Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans1

INTL – GLOB4000 Capstone Fall 2016

Post-conflict landmines in the Balkan Region

Naila Maric

Todd Lindley

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans2

I dedicate this project to my uncle; Amir Maric

&

To the rest of the lives lost during the war and post-war.

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans3

Introduction

The topic that represents my global studies research paper is on post-conflict landmines

in the Balkan region. This topic is important to me because it is one of the main issues that ICRC

is currently working on. Also, the remaining of hidden mines and explosives in countries still

pose a great threat to the locals and visitors. Last but not least, society needs to become more

aware about this. The reason why I chose to write about this topic is because I was born in

Bosnia and Herzegovina, in which a devastating war divided the country and mines are

continued to be found in present-day. I come from a family that had seen and experienced the

post-war effects. Some individuals forget that when a society that just experienced war, lost

everything that they had. They go from having so much to having nothing. For example, when

the war is over between specific countries, the rest of the world thinks that everything is

resolved. However, they are wrong. The post-war effects are the worst. The hidden mines, the

destroyed homes, buildings and hurt and sick people. Where is the medicine and where is the

food that the society needs? That is when the world should help. I want to show others what

people go through after a war ends. After 20 years, people are still affected emotionally,

physically and mentally by the war that happened in the Balkans. Moreover, mines are still

killing people and not just in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Afghanistan, Albania, Armenia,

Cambodia, Croatia, Georgia, Macedonia, Mozambique, Serbia, and Syria are a few of the other

countries affected by landmines. Overall, the topic has received quite a lot of attention in both

the popular media and also in academic circles, but Bosnia’s case is more recent and continues to

present danger to citizens in the country. Biach stated, “As long as there is a single mine in

Bosnia as long as a single person is in danger, our work is not done yet. We need to get our

country back” (Biach, 2014).

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans4

Brief overview of the conflict in the Balkans

The Balkan conflict started in March of 1992 and ended by February 1996. The Balkan

conflict is also known as the fall of Yugoslavia and lasted nearly for four years. Yugoslavia was

located in Eastern Europe and consisted of, “Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia,

Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia” (ÜLER, 2016). Yugoslavia was a culturally diverse country.

Bosnia and Herzegovina was the country were most of the fighting or battles occurred and where

most of the damage was done. Bosnia and Herzegovina is known for its natural resources,

beautiful architecture, and breathtaking scenery. “Before the war began in 1992, Bosnia was a

quiet, sedate, and beautiful backwater, one of the six republics that made up Marshal Tito’s

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, lying tucked away across the blue Adriatic Sea from

Italy. In the west it borders Italy and Austria, in the north Hungary and Romania, and in the east

Bulgaria, Greece, and Albania. To the south is the Adriatic Sea”. (Jennings, 2013, p. 7). Many

asked did the wealth of natural resources cause the war. The answer is no, “instead, the desire to

create separate countries for each ethnic group in the former Yugoslavia was a clear driving

factor. However, creating a separate country involved fighting over who acquired different

quantities of land, and the Serbs and the Croats obsessed over fighting to extract as much land

from the Bosnians as possible” (O’Brochta, 2016, p. 27).

Josip Brzo Tito played a major role in Yugoslavia and the aftermath of Yugoslavia. Josip

Brzo Tito was the president of Yugoslavia. He kept the country united, he kept that brotherhood

between different religions and ethnicities. Tito was someone who was a, “bullish, avuncular

dictator who understood his people and saw that the best way to keep the country’s ethnic Serbs,

Croats, and Muslims from cutting each other’s throats was to bring them together under a gentle

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans5

banner of communism-lite” (Jennings, 2013, p.8). Moreover, Tito, “brought the constituent

republics of Yugoslavia together under the banner of “Brotherhood and Unity,” cleverly

suppressing internal ethnic divides, ensuring economic stability, and keeping the snapping jaws

of the myriad of Cold War wolves away from his country’s door” (Jennings, 2013, p.8). At the

end of the day, Tito was respected and liked by many. Furthermore, “Tito pursued a policy of

‘Brotherhood and Unity’ to keep a state with different ethnic elements united. While establishing

the Socialist Yugoslavia, he tried to keep a balance between nations and nationalities. The official

idea was Yugoslavism, which meant peaceful coexistence for all the nations within the Socialist

Yugoslavia in a unitary structure” (ÜLER, 2016). Tito’s death caused the fall of Yugoslavia and

started one of the harshest wars since World War II.

After Tito’s death Yugoslavia fell apart and ethnic rivalries intensified. Also, one by one

the countries that were part of Yugoslavia slowly became independent. Furthermore, “ethnic

rivalries increased, prompting delegates in the national parliament from Serbia and allied

provinces in 1989 to weaken the autonomy of the provinces. In 1991, Croatia and Slovenia

declared independence from Yugoslavia, whereupon talk of Bosnia’s secession increased” (Haas,

2016). Slobodan Milosevic, the Serbian president had other plans after Tito’s death. He wanted

power and change. He wanted Nationalism. Milosevic, “was trying to strengthen centralized rule

in the former Yugoslavia, exploiting nationalism to create a “Greater Serbia” that united the

Serb-inhabited areas of Croatia and Bosnia and Kosovo, and removing all non-Serbs from these

areas through ethnic cleansing” (Jennings, 2013, p.9). The once peaceful country was no longer

peaceful. During Tito’s presidency, many individuals kept their mouths closed however, when

Tito died, true colors were becoming to show. More in detail, “But as Croatia, Bosnia, and

Slovenia seceded, Yugoslavia collapsed into a hellish, bitter, internecine civil war of nationalism

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans6

and land grabbing. Fighting broke out in 1991 between the Serb dominated Yugoslav National

Army, local Serbs, and Croatian government forces, after the latter had promptly declared

independence from Yugoslavia. Slovenia broke away, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared

independence in 1992, and eastern Bosnia and parts of Croatia were partially “ethnically

cleansed” of Muslims and Croats by Bosnian Serb and Serb soldiers” (Jennings, 2013, p.9). If

you were not Serbian, you deserved to die. The main conflicts occurred, “between 1991 and

1995 were fought in Croatia (1991-1992) and then Bosnia (1992-1995). The latter was a war

fought by three sides across multiple and constantly changing front lines largely inside one

country, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina” (Jennings, 2013, p.13). Bosnia and

Herzegovina suffered as a country mostly as well as the Bosnian Muslims.

Ending the war was not simple, but it had to happen. The Dayton Agreement ended the

war. In the Silent Menace- Landmines in Bosnia and Herzegovina stated, “The signing of the

General Framework Agreement for Peace (better known as the Dayton Agreement) in December

1995 ended the war and marked the start of return movements and the rebuilding process in

Bosnia and Herzegovina” (www.icrc.org). It took three presidents to end the war; “Serbian

president Slobodan Milosevic, Croatian president Franjo Tudman, and Bosnian president Alija

Izetbegovic, under the eyes of the international community, hammered out the Dayton Peace

Accords at the Ohio airbase. By February 1996, the peace deal, which also included a blueprint

for what a future constitution of Bosnia might look like, had been signed and ratified in Paris”

(Jennings, 2013, p.57). It took nearly four years to get to an agreement, but the damage was

already done in the form of pain, suffering, and lost lives.

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans7

This image to the left shows the map

of Yugoslavia. After Yugoslavia fell apart,

Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,

Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and

Macedonia became their own countries.

The History of landmines and economic side

Landmines are defined as a, “bomb that is

buried in the ground and that explodes when

someone steps on it or drives over it”

(www.merriam-webster.com). Also, landmines are

known as booby traps. Landmines are a deadly

inheritance. The problem of mines is that they pose a

major barrier to the return of refugees and

internally displaced persons, and to economic

recovery overall. They block the development of

tourism and agricultural activities that can

stimulate job production, and obstruct

environmental rehabilitation”

(www.mineaction.org). Landmines have been known for over 2000 years. In this website it

stated, “modern landmines are explosive traps, but they trace their lineage from non-explosive

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans8

predecessors such as spikes and stakes used by ancient armies as far back as 2,500 years ago”

(www.members.iinet.net.au). Also, they are, “the first devices designed to explode on ‘target-

contact’ were floating mines first employed by the US Confederate Navy in 1861”

(www.members.iinet.net.au). Moreover, “the Americans are really the first nation to develop and

use operational landmines and this is attributed to Brigadier-General Gabriel J. Rains. Rains

experimented with booby traps while leading his troops against Indians in Florida in 1840, but

without a lot of success. Then in 1862 he ordered his troops to prepare artillery shells so that they

could be exploded by pulling trip wires or by being stepped on” (www.members.iinet.net.au).

During the Korean War and Vietnam/ American war landmines were a popular weaponry.

For example, “The Vietnam/American War (1958 – 1968) saw entire villages surrounded by

landmines, which were hand laid or dropped from the air” (www.members.iinet.net.au). Many of

these mines still pose a threat to the locals. Angola; a country in Africa is considered to be the

most mine-infested country in Africa. Afghanistan is one of the three most greatly mined

countries in the world. The chart below shows the worst affected countries due to landmines.

Africa Americas Asia-Pacific Europe- Central Asia

Middle East & North Africa

Somaliland, Chad, Djibouti, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia,Niger, Senegal, South Africa, Swaziland, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, Burundi, Ethiopia,

Falklands/Malvinas, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Peru, Ecuador, Chile,Colombia.

Taiwan, Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, Bangladesh, The Philippines, Afghanistan, Burma, China, India, Democratic People's Republic of Korea,

Abkhazia, Chechnya, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark, Slovenia, Albania, Cyprus,Czech Republic, Greece, Lithuania, Moldova,

Iraqi Kurdistan, Western Sahara, Palestine, Jordan, Tunisia, Yemen, Algeria, Egypt,Iran, Iraq, Israel, Kuwait, Lebanon,

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans9

Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mauritania, Rwanda, Sudan, Zambia, Congo (Brazzaville), Dr Congo, Eritrea, Liberia,Somalia.

Republic of Korea, Laos, Mongolia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Vietnam.

Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkey Serbia.

Libya, Morocco,Syria.

Landmines slow down everything. They affect the growth of a country. BMJ stated,

“Land mines seriously undermine the economy and food security in affected countries; they kill

and maim civilians at an increasing rate. The expense of medical care and rehabilitation add

economic disability to the physical burden” (BMJ, 1995; 311:718). This is a serious issue that the

rest of the world needs to focus on. Furthermore, BMJ stated, “An estimated 110 million land

mines currently exist on the earth, and the number is constantly increasing as the number of new

mines laid exceeds the rate of removal. Several million land mines were laid during the civil

conflicts in Afghanistan, Cambodia, Mozambique, and Bosnia-Hercegovina” (BMJ, 1995;

311:718). Countries such as Afghanistan, Angola and Cambodia, “have suffered 85 per cent of

the world's land-mine casualties. Overall, African children live on the most mine-plagued

continent, with an estimated 37 million mines embedded in the soil of at least 19 countries.

Angola alone has an estimated 10 million land-mines and an amputee population of 70,000, of

whom 8,000 are children” (www.unicef.org). In another source, today, “there are an estimated

110 million anti-personnel mines in the ground around the world and another 100 million in

stockpiles. Between 5 and 10 million more mines are produced each year”

(www.members.iinet.net.au).

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans10

During the Bosnian war it was reported, “that 85 different types of mines were used

during the conflict” (www.icrc.org). When talking about the placement of mines, the document

stated, “most minefields were laid within sight of front-line positions, particularly in the Zone of

Separation” (www.icrc.org). Mines were used for protection, especially for front-line positions.

Most mined areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina remain unmarked. What areas were affected in

Bosnia? The densely populated, “Tuzla Podrinje, Central Bosnia and Zenica-Doboj Cantons are

the most severely affected. These areas account for 41% (7,349) of all the known minefields in

the country” (www.icrc.org). Based on the year of 1998, “The United Nations Mine Action

Centre (UNMAC) estimates that there are at present over 30,000 mined areas in Bosnia and

Herzegovina littered with some 750,000 mines” (www.icrc.org). What sides of the conflict used

landmines? All sides, “used mines during the war and deployed them in a fairly focused fashion,

predominantly to defend front-line infantry positions and withdrawal routes” (www.icrc.org).

When talking about the cost of landmines, “the cheapest mines can be acquired for a few

dollars, while the United Nations has estimated clearance costs for one landmine can be as much

as $1,000 US” (www.members.iinet.net.au). Mine removal takes a lot of time and money. The

largest producers of landmines are known to be, “China, Italy and the former Soviet Union”

(www.members.iinet.net.au).

Post-war lingering effects of combat

When a peace treaty is signed the fighting is over, but the post-war lingering effects are

there. The country and the individuals in that country are in need of help. Buildings such as

schools, grocery stores, and hospitals are destroyed. Unemployment rate rapidly increases, need

of medicine and food increases. Job opportunities are scarce. Agriculture land and forests are all

in danger due to landmines. People are fighting with depression and health issues. Families of

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans11

mine victims reported, “that the victims often suffered from depression (66%) and loneliness

(20%)” (www.icrc.org). One of the main problems that currently affects Bosnia and Herzegovina

is landmines. The existence of mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO), “even though reduced

each year, remains a major problem for personal security of residents, hinders socio-economic

development and prevents steady and continuous post-conflict reconstruction” (www.itf-fund.si).

One study indicates that, “although armed hostilities between the various factions officially

ended in December 1995, mines continue to have severe human, social, medical and economic

consequences for the country” (www.icrc.org).

Majority of the mines are located along, “former front

lines, now in the Zone of Separation (ZoS) between

the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and

Republika Srpska (the two “entities” that make up the

country), or in areas immediately outside the various

ethnic enclaves. Today, most minefields remain

unmarked and pose a threat in the postwar

environment” (www.icrc.org). Majority of the rural

population is suffering because majority of mine cleaning has been done in urban areas.

Aljazeera news stated, “the country's impoverished rural population suffers the most: For lack of

alternatives, the surrounding forest is often the only source of income. Disasters are inevitable”

(Biach, 2014). Since the latest flooding that happened in Bosnia and Herzegovina, “authorities

are warning that many of the more than 100,000 remaining landmines dotted across Bosnia have

been dislodged by heavy rain, floodwaters and hundreds of landslides, shifting beyond the

markers” (Zuvela, 2014).

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans12

Civilians are the main victims of mines today. More in depth, “80 percent of mine victims

are civilians” (www.icrc.org). In 1998, there were around 750,000 mines in Bosnia and

Herzegovina, and in 2016, “about 120,000 mines remain undiscovered, a Bosnian demining

group estimates” (www.bbc.com). The Pokémon game has been making noise all over the

world. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, “Bosnians playing the hit mobile game Pokémon Go are

being warned to avoid straying into areas still sown with landmines from the war in the 1990s”

(www.bbc.com). Since the fighting ended, “more than 1,700 people have been involved in land

mine accidents. Nearly 600 of them died, with the rest injured, some seriously. In many cases,

one or more limbs had to be amputated” (Biach, 2014). Many individuals step on landmines due

to farming and working in the fields. In a Landmine Impact Survey: Bosnia and Herzegovina it

stated that, “the majority of recent mine/UXO victims are adults engaged in agriculture”

(www.gichd.org).

Marketing Campaign

The goal of this marketing campaign is to increase awareness on post-conflict landmines

in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Moreover, it is about saving lives and educating people on the

dangers of post-war landmines. Additionally, this type of campaign can work for any country. As

mentioned before, landmines slow down the growth of a country. Furthermore, “land mines

seriously undermine the economy and food security in affected countries; they kill and maim

civilians at an increasing rate. The expense of medical care and rehabilitation add economic

disability to the physical burden” (BMJ, 1995; 311:718). For example, “without mines,

agricultural production could increase by 88-200% in Afghanistan, 11% in Bosnia, 135% in

Cambodia, and 3.6% nationally in Mozambique” (BMJ, 1995; 311:718).

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans13

“Limited funding is the main challenge to mine action in Bosnia and Herzegovina”

(www.mineaction.org). Another issue is that mined areas, “need to be urgently re-surveyed, re-

marked and re-mapped. Many of the already cleared areas would also need re-clearance. Local

population in the flooded areas needs to be urgently and constantly informed of the mine and

UXO risk” (www.itf-fund.si). Informing adults is more difficult than children. Red Cross mine-

awareness instructors, “report that many adults have an indifferent or blasé attitude towards

mines, believing that because they survived the sniping, gunfire, heavy shelling and threat of

mines during the war, they now have little to fear from mines alone” (www.icrc.org). Schools

and institutions are a perfect place where mine action and demining can be talked about.

Professionals can come and host some lessons on demining and mine awareness. Mine

awareness activities, humanitarian demining, permanent marking and other activities to reduce

the risks of mines can be done. Based on all the research, some facilities and equipment are

needed to be renovated and upgraded. Also, appropriate training provided to technicians. To

promote the social reintegration of mine survivors, especially amputees, the consultants and

relevant organizations should pursue to address their psycho-social needs. Important note to

remember is that, “many maps also include the name and unit of the individual making the

record. This is valuable information for deminers, who may be able to locate the person if

assistance or additional information is required” (www.icrc.org). According to minefield records,

“mined areas were often indicated by carvings on trees, red tape, crossed branches, felled trees or

signs made out of various materials. While such signals may have been clear to soldiers, it is

unlikely that they were adequate to warn civilians of the danger. Now, nearly two years after the

end of the conflict, such markings are largely unrecognizable” (www.icrc.org). Therefore, getting

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans14

the locals together to make new permanent markings with professionals in possible areas is a

start.

People: High school students, college students, and young adults are individuals that

organizations need to work with. Organizations such as Red Cross, UN, Civil Protection,

the Landmine Survivors Network, and the BIH Mine Action Centre (BHMAC) need to

come to schools and colleges and host events/ lectures about demining and how to help

the community.

Place: Former front lines,

now in the Zone of

Separation (ZoS)

between the

Federation of Bosnia

and Herzegovina and

Republika Srpska (the

two “entities” that

make up the country), and areas immediately outside the various ethnic enclaves are

areas that the organizations need to focus on. Also, landmines are found in rural

population. Due to the recent flooding, many mines have scattered. Bosnia's Mine Action

Centre (MAC), “has appealed for international help in getting more equipment and

satellite screening to track the movement of mines after the heaviest rainfall in the

Balkans since records began 120 years ago” (Zuvela, 2014). The mine suspected area in

BiH is estimated to 1,176.5 sq. Kilometers, representing about 2.3 % of the country’s

territory.

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans15

Price: The cost of demining one mine can range from $300 to $1000. To clear the remaining

mines, “the country needs about 40m euros ($54m) per year, says Sasa Obradovic from

the Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Centre” (Biach, 2014). Also, costs include

advertising and promotion.

Promotion: Social media, making a commercial, making billboards, and posting articles in local

newspapers can be a start. Creating awareness in schools is part of promotion. Working

with ICRC and UNICEF on getting articles on their website about the mine action in

Bosnia and Herzegovina is another option. The two major programs in the country, “are

run by the ICRC and UNICEF, although numerous other organizations are also involved”

(www.icrc.org). These two programs are the two of the main that work with the country

on cleaning mines and mine awareness.

Personal Stories:

Adem Salimovic (age 15, civilian)

ICRC/Ian Woodmansey

Ref. BA-D49/15

“In August 1994, in the hills above the town of Cazin, Adem was working in the fields

harvesting wheat with his younger brother. On his way home, he passed a friend who handed him

a fragmentation mine found in a nearby cornfield and believed to be a dud. As he walked towards

his house, he scraped the mine against a rock and it exploded. His younger brother witnessed the

accident and ran to get help from neighbours, who came with a truck and rushed Adem to the

Cazin hospital.The doctors at the hospital referred Adem to a larger facility in Bihac for

treatment. He was transferred there by ambulance. Upon arrival, he was unconscious. When

Adem woke up a few hours later, surgeons had amputated his right leg at mid-thigh and the

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans16

lower part of his right arm. The amputations were immediately closed and bandaged. He stayed

in the hospital for 15 days. After being discharged, Adem spent 10 days at home, then nine days

at the Gata rehabilitation centre. At Gata, he was taught how to move his remaining limbs and

was shown exercises to build up the muscles. After three months at home, he was driven to

Germany by his uncle to be fitted for artificial limbs. Doctors in Germany were concerned that a

lower-limb prosthesis would not fit properly unless his femur was shortened. Adem therefore

underwent a second amputation in Germany and convalesced there for three months. Later, his

two prostheses were fitted and he was taught how to use his new arm and how to walk.

The prostheses cost US$ 15,000. They were comfortable, and Adem used them a great deal. The

arm was so sophisticated that he was able to hold a glass of water. But now Adem has outgrown

them. He hopes to get another prosthesis for his leg at the local orthopaedic centre in Cazin,

where they are free. Adem feels no pain from his stumps. However, he thinks about the accident

every day, and sometimes wakes up from sleep in a panic. He is very sad that he can no longer

do many of the things his friends do, especially play football. Adem has never returned to the

forest where the accident happened” (www.icrc.org).

Another devastating story is

about, “Sabiha Hadzajlic, 45, and

her daughter Merima, 10, grieve

beside the grave of Merima’s

brother, Eldar. Merima and Eldar

were playing beside a stream one

day in November 2013 when he

came across a hand grenade. It

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans17

exploded when Eldar picked it up, killing him and injuring her. The village of Zunovnica is close

to an old military barracks and accidents are common” (www.icrc.org).

Conclusion

The world is getting better and globalization is transformational based on all the research

and information from this topic. There is change happening in a positive way. Landmines have

been decreasing in Bosnia and Herzegovina and awareness is spreading. In the late 90’s over

170,000 landmines were estimated to be in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By the beginning of 2015,

“the mine suspected area in BiH amounted to 1,176.5 sq. Kilometers, representing some 2.3 % of

the country’s territory. According to the estimations, there are still 120,000 mines and UXO left

in the ground throughout BiH (on approx. 9,200 locations)” (www.itf-fund.si). Increasing

awareness and getting the community involved will make the world even more of a better place.

Demining is underway in most of the affected countries by landmines. In 2007, International

Mine Action Day was marked publicly in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Also, in 2002,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, “adopted the Law on Demining, which recognized the establishment of

the BiH Mine Action Centre (BHMAC). In accordance with the law, BiH adopted the Mine

Action Strategy” (www.icrc.org). Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, “joined 122 other

States in signing the Ottawa treaty banning the use, stockpiling, production and transfer of anti-

personnel mines” (www.icrc.org). Overall, things are changing and there is a bright future.

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans18

References

1. BBC. “Pokémon Go: Bosnia players warned of minefields”. 19 July. 2016. Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36841828

2. Biach, Michael. “Bosnia Mines still kill 20 years later,” ALJAZEERA. 12 February. 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/bosnia-mines-still-kill-20-years-later-201425131626160304.html

3. BMJ. “Social cost of land mines in four countries: Afghanistan, Bosnia, Cambodia, and Mozambique”. 16 September. 1995. Retrieved from: http://www.bmj.com/content/311/7007/718?variant=full

4. Bosnia and Herzegovina. Portfolio of Mine Action Projects. 2016. Retrieved from: http://www.mineaction.org/taxonomy/term/972

5. Bosnia’s Million Bones-Book – Christian Jennings6. Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. “Landmine Impact Survey:

Bosnia and Herzegovina”. September 2003. Retrieved from: http://www.gichd.org/resources/publications/detail/publication/landmine-impact-survey-bosnia-and-herzegovina/#.V83F2JgrLIU

7. Haas, M. (2016). Bosnia conflict. Salem Press Encyclopedia. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?sid=61b344be-e4d4-46e9-9f1b-0c4d144653e8%40sessionmgr101&vid=3&hid=103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=89112487&db=ers

8. History of landmines. Retrieved from: http://members.iinet.net.au/~pictim/mines/history/history.html

9. Impact of Armed Conflicts on Children. “Land-mines: A deadly inheritance”. 2016. Retrieved from: http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm

10. International Committee of the Red Cross. “Bosnia and Herzegovina: substantial state support to Red Cross mine action”. 4 March. 2007. Retrieved from: https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/news-release/2009-and-earlier/bosnia-herzegovina-news-040407.htm

11. International Committee of the Red Cross. “Landmines: A Legacy of war”. 30 March. 2015. Retrieved from: https://www.icrc.org/en/document/landmines-legacy-war

12. International Committee of the Red Cross. “Landmines: The resilience of survivors”. 2 April. 2015. Retrieved from: https://www.icrc.org/en/document/human-toll-exacted-landmines

13. International Committee of the Red Cross. “Towards a mine free world – Europe”. 1 September. 2006. Retrieved from: https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/landmines-europe-010106.htm

14. ITF-FUND Enhancing Human Security. “Bosnia and Herzegovina”. 2016. Retrieved from: http://www.itf-fund.si/activities/southeast-europe/bosnia-and-herzegovina

15. O'Brochta, W. (2016). Did natural resource wealth motivate fighting in the Bosnian War? 9(1), 27-43. doi:10.14254/2071-8330.2016/9-1/2. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=0bc13411-3aeb-4f27-a7c4-

Post-conflit landmines in the Balkans19

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16. The Silent Menace – Landmines in Bosnia and Herzegovina https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/silent-menace-bosnia-herzegovina-57jp32-010298.pdf

17. ÜLER, A. (2016). THE DISSOLUTION OF YUGOSLAVIA: THE TRIPLE DISTRUST SYSTEM IN THE BALKANS. Gümüshane University Electronic Journal Of The Institute Of Social Science / Gümüshane Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Elektronik Dergisi, 7(16), 119-132. doi:10.17823/gusb.317 http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=bb17f957-6842-4a38-9755-5cdd8c1201f0%40sessionmgr102&vid=2&hid=114

18. Zuvela, Maja. “Balkan floods may have undone years of landmine detection,” Reuters. 20 May. 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.reuters.com/article/us-balkans-flood-landmines-idUSBREA4J0K220140520