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Introduction A former speech-writer in the White House, Peggy Noonan, wrote in her political memoir: A speech is poetry: cadence, rhythm, imagery, sweep! A speech reminds us that words, like children, have the power to make dance the dullest beanbag of a heart.1 The book of Acts certainly has this power. Scholars habitually consider that a third of Acts is written in the form of speeches, comprising approximately 295 verses of 1,000 in the book.2 Bruce offers a concise but helpful categorisation of the discourses in Acts: missionary, deliberative, apologetic and hortatory speeches.3 The present study is concerned with the missionary4 speeches delivered by one of the main characters in Acts: Paul. Luke depicts three Pauline evangelistic discourses in Acts. The first is delivered in Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:13-52), the second in Lystra (Acts 14:15-17) and the third in Athens (17:22-31). When Lukes Paul preaches to non-Christians, what does he say? What is the content of his message? Which are the common elements in all the speeches? This paper aims to examine the content of Pauls missionary proclamation as described in Acts and compare this proclamation with evangelistic preaching in modern times.

I. Pauls Missionary Speech in Pisidian Antioch - Acts 13:16-41

1 Noonan, Revolution, p. 39. 2 E.g., Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 103. 3 Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 38. 4 In this paper, the term missionary will be used interchangeably with the term evangelistic in relation to the speeches.

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This speech is crucial for the understanding of the Lucan presentation of Pauls message to nonbelievers for several reasons. It is the first occasion that Luke presents the content of a Pauline speech (in Acts 9:20, 27-28; 11:26 and 13:5 Luke simply mentions the fact).5 Secondly, it is the longest Pauline speech described by Luke in the book of Acts. Thirdly, it is the only report of the content of a Pauline missionary sermon delivered in a synagogue.6 Pisidian Antioch was the main Roman colony in the Greek East. It was the administrative and civil centre of that part of the Galatian province.7 A strong Jewish settlement with a synagogue community was found in the city (13:14).8 Luke reports that it was Pauls custom to visit the local synagogue on the first Sabbath after his arrival in a new city (17:2).9 Pisidian Antioch was no exception (13:14).10 After the reading of the law and the prophets, the rulers11 of the synagogue gave Paul and Barnabas the opportunity to share a word of exhortation to those in the synagogue (13:15). In Greek rhetoric manner, Paul stood up, gestured with his hands and began his discourse (13:16).

A. History of Gods Activities for Israel (13:16b-25)

Luke initiates his report of Pauls speech with the following words: You Israelites, and others who fear God, listen (Acts 13:16b). This synagogue in Pisidian Antioch was attended by Diaspora Jews and by non-Jews who 5 Gaventa, Acts, p. 196. 6 Haenchen, Acts, p. 415 affirms that Lukes intention is to show how Paul spoke to a synagogue audience. Schnabel, Paul, pp. 156-162, concurs and uses this sermon to exemplify Pauls missionary message to a Jewish audience. 7 Witherington, Acts, p. 405. 8 Dunn, Beginning from Jerusalem, p. 425. 9 Gempf, The Book of Acts, p. 152. 10 Other allusions in Acts to this Pauline practice include: Salamis, 13:5; Iconium, 14:1; Thessalonica, 17:2; Beroea, 17:10; Athens, 17:17; Corinth, 18:4; Ephesus, 18:19; 19:8. 11 Barret, The Acts of the Apostles: A Shorter Commentary, p. 200 notes that there was normally one president or official of the synagogue. It was his responsibility to coordinate the service. More than one president, as in this case, implies a large community.

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had become associated with Judaism. Pauls audience was certainly familiar with the Old Testament and that is where he begins. Gaventa correctly notes that two elements distinguish this section of the speech: the presentation of the history of Israel as the history of Gods activities for his people and the emphasis on John the Baptist.12 Paul clearly portrays God as the subject of every action in Israels history. God is the one who chose Israels ancestors (13:17), who led Israel out of Egypt (13:17), who put up with them in the wilderness (13:18), who destroyed Israels enemies (13:19), who gave them the Promised Land and the judges (13:19, 20), who gave them Saul as a king (13:21), who removed Saul from his position (13:22), who then made David the king (13:22) and who brought a saviour to Israel (13:23). Paul highlights the fact that God is always the initiator of every redemptive interaction with His people. He wants his listeners to notice that Israels history is actually the history of Gods activities for his people. The apostle builds this important foundation with a goal. He wants to demonstrate that God has continued to act for the salvation of his people and Jesus life and deeds are at the core of Gods initiatives. Schnabel accurately observes that the inclusion of characters such as Samuel, Saul, David and John reminds the audience not only of Gods deeds in Israels history, but also gives evidence to the fact that Gods decisive act of salvation would be focused on a specific redeemer figure.13 Noticeably, Pauls description of the history of Israel reaches its climax in the coming of Jesus.14

1. Fulfilment Motif

Pauls arguments seek to demonstrate to a congregation familiar with the Old Testament how Jesus fulfilled its promises. The theme of fulfilment is

12 Gaventa, Acts, pp. 198-199. 13 Schnabel, Paul, p. 159. 14 Pelikan, Acts, p. 156.

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certainly crucial in this speech and can be clearly identified by the numerous references (Acts 13:23, 27, 29, 32, 33, 47). Paul is keen to attest that Jesus life and deeds are the fulfilment of the promises (Acts 13: 23, 25, 29, 30, 31).15 It is especially important to note that, in Pauls discourse, Jesus is represented as Davids heir in whom Davids prophecies are fulfilled (13:23). The Old Testament background for this promise is found in 2 Samuel 7. God promises David, through the words of prophet Nathan, that he would establish the throne of his kingdom forever. In time this promise was reformulated in terms of a future David (Jer 30:9; Hos 3:5; Ezek 37:24-25) and even of a coming Messiah (e.g. Dan 9:25). Paul explains to his audience that Jesus, who was born of Davidic lineage, is the Messiah that had been promised.16 Referring to David he affirms: of this mans posterity God has brought to Israel a Saviour, Jesus, as he promised (13:23). The Messiah has come to save Israel, Paul proclaims, as it had been foretold in the Old Testament.

2. John the Baptist

The ministry of John the Baptist plays a central role in the reasoning of Paul, according to Luke. Its reference in Pauls message appears immediately after his announcement of Jesus as the Messiah in the Davidic lineage (13:24, 25). John is portrayed as the last prophet to announce the coming of the Messiah.

Polhill correctly observes that John the Baptist was the link-figure who unified the period of Israel and the period of Gods new community in Christ.17 Interestingly, it is not clear in Pauls speech if John belongs with

15 Barret, Acts, I:623 16 Barrett, Acts, I:623. 17 Polhill, Acts, p. 301.

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the period of Israel or the period of Christ. The very fact that John was placed between the description of Gods deeds for Israel (13:16b-25) and the report on the life and work of Jesus (13:26-37) emphasizes his transitional role.18 The sermon highlights Johns recognition of his precursor status in reference to Jesus as the promised Messiah (13:25). Johns proclamation, Paul observes, is in fact a Christological annunciation (13:25).19

B. The Death, Resurrection, and Witness of Jesus (13:26-37) 1. Crucifixion of Jesus

It is important to note that before speaking of the death of Jesus Paul resolves to repeat his opening address with a few variations (1326). This is possibly to show his audience that the message about the Saviour (cf. 13:23) is directed to them and deserves their attention.20 The fulfilment motif undoubtedly dominates Pauls speech. It is again notably seen when he proceeds to describe the death of the Messiah, which represents a central theme in his message (13:27, 29). Paul blames the Jerusalemites for the death of the Messiah. He identifies the actions of the residents of Jerusalem with their failure to understand Scripture (13:27)21 and seeks to prove that they handled Christ in such a way that not one of the prophecies of Scripture was neglected.22 The apostle makes it clear that the agents of Jesus execution actually fulfilled the prophecies of the Old Testament by condemning him (13:27). Jesus died, the Pauline discourse clearly states, because God said it was going to happen (13:27-29).

18 Polhill, Acts, p. 301. 19 Fitzmyer, Acts, pp. 513-514. 20 Marshall, Acts, p. 225. 21 Gaventa, Acts, p. 199. 22 Calvin, Acts, p. 6:374.

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Paul explains that the people of Jerusalem failed to understand what Scriptures had foretold in regard to the Messiah and did not recognise that Jesus was actually the Messiah they had been waiting for. They killed the one who had been promised by God. Jesus death was not an accident or a scandal, Paul assures his listeners. It all happened according to Gods plan. Paul wanted his audience to accept that Jesus was indeed the Messiah who died according to the will of God.

2. Resurrection of Jesus

As mentioned previously, Paul describes God as the subject of every action in the history of redemption. The same pattern continues in the resurrection of the Messiah. Paul introduces this theme in 13:30 by explicitly stating but God raised him from the dead. The contrast is rather strong. The use of the word , but, before the report of Gods action reinforces the contrast Paul is explaining. Whereas the inhabitants of Jerusalem killed Jesus, as Scriptures had anticipated, God brought him back to life. Luke displays Pauls words so as to demonstrate that the resurrection of Christ, just as his death, is part of the implementation of the divine plan of salvation.23 Paul bases his argument for Jesus resurrection on two elements: witnesses (13:31) and the fulfilment of Scriptures (13:33-37). The resurrection of Jesus was witnessed by his followers, those who came up with him from Galilee to Jerusalem (13:31) before the crucifixion. Paul attests that Jesus repeatedly appeared to them after his resurrection (13:31) and as a result they have become his witnesses to the people. According to Paul, the promises that God one day made to Israels ancestors have been fulfilled by the resurrection of Jesus. Paul uses three quotations of Scripture to support his argument. He first mentions Psalm 2:7,24 identifying Jesus with the son of God (13:34). He then cites two

23 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 515. 24Gaventa, Acts, p. 200 notes this is a text that early Christians identified with Jesus (Acts 4:25-26; Heb 1:5; 5:5).

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other texts from the Old Testament, Isaiah 55:3 (13:34) and Psalm 16:10 (13:35). Through these two passages Paul stresses the superiority of Jesus over David as the receiver of the promises and as the Holy One, who died, was buried and then rose again, as opposed to David who died, was buried and decayed (13:37) The apostle intends his listeners to understand that Scripture is once again fulfilled in the person of Jesus. He is indeed the Messiah who died and rose again according to Gods promises to His people.

C. Concluding Offer and Warning (13:38-41) 1. Forgiveness of Sins and Justification by Faith

Luke proceeds to describe the two effects of Christs death and resurrection, according to Paul: forgiveness of sins and justification (13:38-39). These two accomplishments of the Christ-event are clearly linked in Pauls address. Gods offer of forgiveness through Jesus justifies all people who believe. It is important to note that Paul is implicitly announcing the need of repentance by proclaiming the forgiveness of sins through the person of Jesus (13:38). There seems to be controversy among scholars in regard to the understanding of Pauls affirmation in verse 39. Interpreters are not unanimous in their view of whether Paul refers to justification in Jesus for some particular sins for which the law is ineffective or whether he is talking about the general impotence of the law.25 According to Witherington, it is plausible that Paul is making a comparison rather than a contrast between the law of Moses and what is accomplished by Jesus. In his view, the verse could mean that the law of Moses was 25Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 279; Conzelmann, Acts, p. 106; Fitzmyer, Acts, pp. 518-519; Haechen, Acts, p. 412; Marshall, Acts, p. 228; Polhill, Acts, p. 305, believe Paul is teaching that the Law cannot justify even partly and full justification is found in Jesus. Witherington, Acts, p. 413, suggests the verse could indicate that the Law justified partly and justification for the other sins is now found in Jesus. Johnson, Acts, p. 236 and Gaventa, Acts, p. 201 consider the verse is not clear and therefore it is not possible to know exactly what Paul meant.

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capable of setting people free from a number of sins, but in Jesus people could be free from all of them. Witherington substantiates his argument by recalling that, in the Old Testament, sin offerings expiated unintended sins, but no sin offering could expiate sins committed deliberately or with premeditation.26 Bruce disagrees and argues that Paul is not making partial but total claims for the power of the gospel over against the law.27 In his understanding, the apostle is teaching that the Mosaic law could never justify anyone from anything and complete justification can now be received through Jesus. Bruce presents two convincing arguments to sustain his opinion. Firstly, nothing in the context of Pauls words seem to suggest that the sacrificial law is in view.28 Secondly, this interpretation is certainly closer to Pauls teaching on justification found in his writings.29 Paul uses the idea of justification in his letters to assert that nobody could be put right with God on the basis of his efforts to keep Gods law (Gl 2:16; Rm 3:20-22). Only through believing in Jesus can an individual be in a right relationship with God. It is exactly this idea that is expressed in Pauls discourse by the term , justified(13:39). 30 The apostle states that all that believe are justified (13:39). His words clearly imply that not only Jews, but Gentiles as well can receive forgiveness. The speech communicates the universal character of the Gospel.

2. Final Warning

Paul concludes his speech with another Scriptural passage. He quotes from Habakkuk 1:5, in the LXX version (13:41). This episode speaks of Israels failure to recognize the invasion of the Chaldeans as divine judgement. The 26 Witherington, Acts, p. 413. 27 Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 263. 28 Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 311. 29 Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles, pp. 311-312. 30 Marshall, Acts, p. 228.

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apostle uses this prophecy as a warning of the danger that those who hear his discourse may not accept that Jesus is the Saviour whom God has sent to his people.31 Paul is probably referring to the resurrection of Jesus when he mentions the , work, that God has done (Acts 13:41, quoting Hab 1:5) which many Jews have refused to believe.32 Paul seems to say that God would once again bring judgement upon His people if they did not accept the forgiveness of sins and justification offered through His Son, Jesus. The prophecy is evidently a warning about the urgency of the proclaimed message and the consequences of not accepting it. Conclusion Pauls first speech registered in the book of Acts is found in Acts 13:16-41. It is presented in a Synagogue to Jews and non-Jews associated with Judaism. The analysis of its content is vital for it is the only description of a Pauline evangelistic sermon preached in a synagogue. The fulfilment motif dominates and permeates the entire discourse. Paul begins by reminding his audience of some of the key moments in the history of Israel, which he describes as the history of Gods saving acts for his people. This is crucial for the development of his arguments. Paul wants his audience to see that God continues to be active in the redemption of his people. John the Baptist plays a central role in Pauls speech. He is the link between the two periods of Israels redemptive history. John himself pointed to the coming Saviour. Paul proceeds to describe the death and the resurrection of Jesus, who he calls the son of God. He was killed by the residents of Jerusalem but was raised by God. Through faith in him

31 Schnabel, Paul, p. 161. 32 Schnabel, Paul, p. 161.

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forgiveness of sins and justification are available to all. Those who do not accept it will be subject to Gods judgement. Pauls evangelistic sermon in Pisidian Antioch is centred in the redemptive actions of God in Israels history. Its focal point is the death and resurrection of Jesus, the Messiah, through whom forgiveness of sins and justification are offered.

II. Pauls Missionary Speech in Lystra - Acts 14:15-17

The second Pauline missionary discourse to be analysed is narrated in Acts 14:15-17. This is the first speech in Acts given to a purely pagan audience and the only address Paul gives to illiterate pagans. A brief description of the context is needed for a correct understanding of the speechs content. In Acts 14 Luke describes Paul and Barnabas missionary activities in Lystra. God uses Paul to heal a crippled man (14:8-10). This generated a notable reaction from the people of Lystra, who identified Paul with Hermes and Barnabas with Zeus (14:11-13). The Lystrans tried to honour Paul and Barnabas as gods, but the apostles reacted firmly by tearing their clothes in protest and giving a short address to the people.

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Lukes narrative gives the impression that both Paul and Barnabas delivered the speech (14:15). Nevertheless, as Polhill notes, it is probably a reasonable assumption that Paul was the spokesman.33 Luke tells us that the people of Lystra referred to Paul as Hermes because he was the chief speaker (14:12).

A. Lystra

Lystra was a small country town in Pauls day which had received the status of a Roman colony in 6 B.C. A military road connected Lystra with Pisidian Antioch, the other colony city in the region, approximately 100 miles northwest.

As commonly seen in other places under Roman dominion, the people of Lystra were adepts of polytheism and believed that gods could take human form. Ovid, a Roman poet, narrates a previous visit of Zeus and Hermes to this region. They came in human form looking for a place to stay. No one, but a poor elderly couple, opened their house to them. As a consequence, the inhabitants of the region were destroyed and the elderly couple was rewarded with a temple and became its priests.34 Moreover, there are epigraphy indications of the combined worship of Zeus and Hermes in that region, including a stone altar discovered near Lystra dedicated to these gods.35 It is not surprising, therefore, that they seek to worship Paul and Barnabas as the personification of Hermes and Zeus. The Lystrans possibly wanted to avoid punishment and receive any reward that the gods may want to give.

B. Examination of the Speechs Content 1. A Defence of Monotheism

Paul begins by asking the Lystrans why they were worshiping him and Barnabas if they were simply humans. As Gempf remarks, the man that 33 Polhill, Acts, p. 315. 34 Ovid, Metamorphoses, VIII: 624-724, as cited by Gempf, Mission and Misunderstanding, p. 62. 35 Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 292.

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God had chosen to carry his message safely to the Gentiles was taken for the messenger god.36 Through his question Paul is challenging one of the basic practices of the Roman pagan world: the veneration of human beings. The apostle immediately proceeds to argue against the existence of multiple gods, another pillar of the pagan religious system. He does it by explicitly contrasting the Lystrans religious tradition, which he calls worthless things, with the living God (14:15). The Greek word used in Lukes writing is the adjective , meaning idle, empty or useless. This term was already used in the LXX to describe the gods of the pagans (e.g., Lev 17:7; 1 Kings 16:2, 13). It was also often used in Jewish literature of the Second Temple.37 Gaventa observes that this beginning point of contrast echoes conventional Jewish treatments of idolatry (E.g., Isa 44:9-20; Wis 13-15; Philo, Decalogue 66-81).38 His assertion becomes even more intense due to the context in which he speaks. To a pluralistic audience he proclaims that these pagan gods are vain things, in contrast with a living God, the implication being that pagan gods were not living, and that they could not intervene in the affairs of men.39 Paul proclaims a foundational Jewish truth found in the Torah: God is one (Deut 6:4). He refers to God as , living God. At the same time, it is very interesting to note that Paul does not make explicit reference to Scriptures. He does not appeal to an authority which, by definition, his hearers would not accept.40 The apostle does not quote the Old Testament, but uses Scriptural language to preach a truth of divine revelation.41

36 Gempf, Mission and Misunderstanding, p. 59. 37 Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, II:1117. For some examples of the term, see Testament of Abraham A 1:7; Testament of Dan 4:1; Letter of Aristeas 134.4; 137.1; 139.6; 205.3; 321.5. 38 Gaventa, Acts, pp. 207-208. 39 Gill and Winter, Acts and Roman Religion, p. 85. 40 Barrett, Acts, I:680 41 Schnabel, Paul, p. 166.

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The expression living God is often used in the Old Testament when the point is to emphasize the power of God over against the idols of pagan nations (E.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; 1 Sam 17:26, 36; 2 Kings 19:4, 16; Dan 5:23). Schnabel rightly makes two observations about the predicate living. Firstly, it must be linked with those passages in which the living God of Israel is described as the source of life (Ps 35:10; 41:2; 83:3; Jer 2:13; 17:13). Secondly, it indicates at the same time that the God of Israel, who is the creator of life, saves from death.42 The apostle, thus, begins his discourse by proclaiming monotheism and asking his audience to turn from dead gods to the living God.

2. Turning to the Living God

Even though he was speaking to a very pluralistic audience, Paul does not ask his listeners to add the God of Israel to their list of worshipped gods. He tells them to turn to the living God. He instructs the people of Lystra to repent from their idolatrous practices and begin serving only one God, which would mean acquiring a totally new way of living. Several interpreters do not give the proper attention to this aspect of the speech.43 Schnabel, on the other hand, identifies the force of what Paul is communicating. He notes that The action of turning away from the traditional deities involves ending the practice of bowing before an image of ones favourite deity, which perhaps stood in the central market square. Turning away meant abstaining from visiting temples and refraining from offering sacrifices. It meant no longer praying to Tyche, the god of fortune; to Asclepius, the god of healing; to Apollo, the god of youth, music and prophecy; to Artemis, the goddess of childbirth; to Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty; or to the Lares, the protectors of the family and the guardian spirit of the home.44 42 Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, II:1117. 43 Barret, Acts, I:679-682; Fitzmyer, Acts, pp. 529-532; Gaventa, Acts, p. 207-208; Haenchen, Acts, pp. 428-434 are extremely succinct in their commentaries of this portion of the speech, failing to explore the depth of such message to a pluralistic pagan society. 44 Schnabel, Paul, p. 165.

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Paul was certainly aware of the price of his demand in such a context. His words demonstrate that, in the apostles view, the type of message he was proclaiming required a serious response from those who listened. It is necessary to note that the need of turning to the living God is proclaimed as the good news in Pauls speech (14:15). Immediately after saying to the people of Lystra that he and Barnabas were announcing good news, Paul speaks about the necessity of turning from worthless things to the living God. Good news and repentance are linked in Pauls discourse to the Lystrans. The possibility of relating exclusively to the one true God and the need to turn to him was the good news that the apostles were bringing. After proclaiming the existence of only one God and requiring his audience to turn to him, Paul reveals three descriptions of the living God in his address.

3. Description of the Living God a. The Creator

The first truth about the living God that Paul wants the people of Lystra to know is that he is the creator of all things (14:15). He uses the same threefold division of creation as the Old Testament (e.g., Exod 20:11). Paul is communicating another basic foundation of the Jewish faith, as demonstrated by the fact that the Torah begins with an affirmation of the creation of the universe by the one true God (Gen 1:1).45 Zeus was worshiped by many in southern Asia as the creator who gave life to living things.46 It can be concluded that Paul is directly confronting the Lystrans beliefs by proclaiming another God who is the true creator and therefore worthy of their adoration. 45 Schnabel, Paul, p. 166. 46 Witherington, Acts, p. 426.

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b. The Goodness of God The second truth about the living God that is revealed in this discourse is related to his goodness towards humankind (14: 17-18). Paul affirms that in previous generations God allowed all the nations to live according to their ways (14:16). Schnabel seems to be right when suggesting that Paul is referring specifically to the worship of false and vain gods.47 This is probably the case considering the speechs focus on the existence of only one true God (as clearly seen in 14:15). Paul is implicitly affirming that up to that moment God deliberately decided not to give a direct revelation of himself to pagan nations. God has been merciful and has tolerated their wrong ways. Nonetheless, he insinuates that God will suffer it no longer.48 Despite their mistakes God has not left himself without testimony (14:17). God has demonstrated his goodness by giving them rain from heaven and crops in their seasons (14:17). Gods kindness can be perceived, according to Pauls words, by the natural provision always available to all nations. God has given witness of himself in the good things that he has made in creation or given to humanity. In such natural blessings God has left traces of his deity to all nations.49 According to Paul, God has never abandoned the pagan nations; on the contrary, he has continually manifested his kindness through his works in nature. The one living God proclaimed by the apostle to the Lystrans is also the God who does good (14:17), , to all humanity.

c. The God Who Provides 47 Schnabel, Paul, p. 166. 48 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 532. 49 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 532.

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The third truth about the living God exposed by Paul is closely linked with the previous. He is the God who provides (14:17). The providence of God in giving rainfall and harvest to humankind is an Old Testament theme (e.g. Gen 8:22) and the combination of food and gladness (14:17) is also characteristic in the Old Testament language (e.g. Ps 4:7; Isa. 25:6; Eccl. 9:7.)50 Based on these Jewish concepts of divine providence Paul speaks to his audience about the only God who provides what human beings need and desire.

Ideas of divine providence were certainly not strange to the apostles audience. Nevertheless, what was new to the Lystrans was Pauls message of the one God who provided that all the kindness of nature originated in the one and only God who was himself the source of all creation.51

A case can be made to suggest that Paul was once again directly confronting the Lystrans beliefs. Some inscriptions have been found in that region which refer to Zeus as , the god who does what is good and fruitful. Besides, the cult of Zeus Bronton, a patron of agriculture connected with Hermes, has also been verified in that region.52 According to Lukes narrative, Paul is openly speaking against the pagan religion of the citizens of Lystra by affirming that the living God he proclaims is also the only God who provides good things to humanity.

C. An Unconcluded Speech

It can certainly be argued that Luke presents the speech as unable to be concluded because of interruption by the Lystrans (14:18).

According to Bruce, it appears that there was no conclusion of the sermon due to the reaction of the audience as they continued in their preparations

50 Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 294. 51 Polhill, Acts, p. 316. 52 Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, II:1118.

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to offer sacrifices to Barnabas and Paul (Acts 14:18).53 Witherington agrees and affirms that the discourse does not reach its appropriate ending because of the listeners reaction.54 Polhill claims that verse 18 demonstrates that Paul and Barnabas were interrupted in their witness.55 Besides the obvious insinuation of verse 18, another argument seems to sustain this view. The Lukan description of Pauls speech in Lystra presents a very high degree of similarity to the one delivered in Athens, narrated in Acts 17 (the parallels will be analysed further in this paper). It seems unlikely that Paul would voluntarily stop his announcement where he did, without culminating in the proclamation of Christ, as it happens in Athens (17:31). Interrupted sermons are undoubtedly a common feature in the Acts narrative.56

Conclusion

Pauls second evangelistic speech narrated by Luke is found in Acts 14:15-17. Its analysis is essential for an accurate comprehension of the content of the Pauline missionary speeches as portrayed by Luke. This is the first speech in Acts presented to a purely pagan audience and the only discourse Paul gives to illiterate pagans. The focus of the speech is the proclamation of monotheism. Paul speaks to the Lystrans about the existence of one living God, in contrast to their polytheistic view. The possibility of turning to the living God from idolatrous practices is announced as good news. According to the apostle, the living God is the creator of all things who demonstrated his kindness by providing for all humanity.

53 Schnabel, Paul, p. 163. 54 Witherington, Acts, p. 426. 55 Polhill, Acts, p. 317. 56 Some examples include Acts 3:26-4:1; 7:53-54; 7:56-57; 22:21-22; 26:23-24 and 26:27-28.

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III. Pauls Missionary Speech in Athens - Acts 17:22-31

The third missionary discourse to be analysed is found in Acts 17:22-31. It is the Lukan narrative of Pauls speech in Athens. After arguing in the synagogue and in the marketplace of Athens (17:17), Paul is asked by curious philosophers to present his message to the Areopagus (17:19). The Areopagus was a formal Athenian court and also the name of a hill where the court sometimes met. The biblical text could refer to either or both and unsurprisingly there is controversy among interpreters as to the actual meaning in the Lukan narrative. Gill, however, helpfully asserts that it is unnecessary to try to identify the actual place; the fact that Paul appeared before the Areopagus is the crucial.57 It is on this occasion when one of the most appreciated, debated and analysed biblical speeches is proclaimed.

57 Gill, Achaia, p. 448.

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The examination of its content is crucial for a correct understanding of Pauls evangelistic message as portrayed by Luke. It is the longest Pauline missionary speech delivered to a pagan audience in the book of Acts. A short examination of the context is essential for a deeper comprehension of the discourses content.

A. Context 1. Athens

When Paul arrives in Athens it had already lost its political prominence of an earlier epoch. It was no longer a world superpower.58 Nevertheless, the highest level of culture in classical antiquity still belonged to the city and intellectuals still regarded Athens as a centre of philosophy. It undoubtedly occupied the leading place in such field, being the native city of Socrates and Plato, and the adopted home of Aristotle, Epicurus and Zeno.59 Athens had been a civitas libera et foederata after the assimilation of Greece into the Roman Empire, until the Roman intervention in 86 BC. Rome forced a number of political adjustments which included the imposition of the Areopagus as the main governing body.60 However, as Barrett observes, Athens was well treated by the Empire and highly respected in its role of distinguished university city.61 Paul arrived in Athens during Claudius reign. As in other Roman allied cities and colonies, the cult of the emperor was present in Athens. This is confirmed by some inscriptions in the city which describe Claudius as saviour and benefactor.62 Though of course not exclusively, Pauls audience in Athens was formed by Stoic and Epicurean philosophers (17:18). His speech, as verified further in this paper, resonates in a series of elements with their ideas. It is 58 Gempf, Athens, Paul at, p. 51. 59 Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 348. 60 Gill, Achaia, p. 441. 61 Barrett, Acts, II:827. 62 Gill, Achaia, p. 443.

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therefore relevant to briefly examine these two schools of Hellenistic philosophies.

2. Stoicism

The Stoics recognized Zeno of Citium in Cyprus (340-265 BC) as their founder, and took their name from Stoa Poikil (painted portico) in the Athenian agora, where Zeno instructed. Stoicism discussed the gods in their variety and plurality, though it also spoke of god in the singular. Cleantes, the successor of Zenon, begins his hymn to Zeus with the following lines: Most glorious of the deathless gods, called by many a name: Great King of Nature, Changeless One, All-Powerful! You are the just ruler of all that is. We hail you as mortals hail you everywhere. Hail, Zeus! We are your children. And because of all the things that live and move on earths broad ways, you gave the form of gods to us alone, I shall always praise and celebrate your power.63 Although the Stoics believed that the gods were immortal, their concept of God was essentially pantheistic and not so much personal. As Bruce describes it, according to Stoicism, God was to the world what the individual soul was to the body.64 For the Stoics, the highest expression of nature was reason or design, the principle which combined the elements in a variety of ways and produced the ordered and balanced universe. They placed great importance on individual self-sufficiency and on the superiority of reason over emotions. Stoicism aspired to live consistently or according to nature. It was characterized by great moral earnestness and a high sense of duty. 65

63 Cleantes, Testimonia in Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, I:103-39, as cited by Schnabel, Mission, II:1397. 64 Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 377. 65 Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 377.

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The Stoics also asserted that the gods rule the world by their providence. This can be proved, they argued, by the divine power manifested in this world, by the miracles of nature and by the gods care for humanity.66

3. Epicureanism

Epicureanism was founded by Epicurus (341-270 BC). He went to Athens in 306 BC and bought a house with a garden, where he taught his philosophy. His followers lived a materialist, strict and severe type of life on the Epicurean property. The Epicureans held an ethical theory based on the atomic physics of Democritus and regarded pleasure as the chief end of life. In their view, the pleasure most worth enjoying was a life of calmness, uncontrolled and free from pain, distressing passions and superstitious fears, especially the fear of death.67 Their lifestyle was characterized by hedonism and a sense of superiority towards other groups. They opted to marginalize themselves from city affairs. Even though Epicureans did not deny the existence of gods, they believed that deities were not interested in the life of humanity and therefore there was no provident god or gods ruling the world. In their view, the cosmos was the result of chance, humans were mortals and there was no eternal life.68 They also claimed that philosophical discussion was the way to a happy life.

B. Examination of the Speechs Content 1. Introduction a. Opening

The apostle begins by addressing the Athenians and noticing they were very religious. The term he uses for religious () is 66 Schnabel, Mission, II:1397. 67 Bruce, The Book of the Acts, pp. 350-351. 68 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 604.

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ambiguous and could have two meanings. It could first describe someone who was sincerely committed to religious matters and, secondly, it could be used with a negative connotation for those who were excessively superstitious in their religious practices.69 Scholarly opinions are divided regarding Pauls true intention when using the term. Some believe Paul had the first meaning of the expression in mind and therefore was making an effort to win the favour of his audience.70 Such device, it must be highlighted, was common in Greek rhetoric. Others defend that Paul used the term with the second connotation.71 As it becomes clear later in the speech, Paul disagreed with the Athenians idolatry. He could have used such a vague term in his opening to implicitly begin his criticism, even though his listeners thought he was making a compliment. Gaventa offers convincing arguments to prefer the first to the second usage of the term.72 She rightly observes that introducing speeches with some praise of the audience was a common practice in the world of Acts (e.g., 26:2-3) and in Greek oratory. It is therefore not surprising that Paul would select such a method. Moreover, there is strong extra-biblical evidence which attests to the Athenians religiosity.73

b. Reference to the Unknown God

After his opening words Paul goes on to make reference to an altar he had seen in Athens with the following inscription: To an unknown god (17:23). The altar is the apostles point of contact with his listeners, a platform to what he was about to announce. The God the Athenians confessed not to know is the one Paul knows and wishes to proclaim. 69 Friberg; Friberg; Miller, Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, (electronic edition). 70 Arrington, Acts, p. 178; Gaventa, Acts, p. 250; Schnabel, Mission, II:1396; Walaskay, Acts, p. 166. 71 Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 355; Barrett, Acts, II:835; Fitzmyer, Acts, pp. 606-607; Polhill, Acts, p. 371. 72 Gaventa, Acts, p. 250. 73 Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 260; Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.17.1; Josephus, Ag. Ap. 2.130; Strabo, Geography 9.1.16; Livy, History 45.27.11.

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Schnabel argues that the reference to the unknown god (17:23) can be understood as a criticism by Paul of pagan religious convictions, seen in the light of Is 45:15, 18-25. In this passage the monotheistic confession Truly, you are a God who hides himself, O God of Israel, the Saviour (Isa 45:15) is followed by words of Yahweh seeking to convince people to worship the one true God and trying to invalidate the notion that God hides.74 Schnabels suggestion is certainly interesting; however, it seems more likely that the apostle was being impartial in his reference, with the objective of simply establishing a point of contact with his listeners. It is true to say that the Stoic philosophers would not have been bothered by Pauls use of the word god. In contrast, Paul would definitely have been alarmed with the Stoics comfortable transition from god to the gods.75

2. Gods Relation to the World a. The Creator God

The apostles first announcement about the unknown god is that he is the creator (17:24). He referred to God as the maker of the , a term that would be familiar to the Greeks and which alluded to the universe or the ordered world. As examined in the speech in Lystra, the concept of God as the creator of all things is foundational in the Old Testament. Thus Paul chooses a term that is common to the Greeks and the Old Testament.76 The notion of God as absolute creator, nonetheless, was not a concept his audience was comfortable with. By emphasizing that God is a personal being Paul was clearly contrasting the pantheism of the Stoics and the polytheism of the Epicureans. The idea of a Single Supreme Being who stood over the world and who created all things was foreign to them. Greek philosophy endorsed the distinction between a Supreme Being and a 74 Schnabel, Mission, II:1399. 75 Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, II:1397. 76 For references of God as the creator of the kosmos in the Old Testament see Gen 1:1; 14:19, 22; Exod 20:11; Ps 146:6; Isa 42:5; Wis 9:9; 11:17. For interesting references to the Maker and Father of the Universe in Greek philosophy see Plato, Timaeus 28C, 76C; for God as the maker of the kosmos see Epictetus, Arrians Discourses 4.7.6.

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Demiurge who crafted the material world. But Paul would not allow such distinction.77 He announces God as the only Supreme Being who created all that exists. From the beginning of Pauls presentation a pattern can be identified which will be noticeable throughout his address. He employs ideas, arguments and formulations that his audience, especially the Epicureans and Stoics, were familiar with and acknowledged as valid.78 He clearly uses them as a point of contact with his hearers, but does not hide or compromise the elements where they diverge. Schnabel correctly affirms that Pauls speech to the Areopagus is characterized by agreement and contradiction, carefully calibrated with regard to the specific audience on Ares Hill.79

b. The Lord of Heaven and Earth

The creator of all things is also the , lord, of the heavens and the earth (17:24). This is the second truth about the unknown god that Paul decides to disclose. He speaks of a god who not only created all that exists, but who rules and reigns over all his creation.

c. The God Who Does Not Inhabit Human Constructions

Paul affirms that the God he proclaims does not live in temples built by hands (17:24). His message clearly echoes the Old Testament teaching (e.g., 1 Kgs 8:27; Isa 66). At the same time such conception was not strange to the more philosophically minded Athenians who were hearing the apostle. It finds plenty of parallels in Greek thinking. The Stoic philosopher Zeno had taught: It is Zenos teaching that one should not build temples of the gods.80 A fragment of Euripides states what house built by craftsmen could enclose the form divine within enfolding walls?81 Plato advocated a religion based on worship of the heavenly bodies as 77 Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 356. 78 Schnabel, Mission, II:1398. 79 Schnabel, Mission, II:1401. 80 Plutarch, Moralia, 1034B as cited by Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 608. 81 Euripides, Fragment 968 as cited by Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 357.

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being superior to that observed in earthly temples and Zeno and Seneca both rejected temples.82 The God who created the world and everything in it, Paul asserts, cannot be contained by buildings of human construction.

d. The Self-sufficient God

Paul speaks of a god who is not just the creator of all but needs nothing that human beings can offer or supply. Paul affirms he is not served by human hands, as though he needed anything [...] (17:25). The apostles audience, once again, probably did not have any problem with this next description of the unknown god. It was common in Greek philosophy to view divinity as complete within itself, totally self-sufficient without any need.83 He echoes a common premise of the Old Testament (e.g., Ps 50:9-12; Amos 5:12-23) and also of Greek philosophy (E.g., Aristobulus, frg. 4; cf. Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica 13.12.3). Euripides affirmed, For God, if indeed God he be, is in need of nothing.84 Also Plato asked, What advantage accrues to the gods from what they get from us?85 The god Paul is making known needs nothing from his creatures.

e. The God Who Provides

God is the one who gives humanity all it needs. Paul affirms that God himself gives to all mortals life and breath and all things (17:25). He is the one who provides.86 Once again, Pauls description of God echoes the teachings of the Old Testament (e.g., Isa 42:5; Ps 50:7-15). Though God needs nothing from anyone, human beings need everything that comes from him, Paul 82 Polhill, Acts, p. 373. 83 Polhill, Acts, p. 373. 84 Euripides, Hercules Furens 1345-46 as cited by Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 608. Similar ideas are attributed to the Stoic philosopher Zeno in Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis 5.76.1. 85 Plato, Euthyphro 14c as cited by Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 608. 86 Neyrey defends that chapter 17 is the clearest example in Acts of Lukes regular presentation of God in terms of providence. See Neyrey, Acts 17, pp. 118-134.

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declares. He is the source of all life and giver of all the things humanity needs. Human beings are completely dependent on God for it is he who provides life and breath to all creatures.

3. Gods Proximity to Humanity a. The Universality of Humanitys Relationship to God

Paul declares that all humanity was one in origin, sharing a common ancestor, created by the same God (17:26a). The apostle is clearly transmitting an Old Testament truth (Gen 1 and 2). This is not an alternative to a general mythic tale that the Stoics or Epicureans know but rather a reference to the Old Testament tradition of the beginning of creation and the creation of the first human being by God, the creator of the world.87 This was a new concept for his hearers for the Greeks did not hold the idea of a First Man from whom all humanity was descended. Polhill rightly observes that the emphasis is on the universality of humankinds relationship to God.88 All the nations of the world are one in their common ancestry and in their relationship to their Creator. The God whom Paul announced was no local Jewish cult God, but the one sovereign Lord of all humankind.89 By affirming that God has put all human beings on this earth Paul is emphatically opposing the idea that the universe came into being by chance. His message underlines the divine design and intention that lie behind all human existence.90 Pauls next words are not easy to interpret and inevitably leave room for ambiguity. He affirms that God [...] made all nations to inhabit the whole earth, and he allotted the times of their existence and the boundaries of the places where they would live (17:26). First, it is not clear what Paul is 87 Schnabel, Mission, II:1399. 88 Polhill, Acts, p. 374. 89 Polhill, Acts, p. 374. 90 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 609.

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referring to when he uses the word , times (17:26b). The term could mean an occasion, a period of time or an era.91 Secondly, the expression boundaries of the places where they would live (17:26b) could also have more than one implication: it could refer to the habitable areas of the planet or to the frontiers between nations. Gaventa accurately notes that although the exact connotations of these expressions are uncertain, the larger point is clear: God not only created humankind but determined the parameters of human existence.92 This idea is supported by the use of , at the beginning of verse 26. The verb can mean to appoint or to determine.93 It emphasizes Gods authority and reflects the idea that God works with a plan (the same verb reappears in this speech in verse 31). Paul wishes his audience to understand that the historic limitations set upon humankind, the times and places where they inhabit, are all results of divine determination (e.g., Gen 10; Deut 32:8; Ps 74:12-14; Job 38:8-11).94

b. The Search for God

God has done all of this, Paul insists, so that humanity would search for him (17:27). Paul affirms that God has created all nations to seek him. The apostle is speaking about the instinctive quest of the human mind and heart for God in the traces that God has left in the creation and disposition of humanity in this world.95 It is necessary to note that Paul does not consider the search for God as an impossible task, but he does not represent its successful conclusion as certain.96 He uses the optative mood for the verb find in verse 27, therefore expressing great doubt. Although God had revealed himself through his creation, it did not mean human beings were inevitably going 91 LN 67.1, 67.78, 67.145. 92 Gaventa, Acts, p. 251. 93 Friberg; Friberg; Miller, Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, (electronic edition). 94 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 609. 95 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 610. 96 Barrett, Acts, II:844.

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to find him. Through these words Paul seems to question the human capacity to find what they are searching for. Arrington accurately observes that, according to Paul, God has disclosed himself so that he may be sought, but it cannot be assumed that he will indeed be found.97 Witherington echoes this interpretation by suggesting that Paul does not believe that the finding of the true God actually happens apart from divine revelation. On the contrary, the true God remains unknown except for such revelation.98 Interestingly, the apostle links this idea with the fact that God is actually close to all humanity. He affirms that [...] he is not far from each one of us (17:27b). Paul announces a universal God who is not exclusive to a certain group, but is close to each individual. Pauls message of Gods proximity find roots, once again, in the Old Testament teaching (e.g., Ps 145:18; Jer 23:23). Paul proceeds with the citation of two quotations of Greek poets. Firstly, he affirms that in God we live and move and have our being (17:28). This sentence is taken from a poem attributed to Epimenides the Cretan. It is quoted in the ninth-century Syriac commentary of Ishodad of Merv:99 They fashioned a tomb for thee, O holy and high one The Cretans, always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies! But thou art not dead; thou livest and abidest for ever; For in thee we live and move and have our being.100 The quotation sums up what Paul had just proclaimed: all human life is given, rooted and maintained in God. Paul, of course, is not referring to Zeus like Epimenides was. He wants his hearers to understand that those truths are only applicable to the unknown, true God he is announcing.

97 Arrington, Acts, p. 180. 98 Witherington, Acts, p. 529. 99 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 610 believes it is highly unlikely that Pauls words were a quote from Epimenides. However, he does not give basis for his view. 100 Gibson, Horae Semiticae, 40 as cited by Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 359.

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The next quotation is taken from the third-century astronomical poem of Aratus, a Stoic and one of the main Hellenistic poets: for we too are his offspring (17:28). The beginning of the poem reads, Let us begin with Zeus, never O men, let us leave him unmentioned. All ways are full of Zeus and all meeting-places of men. The sea and the harbours are full of him. In every direction we all have to do with Zeus. For we are also his offspring.101 Once again Paul applies what had been written about Zeus to the God he is describing. God, the apostle affirms, is not only near to human beings, but they are related to him as kin.102 Fitzmyer correctly notes that Paul understands the Stoic idea in a biblical sense (e.g., Psalm 139).103 The nature of God is thus explained by the apostle against the background of his audiences own terminology.104 It is interesting to note that whereas Paul makes two citations from Greek philosophers, he does not directly quote Scripture in his discourse. Witherington helpfully suggests that it would not have helped Paul to simply quote the Scriptures, as it was a book his listeners did now know and one that had no authority in their minds.105 From his last citation Paul develops a key idea in his speech. If humans are Gods offspring and thus made in his image, it cannot be possible that God is made of silver, gold or stone by the creativity of a human being (17:29). Paul is now speaking directly against the idolatry he had witnessed in Athens. He once again echoes the Jewish teaching against idolatry and polytheism (e.g., Deut. 4:28; Isa 40:18-20; 44:9-10; 46:5-6; Ps 115:4). Interestingly, Paul refers to God as (17:29), which means divine

101 Aratus, Phaenomena 5, as cited by Bruce, The Book of the Acts, p. 360. 102 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 611. 103 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 611. 104 Hemer, The Speeches of Acts, p. 244. 105 Witherington, Acts, p. 530.

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nature or divine being.106 This is a general term for deities or divinities used by the Greeks and common in classical and Hellenistic writings.107 The apostle is using distinct ideas familiar to his audience in order to pass judgment on and criticize the idolatry present in polytheism. Paul is not attempting to meet pagans halfway; instead, he uses recognizable terms as points of contact in order to make a defence of monotheism in its Christian form.108 Schnabel correctly suggests that Pauls critique of idols (17:29) is a clear denunciation of the popular religiosity with which the Stoic and the Epicurean philosophers had come to an arrangement.109 Schnabel notes that these two schools of philosophy accommodated their convictions to the popular religious practices so that people could still take part in local cults. He finds support to his view in extra-biblical documents: An Epicurean text, written around A.D. 50 asserts that piety cannot be proven by the offering of sacrifices, but it goes on to say that offering to the gods is permitted because it is in agreement with religious traditions (P.Oxy.215). Plutarch accuses the Stoics of contradicting themselves because they visit mysteries in the temples, and ascend the acropolises to honor the idol statues, and lay down wreaths in the sanctuaries despite their convictions (Stoic. rep. 1034b-c).110

4. Speechs Conclusion a. Repentance and Conversion to the True God

Paul affirms that in the past God had overlooked the times of human ignorance (17:30); nevertheless, in the present he was commanding every individual, from everywhere, to repent (17:30). With these words Paul is

106 Friberg; Friberg; Miller, Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, (electronic edition). 107 For examples of the use of the term in Greek literature see Herodotus, History 3.108; Thucydides, Histories 5.70; Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.2.15. 108 Witherington, Acts, p. 518. 109 Schnabel, Mission, II:1399-1400. 110 Schnabel, Mission, II:1400.

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unquestionably referring to the idolatrous practices of his audience, a subject he had developed immediately before. Pauls message is that God did not desire or approve the ignorant idolatrous worship of the Athenians; however, he did not repress it, but overlooked it up to that stage. It was not Gods intention that humanity remained in this ignorance. On the contrary, God wanted to be known as the only true deity, the only one worthy of worship.111 Certainly the failure is regarded as culpable, but God has graciously overlooked it.112 The temporal phrase , now (17:30) dramatizes the change of the times according to the work and will of God.113 They could now know the one true God through Pauls proclamation. He was no longer an unknown God to the Athenians. If they [...] continued in their false worship and fail to acknowledge his sole lordship of heaven and earth, their sin would no longer be a sin of ignorance but a high-handed sin.114 Paul, thus, proclaims the need of repentance to the Athenians (17:30). He announces the necessity of a complete turn from their false worship to the true God. The unity of humankind consists not only in its common creator and common ancestor, as Paul had previously described, but in its common need for repentance.115 Barrett rightly notes that, in this context, repentance will mean in the first instance turning from the false gods with which Athens abounds. Pauls message of repentance also demonstrates that the defect of Greek religion is not simply intellectual but existential. Humanity is guilty of having withdrawn from its relationship with the Creator.116

111 Barrett, Acts, II:851. 112 Fitzmyer, Acts, p. 611. 113 Soards, Speech, p. 99. 114 Polhill, Acts, p. 377. 115 Gaventa, Acts, p. 253. 116 Barrett, Acts, II:851.

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Such message would certainly be strange for the Greeks. Stoicism, Epicureanism or any other Greek belief and lifestyle would not accommodate the worship of exclusively one personal God. By advocating repentance, the apostle was directly opposing his audiences view and requesting an attitude that no other Greek religious system required. As Gempf rightly remarks, the speech is a devastating attack on both the Athenians and their religion.117

b. Eschatological Judgement

Paul communicates the urgency of repentance by announcing Gods judgement. God will judge all peoples. The command to repent is directly related to the fact that God has appointed a judgement day.118 As in the rest of the speech, focus continues to be on Gods actions: God created and God will judge.119 It is necessary to note that there was no room for such an eschatological judgement in Greek belief. Winter rightly notes that Pauls message of judgement and repentance had a strong political ramification for his audience.120 His words directly confronted the Athenian policy on imperial religion. From the death of Julius Caesar onwards the incorporation of living and dead emperors into the pantheon and their adoration became part of the imperial political strategy.121 As in other Roman colonies, loyalty to the emperors was closely linked with religious pluralism in Athens. Schnabel agrees when affirming that [...] Paul walked on very thin ice, considering the fact that the cultic veneration of the deceased emperors was an essential and increasingly important element of Roman culture in the larger cities.122 Paul affirms that unless his audience turns from the worship of other gods, including emperors, they would face the judgement of God. 117 Gempf, Athens, Paul at, p. 52. 118 Haenchen, Acts, p. 526. 119 Gaventa, Acts, p. 253. 120 Winter, Athenians, p. 57. 121 Winter, Athenians, p. 57. 122 Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, II:1400.

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This day of judgement, Paul asserts, will be conducted by the man Jesus Christ whom God has appointed. This is the first time that Jesus is mentioned in the discourse. Interestingly, Paul refers to Jesus only as , a man whom God has assigned and not by any title or name (cf. Dan 7:13). As Gempf observes, Paul tells his audience that, in complete contrast to the lifeless things with which they have chosen to represent the divine, God has appointed a living human being, Jesus Christ.123 Christ mediates the divine judgement of all human activity and conduct.

c. Resurrection of Jesus

Gods commitment of the future judgement into Jesus hands was proved by his resurrection (17:31).124 Conzelmann notes that the entire history of the world is viewed from the perspective of the resurrection of Jesus.125 Schnabel accurately observes that the reference to the resurrection of the Judge whom God has appointed to judge the world demonstrates the importance and the centrality of Jesus in Pauls speech.126 Gods actions are once again at the centre: he gives assurance to all by raising Jesus from the dead (17:31). The belief in resurrection was definitely not shared by Pauls audience (17:32). The Council of the Areopagites had been founded on the following words: When a man dies, the earth drinks up his blood. There is no resurrection (anastasis).127 Epicureans did not believe in human existence after death. Stoics thought that only the immaterial spirit survived death. Therefore, to Greeks, the idea of a body surviving death did not make any sense.128

123 Gempf, Athens, Paul at, p. 53. 124 Arrington, Acts, 181. 125 Conzelmann, Acts, 144. 126 Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, II:1403. 127 Aeschylus, Eumenides, 647-648 as cited by Winter, Athenians, p. 47. 128 Polhill, Acts, p. 378.

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It can undoubtedly be suggested that the ideas of final judgement and resurrection of the dead were so foreign to Pauls audience that he [...] resolved to refer to them only at the very end of the speech once some rapport and more or less convincing arguments had already been presented.129 Carson helpfully observes that Pauls proclamation of Jesus resurrection opposes not only animism, Epicureanism and Stoicism. The message of physical resurrection attributed to God himself counters neo-Platonic dualism, a common idea in Greek thought and which asserts that the spiritual is good and the physical world is bad. Hence, it is unimaginable that God, who is good, would raise someone up to physical life.130 It is important to highlight that in the Pauline speech Jesus is the object of two of Gods activities. He is appointed to judge and he is raised from the dead by God. The fact that Jesus was raised from the dead implies, evidently, that he died. Paul, nevertheless, does not comment on Christs death. It must also be noted, as Sandnes does, that Paul's manner of introducing Jesus in this discourse is surprisingly enigmatic, and unquestionably leaves the audience with questions.131 Scholars are divided in their opinion regarding the Christocentricity of Pauls speech. Dibelius has argued that there is nothing particularly Christian about the speech before verse 31. In his perspective, the discourse essentially reflects Greco-Roman thought with monotheistic elements. He states that [...] it is a monotheistic sermon and only the conclusion makes it a Christian one.132 Similarly, Barrett affirms that the speech lacks the Christological factor.133

129 Witherington, Acts, p. 518. 130 Carson, The Gagging of God, p. 501. 131 Sandnes, Paul and Socrates, pp. 13-26. 132 Dibelius, Acts, p. 25. 133 Barrett, Acts, II:825.

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Their view is incorrect as it fails to observe at least two aspects. First, Paul is speaking to a pagan audience; therefore, it is expected that he would lay the foundation of monotheism before proclaiming Christ. The life and ministry of Jesus could only be understood in light of the framework concerning God given by the apostle. Paul begins where his audience is, but he ends his discourse in Christ. Secondly, as observed previously in the examination of its different ideas, the speech is replete with and based upon ideas from the Old Testament, contrary to Dibelius assertion that the speech is basically Greco-Roman. Paul uses Greek ideas exclusively where they can be connected to scriptural ideas and as a point of contact with his listeners. Witherington offers a more accurate opinion. He rightly defends that Pauls speech is ultimately a call for conversion, which comes after a demonstration of what the Athenians do not know about God.134 Recognizable ideas are used to make contact with his hearers, but they are used by the apostle for evangelistic purposes in order to support arguments that are essentially Judeo-Christian in character.135 Witherington also remarks that while drawing on some Greek ideas, the discourse in the Areopagus [...] has been thoroughly biblical from the start [...]. The conclusion follows naturally from the argument.136 Conclusion Pauls third missionary discourse narrated by Luke is found in Acts 17:22-31. It is the longest Pauline speech delivered to a pagan audience recorded in Acts. The discourse delivered to the Athenian Areopagus is characterized by Pauls selection of ideas and beliefs which his audience, especially Stoics and Epicureans, were familiar with. Pauls arguments are based on the Old Testament and are used as a point of contact with his hearers. At the same

134 Witherington, Acts, p. 524. 135 Witherington, Acts, p. 524. 136 Witherington, Acts, p. 531.

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time, he does not hesitate to proclaim convictions his listeners would not be comfortable with. Paul echoes Epicureans when he makes known a God who cannot be contained by human construction and does not need anyone. But against them he announces a God who is close to and deeply cares about humanity. The apostle stands beside Stoics when he affirms that God is interested in humans and provides to them what they need. But in opposition to this group Paul proclaims a God who is personal but separated from his creation and who cannot be known simply by the appraisal of nature. He resists both philosophical schools especially when he advocates exclusive monotheism, future judgement and resurrection. Paul announces that the God he knows is the only true God. His speech in Athens is a call to repentance from polytheism in the light of Gods judgement through Jesus, the man he raised from the dead.

IV. Common Themes in Pauls Missionary Speeches What Soards states of the speeches in Acts can also be affirmed specifically in relation to Pauls missionary addresses described by Luke: [...] examination of the themes or subjects of the speeches shows that an identifiable set of topics or concerns recur in the speeches either explicitly or implicitly with striking regularity.137 Having investigated the content of each speech individually, we now proceed to the identification of the issues that are recurrent in Pauls evangelistic sermons. This will indicate which topics build the content of Pauls preaching to non-Christians as portrayed by Luke in the book of Acts. 137 Soards, Speeches, p. 183.

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A. Recurrent Issues in Pauls Missionary Speeches 1. Doctrine of God Pauls missionary sermons are saturated with the doctrine of God. The apostle invariably reveals, describes and defends certain truths about God and his activities, always beginning where his listeners were in relation to their knowledge of God. Lukes accounts demonstrate that Paul intended his audience to learn about God so that the rest of his message would make sense to his hearers. The doctrine of God unquestionably represents a large and fundamental portion of Pauls missionary proclamation. Central themes in the speeches, such as repentance and judgement, are clearly built on the foundation of the doctrine of God. There are four main ideas about God that can be identified in Pauls evangelistic sermons: he is the only God, he is the creator of all things, he exercises authority over all his creation and he is good towards humanity. a. The Only God The apostles audience in Pisidian Antioch was familiar with the Old Testament and already accepted its principles. It was formed by Israelites and Gentiles who had converted to Judaism. There was no need to argue for monotheism, but this belief is noticeably implicit in his message (13:16, 17, 23, 26, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37). This is not the case with the other two groups to whom Paul speaks. Lystrans and Athenians were Greeks who held a polytheistic view. To them Paul announced the existence of one true God who is worthy of all devotion and veneration (14:15; 17:24, 25, 29, 30). In these circumstances, as Polhill observes, the apostle had to [...] start at the very beginning, not with the coming of Christ but with the basic theological assumption of monotheism that God is one (Deut 6:4).138 Lukes Paul first spoke to

138 Polhill, Acts, p. 315.

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polytheists about the one true God before he announced Jesus Christ. If there is only one true God, there can only be one true saviour from sins.139 b. The Creator of all Things Paul describes God as the creator of all things in his speeches. The apostle announced the reality of the true God, and the creation as his handiwork.140 Paul does it indirectly in his first evangelistic speech and directly in the other two. When preaching in Pisidian Antioch, the apostle refers to God as the God of the people of Israel (13:17). One of the most basic convictions in a Jewish mind was that the God of Israel was the creator of all things (Gen 1). Thus, Paul begins a step further in his discourse, not needing to convince his audience of this truth, and only indirectly refers to God as the creator. On the other hand, when communicating to non-Jewish audiences, the apostle directly announces that God is the creator of the world and everything in it. In Lystra Paul affirms that God is the one who [...] made the heaven and the earth and the sea and all that is in them (14:15) and in Athens he declares that God [...] made the world and everything in it (17:24). Dunn rightly observes that according to Lukes Paul the gospel of Jesus Christ is initially about God, and about God and creation.141 c. Divine Authority The fact that God exercises complete authority over his creation is expressed in all three speeches. They speak of a transcendent but active God who relates to the world, especially to humans, in order to bring to fulfilment his sovereign purposes. According to Pauls speeches, Gods plans have been and are being brought to realization. The speeches articulate a view of the world characterized by the certainty that God intervenes in life in this world to initiate relationships, to give directions 139 Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, II:1386. 140 Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, p. 86. 141 Dunn, Beginning from Jerusalem, p. 432.

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for present or future actions, and to reverse the course of events inconsistent with Gods own purposes.142 The conviction of divine authority permeates Pauls evangelistic speeches. It is expressed in Antioch of Pisidia (13:17, 18, 19-20a, 20b, 22, 23, 26, 27-30, 32-37, 38b-39), in Lystra (14:15b; 15c, 16, 17) and in Athens (17:23b, 24a, 24b-25a, 25b, 26-27, 31a, 31b). d. Gods Goodness The one true God who created all things intervenes in his creation and exercises total authority over it. Gods creation, provision and initiatives reveal his goodness and his noble intentions for humanity according to Paul. In Pisidian Antioch Paul demonstrates Gods faithfulness and goodness towards his people by summarizing Gods deeds for the people of Israel (13:16b-25) and by proclaiming Gods free offering of forgiveness and justification (13:38-39). In Lystra Paul makes a reference to the goodness of God exhibited in his provision to humanity (14:17). God had never merely abandoned the Gentile nations. He had continuously revealed himself through his works in nature.143 Similarly, in Athens, Paul states that God gives [...] to all mankind life and breath and everything (17:25), therefore giving evidence for divine goodness. 2. Use of the Past According to Luke the apostle makes reference to the past in all his missionary sermons. It is important to note, however, that they appear in a variety of ways. Six distinct modes of using the past can be identified in the Pauline evangelistic speeches: direct quotation of Scriptures, reference 142 Soards, Speeches, p. 184. 143 Schnabel, Paul, p. 167.

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to segments of Scripture, allusion to the prophets, allusion to John the Baptist, reference to Scripture without any citation and, finally, reference and citation of pagan poets.144 Pauls audience in Pisidian Antioch heard him mention the past through several citations of Scriptures (13:22, 33, 34, 35, 41). The apostle gives evidence of his assertions to a Jewish audience by quoting their sacred texts. Scriptural citations are used to demonstrate the continuity of Gods actions throughout history, culminating in the realization of Gods plan in Jesus Christ.145 In his first missionary speech Paul also makes reference to segments of Scripture. Though not citing Scriptures directly, he alludes to explicit biblical ideas registered in the Torah (13:17-23, 29). The apostle refers to the prophets once in his first missionary announcement (13:27). He does not specify the message of one particular prophet, but makes reference to the words of the prophets that are read every Sabbath (13:27). He also refers in particular to John the Baptist (13:24) and quotes Scripture once without any citation (13:29). Although not as often as in his first pronouncement, Paul also makes use of the past in his other two missionary sermons. Nearly his entire address in Lystra is rooted in scriptural ideas, though he does not quote them explicitly (14:15-17). Similarly, he expresses various concepts found in the Old Testament, though not citing it, when speaking to the Athenians (17:24-27). It is reasonable that Paul would choose this recourse to communicate to non-Jewish audiences, unfamiliar with Scriptures. Finally, his speech in Athens is also marked with a clear allusion to pagan poets (17:28).

144 Soards, Speeches, pp. 201-203. 145 Soards, Speeches, p. 201.

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This brief survey reveals a central feature of the Lukan reports of Pauls missionary sermons: history is present in all three of them. As examined previously in this paper, the apostles discourse in Pisidian Antioch begins with a detailed survey of Jewish history (13:16-41). In Athens he does not mention Jewish history, as it would not be recognizable to his audience, but describes the history of the search of the soul for God (17:23-28).146 History is also found in Lukes report of Pauls preaching in Lystra, where it is portrayed by Gods continuing provision in benefit of humanity, beginning in creation (14:15-17). Hence, the apostle makes reference to the past in all of his missionary sermons, although according to Luke, he does so in different ways in each proclamation. 3. Witness The reference to witnesses endorsing the message that is being proclaimed is present in all three speeches. In Pauls first discourse the term , to be or to bear witness is found in 13:22. Then, there is a reference to John the Baptist identifying Jesus with the Christ (13:25). Finally, those who saw Jesus after his resurrection are recognized as his witnesses (13:31). In Lystra Paul affirms that God has not left himself without a witness, , (14:17). This is the only occurrence of the term in the New Testament. Paul interestingly makes the pagan poets witnesses of Gods reality by quoting them in the Areopagus (17:28). Similarly to the reference of John the Baptist in Pisidian Antioch, Paul does not use any word associated to the term witness when speaking of the pagan poets. The context, however, demonstrates how Paul makes reference to Greek poets in order to support his message. 146 Barclay, Comparison`, p. 166.

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4. Period of Ignorance As indicated by Luke, Paul affirms that both Jews and Gentiles lived in ignorance before God. The ignorance motif can be recognized in the three speeches. In the synagogue the apostle asserts that the people of Jerusalem and their rulers did not recognize Jesus (13:27). Referring to God, in Lystra, Paul states that in past generations he allowed all the nations to walk in their own ways (14:16). In Athens Paul alludes to the altar to the unknown god (17:23a), insists he will reveal to them what they worship as unknown (17:23b) and assures that God overlooked the times of ignorance (17:30). 5. Change in the Nature of Times Paul uses temporal words or phrases to signal a change in the nature of times in all his missionary speeches in Acts. Formerly humans lived and acted in ignorance, as examined previously (13:27; 14:6; 17:23, 30). Yet, as the speeches repeatedly recognize, the past is behind the speaker and the hearers. The former time of ignorance which God permitted is no longer tolerable. Repentance and conversion are now required. In his first missionary speech the apostle establishes a distinction between the age in which Jews lived under the law of Moses and the new era inaugurated by Jesus resurrection. Paul declares that through Jesus forgiveness of sins is proclaimed to you, and by him everyone who believes is freed from everything from which you could not be freed by the law of Moses (13:38, 39). Speaking to the Lystrans Paul affirms that in the past generations he [God] allowed all the nations to walk in their own ways (14:16). Paul had just instructed them to turn to the living God (14:14), which indicates that a change in time took place and a new attitude was now expected of everyone.

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In Athens Paul declares that the times of ignorance God overlooked, but now he commands all people everywhere to repent (17:30). The temporal phrase , now, (17:30) stresses the change of the times. . Paul recognizes the critical nature of the moments in which he and his listeners stand, and with his words he reveals the contrast between past and present that exposes the real drama of the human situation.147 Paul wants his audience to recognize that a cosmic shift has taken place and no one can be indifferent to it. 6. Repentance and Conversion Both Jews and Gentiles find themselves in the same position, in need of repenting and being reconciled to God through Christ.148 Paul declares, in his three evangelistic sermons, that everyone ought to repent and convert from the way they lived in their ignorance. Referring to Jesus in Pisidian Antioch, the apostle taught that through this man forgiveness of sins is proclaimed to you (13:38). To the inhabitants of Lystra he announces that they should turn from these vain things to a living God (14:15). The Athenians hear Paul affirming that God now commands all people everywhere to repent (17:30). It is now time for each person to stop their sinful practices, change direction and turn to God. 7. Jesus Christ and his Work The climax of Pauls evangelistic speeches in Acts is the proclamation of Jesus Christ and his work. His coming as Gods decisive event, his death and his resurrection are elements detected in the content of Pauls missionary sermons. a. Jesus as Gods Decisive Event

147 Soards, Speeches, p. 192. 148 Witherington, Acts, p. 531.

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According to Pauls missionary speeches, the time of ignorance is brought to an end by the work of God in Jesus Christ, especially as Christs witnesses testify to Gods saving activity.149 As indicated by Paul, Gods redemptive action through Jesus is the decisive event that causes the change in the nature of time (13:38b, 39; 17:30, 31). Pauls claim in Lystra that God allowed all the nations to follow their own way in the past (14:6) implies that a change has taken place in the present. Nonetheless, he does not make any direct reference to Jesus. Pauls silence concerning Jesus in Lystra could be an indication that the coming of Jesus Christ was not a recurrent issue in Pauls missionary speeches. But this does not seem to be accurate. A case has previously been made, in the examination of the content of Pauls speech in Lystra, to defend that he was interrupted and could not conclude his announcement. Barrett correctly observes that Pauls discourse in Lystra anticipates some of the themes of the Areopagus speech.150 Witherington agrees and accurately advocates that Pauls message in Lystra foreshadows in many ways the longer speech in Athens, only there the audience includes more sophisticated Gentiles and so the discourse in the Areopagus is delivered at a higher intellectual level.151 In both, the subjects treated included defence of monotheism (14:15; 17:24, 25, 29), creation or natural theology (14:15; 17:24-28), the endured ignorance of pagans (14:16; 17:30), the goodness and providence of God (14:17; 17:25-28) and the necessity of conversion (14:15; 17:30). Due to the vast similarities between Pauls speech in Lystra and his speech in Athens, it can surely be suggested that the final elements of the speech in Athens (17:31) represent what Paul was intending to say had he not been stopped. Longenecker argues that, although the speech does not contain any explicit reference to Christ, it is hard to believe that it was not meant

149 Soards, Speeches, p. 192. 150 Barrett, Acts, I:670. 151 Witherington, Acts, pp. 425-426.

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to point to Jesus Christ and his work as the divine climax of history.152 Hansen rightly notes that after reading the Areopagus address, the reader would then see that the abbreviated reference in the Lystra speech (14:16) to Gods plan for the nations in the past needed to be finalized with the declaration of the resurrection of Jesus, the God-appointed judge of the nations in the present (17:30).153 Though the death and resurrection of Jesus do not appear in the speech to the Lystrans, they will be considered regular topics in Pauls missionary speeches due to the reasons described above. b. Death of Jesus Paul explicitly announces Jesus death in his first missionary sermon. Speaking of Jesus he affirms that they took him down from the tree and laid him in a tomb (13:29). The allusion to the death of Jesus in Athens is merely implicit. Paul only makes reference to Jesus resurrection (17:31). It would be obvious to the audience, however, that in order to be resurrected, Jesus had to be dead. c. Resurrection of Jesus Luke plainly demonstrates that the proclamation of Jesus resurrection is found in the Pauline sermons delivered in Pisidian Antioch and in Athens. Whereas in the former Paul asserts the resurrection of the Messiah in numerous occasions (13:30-37), the apostle only mentions it once in the latter (17:31). In both speeches Paul communicates the fact that God was the one who raised Jesus from the dead (13:30; 17:31). 8. Eschatological Judgement As portrayed by Luke, the apostle Paul announces an eschatological judgement in his missionary speeches for those who refuse to repent and turn to God. Pauls warning and citation of Habakkuk 1:5 at the end of his 152 Longenecker, Acts, p. 436, as cited by Hansen, Preaching`, p. 315. 153 Hansen, Preaching`, p. 315.

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discourse in the Synagogue (13:40, 41) indicates his conviction that God would once again bring judgement upon his people in case they rejected his offering through the Messiah. Paul asserts the necessity of repentance to his listeners in Athens since God has fixed a day on which he will have the world judged in righteousness by a man whom he has appointed (17:31). 9. Universal Character of Salvation The Pauline missionary speeches, as revealed by Luke, highlight the universal extension of salvation offered by God. The term , all or everyone, is found in the three discourses. Paul uses the term in Pisidian Antioch in relation to forgiveness of sins and affirms that everyone who believes is set free (13:39). In Lystra he articulates that in past generations he [God] allowed all the nations to follow their own ways (14:16), alluding to Gods relation to the entire humanity during the time of ignorance. Standing before the Athenians he declares that every human being must repent, for now God commands all people, everywhere to repent (17:30).

B. Table of Recurrent Issues The following table summarizes the examination above and clearly displays the main topics of Pauls missionary message.

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TOPICS / SPEECH

PISIDIAN ANTIOCH LYSTRA ATHENS

The Only God

13:16, 17, 23, 26, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37 14:15

17:24, 25, 29, 30

The Creator of all Things 13:17 14:15 17:24

Divine Authority

13:17, 18, 19-20a, 20b, 22, 23, 26, 27-30, 32-37, 38b-39

14:15b; 15c, 16, 17

17:23b, 24a, 24b-25a, 25b, 26-27, 31a, 31b

Gods Goodness 13:16b-25, 38-39 14:17 17:25

Use of the Past 13:17-23, 29, 33, 34, 35, 41 14:15-17 17:23-28

Witness 13:22, 25, 31 14:17 17:28 Period of Ignorance 13:27 14:16 17:23, 30 Change in the Nature of Times 13:38, 39 14:16 17:30 Repentance and Conversion 13:38 14:15 17:30 Jesus as Gods Decisive Event 13:38b, 39 17:30, 31

Death of Jesus 13:29 / 13:31 17:31 (implicit)

Resurrection of Jesus 13:30-37 17:31

Judgement 13:40, 41 17:31 Universal Character of 13:39 14:16 17:30

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Salvation The biblical evidences examined previously enable a reconstruction of the common elements of Pauls missionary proclamation entirely based on the apostles sermons in Pisidian Antioch, Lystra and Athens: 1. There is only one true God, the creator of all things. All his plans have been and are being brought to realization for he exercises complete authority over his creation. God has been active in the unfolding of history, demonstrating his goodness by caring and providing for humanity. 2. People in history bear witness to Gods will and work. 3. God has acted decisively in Jesus Christ and human history has therefore entered a new era. The former time of ignorance which God permitted has ended with the coming of Jesus. 4. Jesus died but God raised him from the dead. The resurrection is Gods pivotal act in the world and attests to the centrality of Jesus in Gods redemptive project. 5. A change in attitude towards God is now expected of everyone. People need to repent and convert from the way they lived in their ignorance. A correct relationship with God is now available to all humanity. 6. Judgement will be brought upon those who refuse to repent and turn to God. Conclusion The comparison between Pauls missionary speeches in the book of Acts demonstrates the existence of several recurrent topics in the three speeches.

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As reported by Luke, the following issues are present in the content of Pauls message to non-Christian audiences: doctrine of God, uses of the past, witness, period of ignorance, change in the nature of times, repentance and conve