Final Exam Notes
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Transcript of Final Exam Notes
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FINAL EXAM NOTES
CHARGE AND FIELD MODELS
Neutral objects can be pushed by a charged object
Neutral objects can produce
and electric field (dipole)
FORCE TWO CHARGES EXERT
ON EACH OTHER CAN BE THE
SAME EVEN IF THEY HAVE
DIFFERENT MAGNITUDES!
Electric Field of point charge
For electrostatics, field lines must
begin and end on charges, so we may
not just show field lines emanating
from a point.
In a plane of infinite charge
the electric field on a point
does not depend on the
distance it is away from the
plane.
Electric Field of line of charge example next page.
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Electric Field Strengths
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The field of a sphere of charge is the same as if it were all concentrated at the centre and modelled
as a point charge.
Dipoles
In a uniform field
o A point charge moves with constant acceleration
o A dipole rotates until it is aligned with the field
o NOTE DIPOLES HAVE NO NET FORCE IN UNIFORM FIELD BUT DO ROTATE FROM
FIELD
In a non-uniform field
o Dipole moves toward region of
higher field strength.
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GAUSS LAW AND CONDUCTORS IN EQUILLIBRIUM If numerous closed shapes enclose a net charge, the flux through all shapes is equal.
For Gauss Law to be effective need symmetry e.g. A surface over which the electric field is
constant. SYMMETRY OF FIELD MUST MATCH SYMMETRY OF OBJECT.
Note: flux is independent of radius and surface shape
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In conductors the electric field inside is zero if in
electrostatic equilibrium (no moving charges)
In a conductor there is no net charge if there is no charge
inside the object, meaning all charge is on the surface
If there is a hole in an object then the flux inside this must
be zero as seen in figure to the right.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Think of electric field like gravity (long range force), in uniform
field it can be said that
Energy of a SYSTEM not just one particle is given as (Note: +ve for
like charges, -ve for opposite)
Electric potential can be thought of as stretch in spring (or hands)
and the electric potential energy is the energy from this stretch
This potential depends solely on the source and its charges
Potential is the ability for something to happen (much like gravity)
if we get a charge showing up this is when we consider electric
potential energy (gravitational force).
Potential is Volts, Electric Potential Energy is Joules
Particles accelerate or deccelerate through potential
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Electric potential inside a parallel plate capacitor (s is distance from negative plate)
Not this potential is present inside all points of the capacitor
NOTE AT NEGATIVE PLATE THERE CAN STILL BE CHARGE ONLY THE DIFFERENCE MATTERS
Electric potential of a point charge (where q is the point and q is the other charge) can be
modelled as
Electric Potential of a charged sphere (R is radius of sphere and r is distance away from
surface, V0 is potential sphere is charged too.)
Electric potential obeys superposition such that
Potential of the object is measured at z=0
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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL EXAMPLES
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POTENTIAL AND FIELD
Chapter 30
Electric potential and electric field are two different ways of thinking about how source
charges affect space around them.
Potential Energy is defined as work done by a force F on charge q as it moves from position
i to position f.
Can also think of potential energy as Vf=Vi (are under Es & s curve, see below)
If force and direction of motion are orthogonal there is no work done on the object
Seperation of charge creates potential difference.
Battery potential can be seen as
Finding the electric field from potential is extremely simple
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Electrostatic force is CONSERVATIVE!
The electric potential inside a parallel
plate capacitor is from the
negative plate. This means the closer
the PROTON is to the negative plate
the larger its potential energy is.
Any two points inside a conductor will
have the same potential.
Electrostatic potential is known as the multiple of two
charges so the two situations have the same potential
(NOT ELECTRIC POTENTIAL!!!!!!!!).
With two spheres the one with the larger radius will therefore have the lowest electric
potential
Potential spreads evenly over two objects, e.g. These
two spheres have the same electric potential when the
switch is closed.
However the charge would be greater on Sphere 1 in
this diagram, there is a larger radius and as they have
the same potential we use the formula
to
realise it is a larger charge
In contrast the electric field will be greater on Sphere 2,
as it will have a greater surface charge density
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Electric field is always perpendicular to the surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium
CAPACITORS
When charged by at a battery the charge on capacitor slowly approaches battery charge
This means that the positive capacitor plate has same charge as positive battery terminal
and vice versa
IN SERIES CAPACITORS: (
)
PARALLEL CAPACITORS:
NOTE SUM OF ALL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES AROUND A CLOSED PATH IS ZERO
Current and Resistance
Electron current is
Electric field pushes the current
Current is the rate at which charge flows
Current per square metre of cross section or current density is given by
Field strength in a wire is given by
Electric field points in direction of current (From higher potential to lower potential).
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Light bulbs will have the same brightness whether in series or parallel, only current differs.
Magnetism
Magnetic fields always try to oppose each other.
Moving charges create magnetic field, using index to point to
point, thumb as velocity of particle and palm as field direction we
can say that.
(
)
Superposition holds
Can model a small segment of wire current as
Can also model a coil of wire with N
loops of ANY SHAPE as
Interesting to note that a magnet and
loop of current carrying wire create
same magnetic field
Magnets and current carrying wires just
two different types of magnetism
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Magnetic Dipole moment is simply
Amperes Law is used to calculate the magnetic field created by wires and other objects as
It should be noted that it is independent of shae of the curve
Independent of where current passes through curve
Depends only on total amount of current through area enclose by integration path
CURVE MUST BE CLOSED
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When considering a SOLENOID amperes law CHANGES to
Magnetic field can exert force on current carrying wire and hence charge.
ONLY MOVING CHARGES EXPERIENCE THIS FORCE
FORCE IS ALWAYS PERPENDICULAR TO VELOCITY AND FIELD
REVERSE ABOVE FORCES FOR NEGATIVE PARTICLE
Can have something called cyclotron motion (see right) in which
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As said before magnetic fields can have forces on current carrying wires
Parallel wires also exert magnetic field on each other creating relationship
Current loop is much like a magnetic dipole so it can be seen that they will act like magnets
when near each other.
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Torque is known to be force multiplied by distance from this we
know that
For loops to calculate torque we use the right hand rule where
pointing finger is B and the field created by the loop (current
carrying wire) is the thumb. In this example the torque is up and is
out of the page.
Electromagnetic Induction You can induce a current by changing size or orientation of circuit in stationary magnetic field OR
changing magnetic field through stationary current
Motion through magnetic field creates a potential difference
This motion creates an electric field to balance the forces (see above)
This in turn creates a motional emf (potential difference) of
From this It can be seen a current may be induced in a circuit, using right
hand rule and fact that current runs from positive to negative (like in figure
to the right) then we can find direction and magnitude using
In order for sliding wire to work and have constant velocity we must
realise that pulling force is present and is equal to the magnetic force
Also note that
Eddy current are when a loop of non
magnetic material is placed in between two
magnets. This induces a current in the loop
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and means a force must be applied to pull the loop out of the
the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field passing through a
loop and is given by
In a non-uniform magnetic field the flux is stated as
Lens Law states:
The induced emf created by this changing flux is given by Faradays Law (-ve because opposes
the change of magnetic flux)
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Changing magnetic field causes electric field in pinwheel shape.
This is called a non-coloumb electric field as it rotates.
This is created by magnetic field, where as coloumb electric field is
created by positive and negative charges.
We may calculate the electric field as
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From this we can get the equation for a solenoid
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Changing electric field also causes a magnetic field, but OPPOSITE IN
DIRECTION TO LENS LAW (Maxwells)
Maxwell found that these electromagnetic waves have speed
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Discovery used practically in generators
Transformers
Like capacitors, inductors create a uniform magnetic field by use of a solenoid
Instead of charge to voltage ratio, inductor uses flux to current
We can then find the potential difference across this using faradays law such that
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Often used as a spark, closing a switch creates a large change in current.
Electromagnetic Fields and Waves
Overview of concepts
Gauss Law: For any object enclosing a charge Qin, net electric flux is
For a magnet, continuous lines therefore
Faradays Law: An electric field and thus an emf can be created by a changing magnetic field
Ampere Maxwell Law (note this is a correction to the previous Amperes Law): Current
creates a magnetic field and magnetic flux is also a magnetic field so, B through a surface is
(
)
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The lorentz force law describes how magnetic and electric fields effect a moving particle
In Summary!
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Constant current means increasing electric field but constant
magnetic field induced.
Magnetic field depends on rate of change of charge.
For an electromagnetic wave, pointer is magnetic, thumb is
electric, palm is velocity
Electromagnetic intensity decreases linearly with time, e.g at
20km the ampliturde is half what it was at 10km
We find that:
Should be noted that is in direction of
at any point on the wave
Electromagnetic waves have an intensity, which is the average energy transfer. Intensity is
Note that light exerts momentum
It follows that radiation pressure has an effect on an object, with pressure being
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OPTICS Travelling Waves
Wave source that oscillates with simple harmonic motion generates a sinusoidal wave
Period of this wave is called, T
Useful to define something called the wave number
Displacement of a wave at time is equal to
PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS OF A WAVE DEPENDS ONLY ON RATIO OF
SEPERATION TO WAVELENGTH
PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO WAVEFRONTS IS ALWAYS 2
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Index of refraction of material is a ratio
Wavelenght in material is
E.g. in material there will be a smaller wavelength
Doppler Effect
Different wave lengths because moving source
Wavelength of approaching source will be
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NOTE THIS DIFFERS FOR THE PERSON MOVING TOWARDS SOURCE
This is because waves move through medium, we get the equations
For light waves if we calculate the wavelength from above we find that a receding
source has a red shift while an approaching source has a blue shift.
Superposition
Superposition applies to waves as well
Possible to have constructive and destructive interference
When two or more waves are present at a point in space, the displacement is equal to
the sum of the waves displacement
Interference depends on the phase difference of waves,
(
)
For sources with no phase shit max constructive and perfect destructive occur at
and (
) respectively
This is used in the real world for thin film coating on glasses (see example)
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NOTE MOTION OF WAVES DOES NOT EFFECT POINTS OF INTERFERENCE
Same equations apply for three dimensions as one dimension with r replacing x
(
)
THESE TWO ONLY APPLY IF WAVES ARE IN PHASE OTHERWISE USE PREVIOUS TWO
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Wave Optics
Light is modelled in several different ways
o Wave Model: Used under most
circumstances and true for most
o Ray Model: Light travels in a straight
line, useful for modelling lenses
o Photon Model: Deal with that later
Youngs double slit experiment
demonstrates lights wave like nature
Slits are typically 0.1mm wide and 0.5mm
apart
Light waves interfere constructively to
produce bright bands of light
Can see that
Follows that position of bright
fringes
Diffraction grating which is an opaque screen with n
slits follows the same principles
Often modelled as REFLECTION GRATING
Single slit diffraction:
Dominated by central maximum of
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Ray Optics
Objects are either self-luminous (sun, torch) or reflective (tree, people) The ray model states:
o Light Rays travel in straight lines o Rays can cross o Travel forever unless contact with matter o Object is a source of light rays o Eye sees by diverging bundles of rays.
Rays originate from every point on an object
Object and image heights related by ratio
Light reflects at the same angle it collided with material at
Refraction occurs when material passes from one material to the other
Not all light is refracted, some is reflected
NOTE ANGLE IS MEASURED FROM LINE PERPENDICULAR TO SURFACE
A point is reached where all light is reflected, Total Internal Reflection
(
)
Vergence is the curvature of wavefront. Curvature of wavefront is
The radius of the vergence is directly related to the vergence itself such that
{
}
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Mirrors are used to direct light, given by equation
Vergence for a mirror is
NOTE VERGENCE POSITIVE FOR CONVERGING NEGATIVE FOR DIVERGING
Lenses (spherical interfaces) are used to direct
light, given by equation
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Power can also be written as (noting that nin is the concave side and nout is the convex)
Magnification is quite simply defined for mirrors and lens as
Possible to define thin lens equation where there are two
interfaces next to each other (see figure to the right)
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Eye can see to an angular size of
If a single converging lens is used this
angle can be even smaller such that
using small angle approximation
This leaves the magnification to be
With a microscope this can be improved on even more so that we have a magnification
The light gathering power of a microscope is also an important
aspect, measured in numerical aperture, NA, it is defined as
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Telescopes are another useful optical aperture with their magnification given by
In magnification there is still diffraction (occurs passing through hole of any shape) as
the ray model of light is not complete
This means there is a central maximum, meaning there is a minimum spot size able to be
projected
In a real world situation it is difficult to produce a lens
with a focal length less than its diameter so in reality
Minimum angular resolution of a lens is called Rayleighs
criterion
X-ray diffraction occurs when rays of very short
wavelengths pass through the crystalline structures of
materials.
X-rays strongly reflect when their angle of incidence is
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RELATIVITY Reference Frames are the main concept to understand, once understood relativity
should be easy, they can be said to
o Extend infinitely in all directions
o Experimenters are at rest in the frame
o Velocity and distance is measured accurately from this frame
Important to define an event as an activity that takes place at a definitive point at a
definitive time in space. They are what REALLY happen.
However measuring the event is the difficulty
In each reference frame to measure events you must use metre sticks and clocks in
that reference frame only
Note the time t is the time the event ACTUALLY happened.
SIMULTANEITY is when two events at different positions occur at the SAME time in a
reference frame.
Exploding firecracker on a moving cart experiment to explain simultaneity
S commonly used to refer to rest frame of the moving object.
Consider clock in moving frame. This clock measures the proper time such that measuring a
time outside this reference frame yields the result
Often said that the time interval between two ticks is the shortest in the reference frame
where the clock is at rest.
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Considering twin paradox, both twins think they will have the younger sibling.
But this is not true as theory of relativity only holds in inertial reference frames and
the second sibling goes there and back so person on earth would be older
Length contraction also occurs given by relationship. Where is the proper length of
object
Can use the spacetime interval to compare events in all inertial reference frames as
it is the same in all intervals
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Galilean transforms are not valid in reference
frames close to the speed of light
Must use Lorentz Transformations, which all use the
value
The equations are then given as
Should be noted that the x-values are only valid
where and when the event actually occurs not where they are after a certain time.
Should also be noted that the y and z values stay the same, e.g .
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There is also variation between the traditional velocity
transforms as seen to the right
Where u is the frame of the moving object, v is the
velocity between frames and u is from a separate rest
frame.
Again there is variation between traditional
momentum and relativistic motion and we see that the
law of conservation of momentum does not hold at
large speeds. Momentum is actually given by
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From this we can see that it is impossible for an object to go faster than the speed of
light as more and more energy is required to accelerate and object and an infinite
amount of energy is required to accelerate an object to the speed of light.
It follows that an object has a rest energy and a kinetic energy of total
In this equation it should be noted that E0
ALWAYS has an energy regardless of the
reference frame
The subscript p implies we are referring to
motion within a reference frame NOT motion
of two reference frames relative to each other
Note mass is not conserved, consider two colliding clay balls at same speed, if they collide
and mould there will be no velocity and due to conservations of energy
From this we learn that for conservation of energy to be true
( )
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So mass and energy can be transferred but are NOT the same thing (think of fission).
Skipped most of End of Classical Physics Chapter but a few useful things
One electron volt is kinetic energy gained by an electron or proton if it accelerates
through a potential difference of one volt
Quantization
Electromagnetic waves can be artificially created
By shining light of a certain frequency at a substance you may
emit electrons. Consider following experiment.
Battery used to create potential difference and noted a few
discoveries
1. Current is directly proportional to the intensity of light
2. When light is applied current occurs spontaneously
3. Only emitted if a certain frequency, threshold frequency,
is exceeded.
4. Threshold frequency depends on metal that cathode is
made of.
5. Positive potential difference creates no change in current
as increase. Negative potential difference does change
current until at some point the change in voltage makes
the current stop
6. This value is the same for all light intensities.
This shows that a minimum energy is required to free an electron from a metal such that
We can consider the voltage required to stop an electron freed from the cathode as it
approaches the anode to be
However this classical interpretation does not account for a threshold frequency
Einstein saw this and created his model that accounts for a threshold frequency
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EINSTEINS EXPLANATION
Atoms vibrate with a frequency of f
Energy of an atom vibrating with frequency, f, has to have energy
Einstein states that light arrives in light packets, called a Light Quantam, and each light
quantam has energy
Think of rain analogy, generally water flows like light, but with rain we get it in drops. The
difference is intensity e.g intense energy is lots of rain or lots of light
Einsteins three statements about light quanta
1. All photons with energy travel at the speed of light
2. Light quanta absorbed on all or nothing basis, e.g. substances can only emit or
absorb 1,2 or 3 quanta, not 1.5
3. Light quanta when absorbed by an electron gives ALL of its energy to ONE electron
This lead us to the discovery that
IF this where E0 is the energy required to remove an electron, then the
electron leaves the metal becoming a photoelectron.
This gives us the previously stated threshold frequency
If the frequency is less than this threshold frequency, even for high intensity light no
electrons will be ejected
{
}
NOTE: Threshold frequency is directly proportional to
the work function, metals with low work functions=low
threshold and vice versa.
This leads to us discovering that
These light quanta later given the name photons
No perfect analogy for a photon, some work well in
some situations but not in others, however the
energy created by photons arriving at a point is
defined as power:
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It was postulated by De Broglie that matter can have a wave like nature
De Broglie then found that the wavelength of matter with momentum
This means that matter undergoes interference like double slit experiment
Considering a matter wave to be a travelling wave that is
confined to a box
This creates something called a standing wave that has
a constant path
Wavelength must be
To satisfy this and the de Broglie wavelength formula
This means that energy of a confined particle is quantised e.g. has certain energies
Can rewrite this as
Older models for atoms didnt explain stability or discrete spectra
Bohrs model does and implies that
1. Atom consists of negative electrons orbiting a positive nucleus (Rutherford)
2. Atoms can only exist in certain stationary states
3. Each of these states has a certain energy level En where E1< E2< E3< E4.
4. Ground state E1 is stable and will always exist, other states may not, called excited
states
5. Atom can jump from one state to the other by absorbing or emitting a photon
6. By absorbing photon it goes to a higher state
7. By emitting it goes to a lower state
8. Atom always seeks the lower state
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Main additions to the Rutherford model are atoms can only exist at certain states
and that atoms can jump from one state to another by absorbing just the right
frequencies such that energy is conserved.
This model implies that
1. Matter is stable
2. Atoms only emit certain spectra due to the set frequency and energy levels
3. Spectra can be produced by collisions such as experiment at beginning of chapter
4. This causes only certain wavelengths to be seen in spectra (suns show certain
colours)
5. This means each element has a certain spectra
Particularly useful to observe a
hydrogen atom
After a long amount of calculations we
find that there are set values for atom
Note that the energies of the stationary states are negative as energy is required to
keep the proton and electron near each other, e.g. it would take 13.60eV of energy
to remove electron from ground state, hence E is called the ionisation energy
It follows that electron must also have a certain momentum of
We can find the wavelength emitted by a hydrogen atom when the state is altered
It turns out these formulas work for all hydrogen-like ions in which there is one
electron and there is an atomic number Z (He has Z=2, Li has Z=3)
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Wave functions and Uncertainty
Considering the double slit experiment there is no
definite place where a photon will land.
It is all probability with
Combining this photon model with the wave model we
can decipher that
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This equation is the statement that the probability of detecting a photon at a
particular point is directly proportional to the light wave amplitude function
Now we need to make an assumption that there is a continuous wave function for
matter that is analogous for that of an electromagnetic amplitude function
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Only real difference here is that (x) is for particles and A(x) is for photons
From this we can realise that the position of an atomic size particle is not well
defined, however the function (x) defines it, it is like with x(t) in classical physics
Should be noted the particle has a 100% chance of hitting somewhere.
Can split up the place we are observing into many different slits to form an equation
for the number of photons that will hit the area
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Previously we have described objects as either a particle
or a wave but wave packets can account for the various
properties of both
Localisation is particle like
Undergoes diffraction and interaction like wave
Not entirely accurate but helpful for visualising problems
Only approximately accurate because packets come in
many different shapes and no precise definition of the
time and frequency
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It is interesting as you cannot define exactly when the wave packet arrives at a point
(would you consider the front or centre)
Because spread out over time you cannot say, therefore known formula is lower
limit and it is actually better to say
Matter has wave like characteristics so this equation must apply to matter also.
Time interval is duration of wave packet as it passes a point
Any sinusoidal wave must satisfy
This leads us to the conclusion that the position and momentum of a particle cannot
be known for certain with the statement
This statement also applies for the y-axis
As a basic this equation implies that if we measure a particles position x, with some
uncertainty then the
smaller this uncertainty
is the larger the
uncertainty for
momentum HAS to be
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Schrodingers equation is a method of calculating the wave function as discussed
previously
Considering particle with mass m, and mechanical energy E that can have its
interactions with the surrounding environment characterised in one dimension by a
potential energy function U(x) we have an equation
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JUST PRAY TO GOD THIS DOESN'T COME UP IN THE EXAM
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Permittivity of free space - 0=8.854*10^-12 F m-1
Permeability of free space - 0=4*10^-7 N A-2
Coulomb Constant - k=1/(40)=8.998*109 N M2 C-2
Electron charge - e=1.602*10-19 C
Electron mass - me=9.109*10-31 kg
Proton mass - mp=1.673*10-27 kg
Unified atomic mass - u=1.661*10-27 kg
Planck constant - h=6.626*10-34 J s
Reduced planck constant - hbar=1.055*10-34 J s
Avogadro Number - NA=6.022*1023 mol-1
EQUATIONS
ELECTRICS
Coulombs Law
Electric Field of a Pont Charge
Electric Field of Dipole on Axis
Electric Field of Dipole Perpendicular
Surface Charge Density
Linear Charge Density
Electric Field of Point Charge
Electric Field of Infinite Line
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Electric Field of Infinite Plane
Electric Field of Sphere
Parallel Plate Capacitor Electric Field
Note outside the plates E=0
Force on a moving charged particle
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Acceleration on particle (assuming electric field is only force)
Circular Motion in a non-uniform electric field | |
Dipole Torque in Uniform Field
(torque greatest when p is perpendicular to E)
Electric Flux
Gausss Law
Charge on a conductor in equillibrium
Electrical Energy
Energy of a system (not particle)
Note: +ve for like charges, -ve for opposite
Potential energy of a Dipole
Theta is angle between dipole and field
Electric Potential Energy (V=Electric Potential)
Potential inside a parallel plate capacitor
Electric Potential of a point charge
Electric Potential of a Charged Sphere
Sum of Electric Potential
Potential Energy
Battery Potential Energy
Electric Potential from Field
Charge on Capacitor
Capacitor in Series (
)
Capacitor in Parallel
Electron current
Current Density
Field Strength in Wire
Resistivity & Conductivity
Resistance
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Power of Battery
Energy of battery
MAGNETISM
Biot Savart Law (
)
Small segment of wire
Magnetic field at centre of coil
Magnetic field Dipole
Magnetic Dipole Moment created by current loop
Amperes Law
Magnetic field through solenoid
Magnetic field force on moving particle
Cyclotron Motion
Force on current carrying wires
Force on parallel wires
Torque
Motional emf
Induced current in a wire
Magnetic flux
Faradays Law (induced emf by changing flux)
Faradays Law alternative (for induced electric field)
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Emf in generator
Inductance
Potential difference across an inductor
Ampere-Maxwell Law (
)
Lorentz force Law
Velocity of Electromagnetic Wave
Intensity of electromagnetic Wave
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Radiation pressure from EM waves
IMPORTANT EQUATIONS
OPTICS
Velocity of wave
Wavelength of wave
Displacement of a wave at time zero in one dimension
Wave number
Displacement of wave at any time
Index of refraction
Wavelength in material
Doppler Effect for source approaching person
Doppler Effect for source receding from person
Doppler effect for person approaching source ( )
Doppler effect for person receding from source ( )
Maximum constructive interference
Perfect destructive interference
(
)
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Youngs Double Slit Experiment
Diffraction Grating
Single Slit Diffraction
Distance and Height relationship
Snells Law of Refraction
Total Internal Reflection (
)
Vergences {
}
Focal Point
Mirror Equation
Mirror Vergence
Lens Vergence
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Power for Lens
In is concave, out is convex
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Magnification for lens and mirrors
Thin Lens Equation
[
]
Power in air
Angular size of unaided eye
Angular size of object with lens
Angular Magnification
Microscope magnification
Light gathering power
Telescope Magnification
Central maximum
Minimum central maximum
Rayleighs Criterion (minimum resolution of a lens)
X-ray reflection
RELATIVITY
Time Dilation
Length Contraction
Spacetime Interval
Lorentz Transforms
Lorentz velocity Transforms
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Relativistic motion
Relativistic energy
MODERN PHYSICS
Classical Photoelectric effect
Energy of a photon
Einstein Stopping Potential
Photon Power
De Broglie Wavelength
Energy of confined particle
Hydrogen Atom radii
Hydrogen Atom electron velocity
Hydrogen Atom Ionisation Energy
Hydrogen Electron Angular Momentum
Wavelength emitted in hydrogen atom
Hydrogen Like Ions (only one electron)
Photon experiment expected photons in an area
Photon experiment expected photons in an area w.r.t light intensity
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Wave Function for matter | |
Amount of matter in an area | |
Wave packet Lower Limit
Wave packet actuality
Heisenberg Principle
Build an empire on methamphetamines and
Schrodingers Equation
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