
Airspeed Entry
Pitch Attitude Level
Bank Angle 0o
![Page 102: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
Common Errors
• Poor selection of reference points– Easily identified – Not too close
• Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
![Page 103: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
Common Errors
– Maintain coordinated flight– Compensate for torque– Check inclinometer
• Unsymmetrical loops from poor pitch and bank attitude changes
![Page 104: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
Common Errors
– Stalling before reaching the 90o point– Excessive diving – Rushing the angle of bank
• Inconsistent airspeed and/or altitude at key points
![Page 105: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
Common Errors
–Adjust power after the first maneuver if off entry airspeed or altitude Loss of orientation. Need to observe your reference point as well as your attitude indicator, altimeter and airspeed indicator
![Page 106: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
Common Errors
• Excessive deviation from reference points– Each 45o segment must be
preplanned and the proper pitch and bank attained
![Page 107: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
Eights-on Pylons
![Page 108: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
Objective
–At a given groundspeed there is an associated altitude at which the airplane will appear to pivot about the point and is called the pivotal altitude
–The higher the groundspeed the higher the pivotal altitude
![Page 109: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
Objective
–In strong wind, altitude changes will be greater e.g. 100 to 200 feet
–In light wind, altitude changes will be smaller e.g. 50 to 100 feet
–Wind calm means no change to pivotal altitude
![Page 110: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
Determine the Pivotal Altitude
• To determine the pivotal altitude fly at an altitude well above the pivotal altitude then reduce power and descend at cruise airspeed in a medium bank turn.
![Page 111: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/111.jpg)
Determine the Pivotal Altitude
• The reference line will move back until the pivotal altitude is reached. If you continue to descend the reference line will move forward
• You can estimate the pivotal altitude by using the following formula
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Determine the Pivotal Altitude
(Groundspeed in knots)2 = Pivotal Altitude
11.3
1002 = 885
11.3
![Page 113: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
Perform the Maneuver
• As you turn into the wind the groundspeed decreases causing the pivotal altitude to decrease causing you to descend to maintain the pivotal altitude
![Page 114: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/114.jpg)
Orientation and Planning• Remain oriented on the location of the
pylons and the direction of the wind• Plan ahead• Divide your attention between
coordinated airplane control and outside visual reference
![Page 115: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/115.jpg)
Use Pivotal Altitude
• Do not use rudder to force the reference line forward or backward to the pylon
![Page 116: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/116.jpg)
Common Errors
• Faulty Entry technique– Poor planning– Not being at pivotal altitude– Rolling into a bank too soon
• Poor Planning, Orientation and Division of Attention
![Page 117: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/117.jpg)
Common Errors
–Lack of anticipation of changes in groundspeed
–Poor pylon selection–Poor division of attention.
Uncoordinated flight control applications and not looking out for other traffic
![Page 118: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/118.jpg)
Common Errors• Uncoordinated flight control application• Use of improper line of sight reference• Application of rudder alone to maintain
line of sight on pylon– Most Common Error
![Page 119: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/119.jpg)
Common Errors
– Do not Yaw the wing backward with rudder if the reference line is ahead of the pylon
• Improper timing of turn entries and rollouts– Usually do to poor planning
![Page 120: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/120.jpg)
Common Errors
–Rollout needs to be timed to allow the airplane to proceed diagonally to a point downwind of the second pylon
![Page 121: Final Review Commercial](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070420/56815e79550346895dccfbff/html5/thumbnails/121.jpg)
Common Errors• Improper correction for wind between
pylons • Selection of pylons where there is no
suitable force landing area within gliding distance
• Large pitch and airspeed changes