Construction of a Steam Powered Model Car for Educational Purposes

of Thermodynamics and Power Calculations

Andrew Paul McLellan (S1222569)

Main Body Word Count 16,540

The design, assembly and testing through the use of CAD software,

calculation and manufacturing techniques a teaching aid in the form of

a model engine driven by steam for 1st and 2nd Year Engineering

students to perform thermodynamics and power calculations on a

physical model.

i

Abstract

The aim of this project was to create a teaching aid that would be a useful tool for lecturers

of Thermodynamics and Engineering Design and Analysis. The thought behind this being that

testing of a physical model could help consolidate theory learned in lectures and tutorials

providing students with a better understanding of the applications of what they have

learned in the classroom. This was achieved through the design, manufacture and testing of

a model engine powered by a pressurised vessel containing steam. With applications for

thermodynamics calculations, and engine torque and power calculations, a small steam

engine provided a wide-range of applications for the lecturer to relate to the curriculum.

The engine was taken from the initial design stage with different engine concepts considered

before deciding on the most suitable design due to a variety of factors. These components

were created using computer aided design software and where then manufactured using a

variety of manufacturing methods in the university engineering applications workshop.

These included 3-axis machining and 3D rapid prototyping techniques. With the completion

of component manufacturing, the assembly and testing of the engine was then undertaken.

All tests conducted had a high emphasis on safety due to the nature of the model’s intended

environment of application. Numerous steps were taken throughout the various sections of

the testing phase to ensure personal safety and to make the system as safe as possible to

handle. These included performing hand calculations to validate the boiler design and

material in conjunction with computer aided finite element analysis. It also entailed abiding

to British Standards for pressure vessel testing and the completion of risk assessments for

use of naked flame heat sources and a pressurised vessel in an educational environment.

With results and testing being a success a study of possible applications and apparatus

needed to perform these experiments was constructed. The result of this was the

foundation of potential lesson plans a lecturer could create that could be carried out by the

student.

ii

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to my project supervisor David Ross on feedback and advice given throughout

the year and being available for me to arrange meetings whenever I had questions about the

direction of my project.

A huge thanks to technicians Ian Hamilton and Derek Leitch for putting up with my daily

visits and holding you back from your lunch and coffee breaks with my project. Your input in

helping to solve problems that cropped up on a weekly basis with construction was

invaluable. Thank you to Colin Russell of the Chemistry Department for welcoming an

outsider into your department to conduct experiments deemed too dangerous to perform

anywhere else. To Colin Dalglish I extend my gratitude for the incredibly quick turnaround

of 3D printed components every time I needed a new part made and for answering almost

every email within the same minute of me sending them.

A final thank you to my university colleagues, friends, family and to my girlfriend for putting

up with my absence during long days and nights in the library.

iii

Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................ i

Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................... ii

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ iii

List of Figures ................................................................................................................. vii

Tables ........................................................................................................................... viii

Nomenclature ................................................................................................................. ix

Glossary.......................................................................................................................... ix

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1

2 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 3

2.1 Historical Introduction to Using Steam for Work ...................................................... 3

2.2 Laws of Thermodynamics .......................................................................................... 5

2.2.1 Steam ................................................................................................................. 5

2.2.2 Heat Engines and Second Law of Thermodynamics .......................................... 5

2.3 How a Steam Engine Works ....................................................................................... 8

2.3.1 Engine Overview ................................................................................................ 8

2.3.2 Cylinder .............................................................................................................. 8

2.4 Various Cylinder Designs ............................................................................................ 9

2.4.1 Double Acting Stationary Engine Cylinder ......................................................... 9

2.4.2 Oscillating Cylinder Design ............................................................................... 10

2.4.3 Uniflow (Unaflow) Engine ................................................................................ 10

2.5 Boiler Design/Efficiency ........................................................................................... 11

2.5.1 Safety Relief Valves .......................................................................................... 11

2.5.2 Efficiency .......................................................................................................... 12

2.5.3 Boiler Types ...................................................................................................... 13

2.6 Manufacturing Methods .......................................................................................... 14

2.6.1 Cylinder and Piston .......................................................................................... 14

2.6.2 Boiler ................................................................................................................ 14

2.6.3 Flywheel ........................................................................................................... 15

2.7 Teaching Techniques ................................................................................................ 16

2.7.1 Lectures ............................................................................................................ 16

2.7.2 Tutorials ........................................................................................................... 16

2.7.3 Labs .................................................................................................................. 16

2.8 Corresponding British Standards ............................................................................. 17

iv

3 Methods................................................................................................................. 18

3.1 Design Process ......................................................................................................... 18

3.1.1 Component Design ........................................................................................... 19

3.1.2 Flywheel ........................................................................................................... 19

3.1.3 Crank ................................................................................................................ 20

3.1.4 Flywheel Mount ............................................................................................... 20

3.1.5 Boiler ................................................................................................................ 21

3.1.6 Firebox ............................................................................................................. 22

3.1.7 Piston, Cylinder and Port Face ......................................................................... 22

3.1.8 Model Car Chassis ............................................................................................ 23

3.2 Manufacture ............................................................................................................ 25

3.2.1 Machining (3-Axis) ........................................................................................... 25

3.2.2 Rapid Prototyping ............................................................................................ 28

Fabrication ....................................................................................................................... 30

3.2.3 Lathe ................................................................................................................ 33

3.3 Construction ............................................................................................................. 35

3.3.1 Mounting the Flywheel .................................................................................... 35

3.3.2 Boiler Threaded Connections ........................................................................... 36

3.3.3 Synchronisation of Cylinder/Piston.................................................................. 36

3.3.4 Component Placement .................................................................................... 37

3.3.5 Component Redesign ....................................................................................... 37

4 Testing ................................................................................................................... 39

4.1 Analytical Calculations for Boiler ............................................................................. 39

4.1.1 Working Pressure (15psi) ................................................................................. 41

4.1.2 Factor of Safety Pressure (45psi) ..................................................................... 41

4.2 Analysis of Boiler with Ansys Software .................................................................... 43

4.2.1 Working/Destructive Pressure Testing ............................................................ 43

4.3 Testing of Heat Sources on Boiler ............................................................................ 46

4.3.1 Fuel Types ........................................................................................................ 46

4.3.2 Test Outline ...................................................................................................... 47

4.3.3 Risk Assessment ............................................................................................... 48

4.3.4 Execution of Test .............................................................................................. 48

4.4 Pressure Testing of Boiler ........................................................................................ 51

4.5 Full Engine Model Tests ........................................................................................... 52

4.5.1 Synchronisation of Oscillating Cylinder, Piston and Crank .............................. 52

v

4.5.2 Stationary Test ................................................................................................. 53

4.5.3 Test on Model Car Chassis ............................................................................... 54

4.5.4 Engineering Calculations from Stationary Model ............................................ 54

5 Results ................................................................................................................... 54

5.1 Design ....................................................................................................................... 54

5.2 Manufacture ............................................................................................................ 56

5.3 Assembly .................................................................................................................. 57

5.3.1 Sub-Assembly ................................................................................................... 57

5.3.2 Full Assembly ................................................................................................... 58

5.4 Testing ...................................................................................................................... 59

5.4.1 Ansys Pressure Testing ..................................................................................... 59

5.4.2 Physical Testing ................................................................................................ 59

6 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 60

6.1 Part Design ............................................................................................................... 60

6.1.1 Flywheel ........................................................................................................... 60

6.1.2 Flywheel Mount ............................................................................................... 61

6.2 Tolerances ................................................................................................................ 62

6.3 Attaching the V Belt ................................................................................................. 63

6.4 Acquiring Suitable Components............................................................................... 64

6.5 Manipulation of Steam Flow .................................................................................... 65

6.6 Possible System Tests .............................................................................................. 66

7 Further Work .......................................................................................................... 68

7.1 Boiler Efficiency ........................................................................................................ 68

7.2 Convection Analysis ................................................................................................. 68

7.3 Manufacture of All Components ............................................................................. 69

7.4 Inclusion of Electronics and Electrical Components ................................................ 70

7.4.1 RC Capability .................................................................................................... 70

7.4.2 Obstacle Avoidance .......................................................................................... 70

7.4.3 Flywheel Connection to Dynamo ..................................................................... 71

7.5 Closed System (Rankine Cycle Design) ..................................................................... 71

7.6 Masters Project ........................................................................................................ 72

8 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 73

vi

9 References ............................................................................................................. 74

10 Appendices............................................................................................................. 80

10.1 Appendix A - PTC Creo Pro-Engineer Component Designs ...................................... 80

10.1.1 Piston ............................................................................................................... 80

10.1.2 Copper Piping ................................................................................................... 80

10.1.3 Flywheel ........................................................................................................... 80

10.1.4 Cylinder ............................................................................................................ 81

10.1.5 Flywheel Mount ............................................................................................... 81

10.1.6 Crank ................................................................................................................ 81

10.1.7 Firebox ............................................................................................................. 82

10.1.8 Chassis .............................................................................................................. 82

10.1.9 Rear Axle Sub-Assembly ................................................................................... 83

10.1.10 Engine Final Assembly ...................................................................................... 83

10.2 Appendix B – Ansys Pressure Testing Results .......................................................... 84

10.2.1 Pressure Test 15psi .......................................................................................... 84

10.2.2 Pressure Test 45psi .......................................................................................... 95

10.3 Appendix C – Manufacture .................................................................................... 107

10.3.1 Dugard Technical Information ....................................................................... 107

10.3.2 ProJet 1000 Technical Information ................................................................ 108

10.4 Appendix D - Rod End Bearing Technical Information ........................................... 108

10.5 Appendix E - Flanged Bearing Technical Information ............................................ 109

10.6 Appendix F - Safety Relief Valve Technical Information ........................................ 109

10.7 Appendix G - Pressure Gauge Technical Information ............................................ 110

10.8 Appendix H - Testing/Evaluation ........................................................................... 110

10.9 Appendix I - Boiler Material Data Sheet ................................................................ 110

10.10 Appendix J - Analysis of Boiler with Ansys Software ......................................... 113

10.11 Appendix K - Heat Sources Data Sheets ............................................................. 113

10.11.1 (Hexamine Solid Fuel) .................................................................................... 113

10.11.2 (Methylated Spirit Liquid Fuel) ...................................................................... 117

10.12 Appendix L -Hydraulic Pump Data Sheet ........................................................... 120

10.13 Appendix N - Risk Assessment for Pressure Testing .......................................... 131

10.14 Appendix O - BS ISO 16528-1:2007 (Testing Section) ........................................ 138

11 Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 140

vii

List of Figures

FIGURE 2-1 NEWCOMEN ENGINE (THE TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILROAD, 2012) ........................................................ 3 FIGURE 2-2THEVITHICK'S HIGH PRESSURE TRAM ENGINE (THE TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILROAD, 2012) ........................ 4 FIGURE 2-3-A PLOT OF TEMPERATURE VERSUS ENERGY ADDED WHEN A SYSTEM INITIALLY CONSISTING OF 1.00 G OF ICE AT

230.0°C IS CONVERTED TO STEAM AT 120.0°C. (SERWAY& JEWETT JR, 2014 PG599) .................................... 5 FIGURE 2-4CARNOT (IDEAL) HEAT CYCLE (P/V) & (T/S), (ELECTROPEDIA, 2005) .................................................... 6 FIGURE 2-5 OTTO HEAT CYCLE (P/V) & (T/S), (ELECTROPEDIA, 2005) .................................................................. 7 FIGURE 2-6 – SIMPLE DIAGRAM OF A RECIPROCATING STEAM ENGINE (HOW A STEAM ENGINE WORKS, 2011) ............ 8 FIGURE 2-7 - DIAGRAMMATIC AND PERSPECTIVE SECTION OF CYLINDER, PISTON AND CONNECTED SLIDE VALVE

(WILLIAMS, 2009, P. 12) ...................................................................................................................... 9 FIGURE 2-8 DOUBLE ACTING STATIONARY CYLINDER STAGES OF ACTION IN THE CYLINDER (BRITANNICA ONLINE, 2012) . 9 FIGURE 2-9 LABELLED DIAGRAM OF OSCILLATING CYLINDER DESIGN (MARTIN, 2007)............................................. 10 FIGURE 2-10 SCHEMATIC OF COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION IN A UNIFLOW ENGINE (WIKIPEDIA, 2016) ................ 10 FIGURE 2-11 HOW A SPRING LOADED SAFETY RELIEF VALVE FUNCTIONS ............................................................... 11 FIGURE 2-12 COMPARISON OF WATERTUBE BOILER AND FIRETUBE BOILER (HOW STUFF WORKS, 2008) ................... 13 FIGURE 2-13 DEEP DRAWING MANUFACTURING PROCESS.................................................................................. 14 FIGURE 2-14 DIE CASTING MANUFACTURING METHOD ..................................................................................... 15 FIGURE 2-15 EXAMPLE OF TESTING THAT COULD BE CARRIED OUT BY STUDENTS .................................................... 17 FIGURE 3-1 STEPS TAKEN FOR METHODS USED IN PROJECT ................................................................................ 18 FIGURE 3-2 STEPS TAKEN FOR FLYWHEEL DESIGN ON PRO ENGINEER .................................................................... 19 FIGURE 3-3 STEPS TAKEN FOR CRANK DESIGN ON PRO ENGINEER ........................................................................ 20 FIGURE 3-4 STEPS TAKEN FOR FLYWHEEL HOUSING DESIGN ON PRO ENGINEER ...................................................... 20 FIGURE 3-5 STEPS TAKEN FOR BOILER DESIGN ON PRO ENGINEER ........................................................................ 21 FIGURE 3-6 STEPS TAKEN FOR FIREBOX DESIGN ON PRO ENGINEER ...................................................................... 22 FIGURE 3-7 CAD REPRESENTATION OF FINISHED PORT FACE BLOCK WITH ATTACHED COMPONENTS .......................... 23 FIGURE 3-8 3 STEPS TAKEN FOR MODEL CAR CHASSIS DESIGN ON PRO ENGINEER .................................................. 24 FIGURE 3-9 ENGINE CHASSIS SUB ASSEMBLY .................................................................................................... 24 FIGURE 3-10DUGARD HSM 600 SET FOR 3 AXIS MILLING AND SIEMENS CONTROLLER ............................................ 25 FIGURE 3-11 COMPARISON OF AXIS BETWEEN 3 AND 5 AXIS (CNC COOKBOOK INC., 2015) P.15,17 ........................ 26 FIGURE 3-12 COMPARISON OF TOOL SELECTION BETWEEN 3/5-AXIS TO EXPRESS SAME RESULT ................................ 26 FIGURE 3-13 ALUMINIUM BLOCK PREPARED FOR MACHINING AND AFTER MACHINING OF TOP SIDE OF FLYWHEEL ....... 27 FIGURE 3-14 LAYOUT OF STEREOLITHOGRAPHIC 3D PRINTER (ADDITIVELY, 2013) .................................................. 28 FIGURE 3-15 RAPID PROTOTYPE CONSTRUCTION OF FLYWHEEL MOUNT USING PROJET 1000 ................................... 29 FIGURE 3-16 CONCEPT CRANK AND FINAL FINISHED CRANK CREATED WITH PROJET 1000 ....................................... 30 FIGURE 3-17 DEEP DRAWING METHOD .......................................................................................................... 31 FIGURE 3-18 PURCHASED MAMOD SE3 BOILER ............................................................................................... 31 FIGURE 3-19 FINISHED FABRICATED FIREBOX STAINLESS STEEL ............................................................................ 32 FIGURE 3-20 SMALL JIG WITH THREADED END TO ATTACH FLYWHEEL IN POSITION TO BE CUT BY THE LATHE. ............... 33 FIGURE 3-21 CUTTING OF CENTRE 6MM X 2.5MM CHANNEL OF THE FLYWHEEL WITH A LATHE .................................. 33 FIGURE 3-22 FINISHED PISTON AND CYLINDER.................................................................................................. 34 FIGURE 3-23 ENGINE COMPONENTS UNASSEMBLED .......................................................................................... 35 FIGURE 3-24 5 X 10 X 4MM FLANGED BEARING ............................................................................................... 35 FIGURE 3-25 FLYWHEEL MOUNTING SUB-ASSEMBLY ......................................................................................... 36 FIGURE 3-26 BOILER PLUGS FOR PRESSURE TESTING ......................................................................................... 36 FIGURE 3-27 MOVING PARTS OF OSCILLATING PISTON AND CYLINDER DESIGN WITH CONNECTED CRANK .................... 37 FIGURE 4-1 ALPHA BRASS ............................................................................................................................. 39 FIGURE 4-2 BOILER DIMENSIONS FOR THIN CYLINDER CALCULATIONS ................................................................... 40 FIGURE 4-3 APPLICATIONS OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 43 FIGURE 4-4 BOILER WITH INTERNAL PRESSURE OF 15PSI SHOWING VON MISES EQUIVALENT STRESS .......................... 45 FIGURE 4-5 15PSI INTERNAL PRESSURE RESULT IN 1.2E+033(0.5 AUTO) TO EXAGGERATE DEFORMATION ........... ERROR!

BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. FIGURE 4-6 SOILD FUEL (THE PREPARED GUY, 2015) ........................................................................................ 46 FIGURE 4-7 LIQUID FUEL (THE PAINT SHED, 2016) ........................................................................................... 46 FIGURE 4-8 ENVAIR VACUUM HOOD .............................................................................................................. 48

viii

FIGURE 4-9 METHYLATED SPIRITS TEST WITH THERMAL IMAGE DISPLAYING IGNITION TEMPERATURE OF HEAT SOURCE

APPLIED TO BOILER ............................................................................................................................. 49 FIGURE 4-10 SOLID HEXAMINE FUEL TEST WITH THERMAL IMAGE DISPLAYING IGNITION TEMPERATURE OF HEAT SOURCE

APPLIED TO BOILER ............................................................................................................................. 49 FIGURE 4-11 HEAT SOURCE TRAY DURING TEST VS AFTER REDESIGN.................................................................... 50 FIGURE 4-12 PRESSURE TESTING OF BOILER ..................................................................................................... 51 FIGURE 4-13 CRANK POSITION VS CYLINDER AXIAL MOVEMENT .......................................................................... 52 FIGURE 4-14 MODEL RUNNING ON COMPRESSED AIR AT 15PSI WITH NO BELT ATTACHED TO REAR AXLE ................... 53 FIGURE 5-1 FINISHED MODEL ISOMETRIC VIEW ................................................................................................ 54 FIGURE 5-2 FINISHED MODEL TOP VIEW HIGHLIGHTING PATH OF COPPER PIPE ...................................................... 55 FIGURE 5-3 FINISHED MODEL REAR VIEW SHOWING BOTH FLYWHEELS ARE IN LINE ................................................ 55 FIGURE 6-1 INCLUSION OF GRUB SCREW INTO FLYWHEEL DESIGN ........................................................................ 60 FIGURE 6-2 FLYWHEEL MOUNT SUPPORTING FLYWHEEL ON ONE SIDE ONLY .......................................................... 61 FIGURE 6-3 ROD BEFORE AND AFTER KNURLING TECHNIQUE USED TO INCREASE ROD DIAMETER ............................... 62 FIGURE 6-4 ALLIGATOR BELT FASTENER........................................................................................................... 63 FIGURE 6-5 PILLOW BLOCK AND ROD END BEARING .......................................................................................... 64 FIGURE 6-6 DIFFERENCE IN BELT ANGLE BETWEEN PILLOW BLOCK AND ROD END BEARINGS WITH REGARDS TO CHASSIS 65 FIGURE 7-1 MODEL FIRETUBE BOILER THAT WOULD INCREASE BOILER EFFICIENCY (GIANDOMENCIO, 2011) ............... 68 FIGURE 7-2 CONVECTION ANALYSIS OF A FIRETUBE BOILER USING FEA SOFTWARE (COSMOL, 2016) ........................ 69 FIGURE 7-3 RADIO CONTROLLED FRONT AXLE FOR TURNING FRONT WHEELS (RED RC NETWORK, 2009) ................... 70 FIGURE 7-4 INFRARED SENSORS ATTACHED TO RC CAR CONTROLLED BY ARDUINO MICROCONTROLLER (PEER, 2015) ... 70 FIGURE 7-5 RANKINE CYCLE (TRANSPACIFIC ENERGY, INC, 2016) ........................................................................ 71

Tables

TABLE 1 STEPS OF CARNOT CYCLE .................................................................................................................... 6 TABLE 2 STEPS OF OTTO CYCLE ........................................................................................................................ 7 TABLE 3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF BOILER FOR FEA SIMULATION (CES EDUPACK, N.D.) ......................................... 44 TABLE 4 COMPONENT MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ......................................................................................... 56 TABLE 5 RESULTS FROM ANSYS PRESSURE VESSEL TESTING ................................................................................. 59

ix

Nomenclature

Abbreviation Meaning

CAD Computer Aided Design

FEA Finite Element Analysis

RPM Revolutions per minute

BS British Standard

CNC Computer Numerical Control

BSP British Standard Pipe

BSF British Standard Fine

SL Stereolithography, type of 3D printing

RC Radio Controlled

PSI Pounds per Square Inch

MPa Mega Pascals

Glossary

Word/Phrase Meaning

Entropy(S) A measure of Molecular Disorder within a macroscopic system.

Isothermal An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the temperature remains constant.

Adiabatic When a gas is compressed under adiabatic conditions, its pressure increases and its temperature rises without the gain or loss of any heat.

Rapid Protoyping

Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design data.

PTC Creo/ProEngineer Computer Aided Design Software

Ansys Finite Element Analysis Software

Factor of Safety (FOS) Capacity of a system beyond the expected loads or actual loads.

Von Mises Equivalent Stress Used to validate whether a design can withstand a given load condition

Youngs Modulus A measure of elasticity, equal to the ratio of the stress acting on a substance to the strain produced.

All symbols used in this report are sufficiently labelled throughout.

1

1 Introduction

In the engineering sector, it has been recognised that there is a considerable jump that many

find difficult between university and the workplace. Applying what students have learned at

university to real life situations that arise while working in the field of engineering is

sometimes one that requires a lot of supervision by the employer. On numerous courses

students leave university having had minimal, if any, exposure to practical experience in an

engineering working environment either through placements or university. The resultant

costs of this ultimately being picked up by the employer by needing to give the graduates

extra training to meet the required company standards. This gap in practical familiarity also

limits the responsibility that can be given to graduates early in their career as it hinders the

progress an entry level engineer can make before becoming an experienced engineer. This

lack in familiarity is fundamentally down to the fact that many students do not recognise

how considerable portions of the curriculum they have spent the last 4/5 years of their

academic career attaining relates to real problems in industry. Students can be told by a

lecturer how a certain topic they are learning is used in a variety of applications. But unless

these applications can be attempted through the use of engineering tools relating the

problem to examples faced in industry it is likely not all students will grasp what the lecturer

is trying to explain. The problem lies not with what they have been taught but that it could

be taught in a way that is more effective in helping the student to understand why this rule

or technique is used.

It has been shown in studies that graduates with relevant industrial experience and a good

classification of degree have a better chance of getting a job than someone with a better

classification with no experience. In a study by the Independent Newspaper figures show

that 58 per cent of employers rated work experience as “the most popular qualification

among those presented” (Garner, 2015)Although it cannot be expected by industry to

accommodate every student with industrial experience, this is where universities should be

able to help make up for this unavoidable shortfall. A survey carried out by YouGov in 2013

consisting of 635 employers showed that “just 19 per cent of business leaders said all or

most graduate recruits were work-ready.” (Paton, 2013) Giving students real practical

problems on working models using techniques which have common ground with industry

can help create more overlap better preparing students for the transition to the workplace.

It is common practice for some students to be able to study for exams, pass and progress

onto the next level without any real awareness as to how the problems they solved in their

2

exam are used outside of the classroom. Many universities offering engineering courses

focus solely on the classroom and theory side of engineering which is extremely important.

However, it is being able to put across what students have learned in the classroom by

appropriately relating it to problems faced in the engineering environment that is most

important for student understanding.

This is where the use of practical teaching aids to supplement learning comes into play.

Using a physical model relating to the problem faced helps students identify why the course

content is relevant to their learning and potential careers. It also helps create a groundwork

going forward that a student can look back to and relate to future problems they may come

across.

Working with this idea, the central aim of this dissertation was to create a working model of

a steam powered model car that can be used as a teaching aid for basic thermodynamics

and engineering principles across various modules. The project will consist of working from

the initial design stage of this engine using CAD software packages for component design

and analysis and for safety testing of components to ensure it is suitable for the teaching

environment. The model components will be created in the workshop using a variety of

different manufacturing techniques then be assembled. The constructed model will then

have certain high stress components tested separately before performing tests of the overall

system to ensure it is running correctly and safely as designed. After the finished model has

been deemed safe and running correctly from the evidence collected in the test phase it will

advance to the creation of possible lesson plans. These lesson ideas will focus on the

applications in areas of Thermodynamics and Engineering Design and Analysis. It will outline

apparatus that can be used in conjunction with the model to gather data to perform suitable

calculations. There will then be a discussion section which will evaluate what the project has

achieved and its viability as a suitable teaching aid. The discussion will be followed by a

section on further work that could be investigated to further develop this model. And by

doing so, making it a more valuable piece of equipment for the university.

This project gives an example of how models can be used to aid teaching and consolidate

learning early in student academic careers at university studying engineering.

3

2 Literature Review

2.1 Historical Introduction to Using Steam for Work

The steam engine is regarded by historians to be one of the most ground breaking

inventions of the modern age. This invention was the earliest example of a source able to

provide power regardless of weather, location or having to rely on the work of animals

(Lovland, 2007, p. 1). Though it had been touched on by many as the understanding of what

the atmosphere itself grew it was not until the early 1700s any real progress was made

within the design of the modern steam engines recognised today. Up to this point steam had

only been used in the way of a small pump designed by Thomas Savery in which he created a

vacuum which would provide a pressure resulting in pushing water upwards. This design

invented by Savery in 1698 consisted of 3 valves, a boiler, condensing chamber and was

connected by tubes allowing water to be pumped upwards. Another inventor who when

faced with a problem that was solved by revisiting Savery’s early design was Thomas

Newcomen. The problem faced by Newcomen was to come up with an alternative to using

horses to keep pumping water out from larger mines that were flooding as using horses was

becoming very expensive due to the number that were needed. By using points from

Savery’s Pump as a starting point Newcomen was able to invent in its simplest form the first

atmospheric engine. (Dickinson, 1939, pp. 29-53). Although his engine was somewhat

inefficient and start-up costs too expensive as an

alternative for many mine owners it was a significant

step closer to the steam engine that is held in high

regard when looking back at how it has evolved since

the late 1600s. It was in the 17&1800s that vast

improvements were made on design and efficiency

of the early steam engine and the realisation that

this system could be applied to other areas of

industry than just water pumps. (Lovland, 2007, p. 5)

James Watt, the Engineer responsible for developing

the concept of horsepower as a universal

measurement of power, made a considerable

contribution to the development of the steam engine by further improving inefficiencies in

Newcomen’s designs. Many accept James Watt to be the inventor of the steam engine but

with some research it is evident that he made large ground-breaking improvements and

Figure 2-1 Newcomen Engine (The Transcontinental Railroad, 2012)

4

expansions on existing designs rather than conceptualising from its beginning. Even though

his design was manufactured and used in the 1700s after huge investment, this was only in

Great Britain and very few steam engines could have been found anywhere else until the

mid-1800s due to Britain’s booming Industrial Revolution (Dickinson, 1939). And as Watt

engines became more readily available as mechanical sources of work the industrial power

of the British Empire only grew and so did the country’s wealth. (Griffin, 2010) By looking

back at how much of an effect being able to harness steam power had it is evident the

impact that it had in terms of industrial progress in the late 1800s was huge. With later

designs by Richard Trevithick and then William McNaught incorporated further applications

into areas such as transportation on land and at sea its effect was profound and it changed

these areas forever paving the way for further advancement and more efficient engines as

the decades went on. (Hills, 2004)

Figure 2-2Thevithick's High Pressure Tram Engine (The Transcontinental Railroad, 2012)

5

2.2 Laws of Thermodynamics

2.2.1 Steam

When looking at using steam as work the laws of thermodynamics are of vital importance in

calculating and understanding properties of steam. Since the engine for this project is using

steam from water as a way of creating pressure within a cylinder to produce work it is vital

that an understanding of how water’s state varies with temperature. For a steam engine the

water only becomes useful when it is steam and when this is stored in a sealed pressurised

vessel it will boil at a higher temperature therefore its pressure can be increased above

atmospheric pressure making for a high steam output making the engine more powerful.

(Serway & Jewett Jr, 2014)

Figure 2-3-A plot of temperature versus energy added when a system initially consisting of 1.00 g of ice at 230.0°C is converted to steam at 120.0°C. (Serway& Jewett Jr, 2014 Pg599)

2.2.2 Heat Engines and Second Law of Thermodynamics

The application of heat engines are systems that convert heat energy from an external

source through a cyclic process in turn ejecting a portion of this energy into workable kinetic

energy. During this process for steam engines in particular the water in the boiler absorbs

energy in the way of heat evaporating into steam and uses this to push a piston. The

fundamental limit is known as the Carnot limit where in an ideal heat engine it would

convert all heat energy into workable mechanical energy as shown in the graph of an ideal

Carnot Cycle below.

6

Figure 2-4Carnot (Ideal) Heat Cycle (P/V) & (T/S), (Electropedia, 2005)

Table 1 Steps of Carnot Cycle

Change

of State

Carnot Heat Cycle Processes

A – B “Reversible isothermal compression of the cold gas. Isothermal heat

rejection. Gas starts at its "cold" temperature. Heat flows out of the gas

to the low temperature environment.

B – C Reversible adiabatic compression of the gas. Compression causes the

gas temperature to rise to its "hot" temperature. No heat gained or lost.

C - D Reversible isothermal expansion of the hot gas. Isothermal heat

addition. Absorption of heat from the high temperature source.

Expanding gas available to do work on the surroundings (e.g. moving a

piston).

D - A Reversible adiabatic expansion of the gas. The gas continues to

expand, doing external work. The gas expansion causes it to cool to its

"cold" temperature. No heat is gained or lost.”

(Electropedia, 2005)

“The maximum (or "theoretical") efficiency of any heat engine is described in terms of the temperatures of the heat source and heat sink. Temperatures are expressed in the Kelvin scale (Celsius + 273).” (Berger, 2001)

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡× 100%

However, there are many inefficiencies within these systems, with none ever having 100%

efficiency when compared to the theoretical Carnot engine. This is due to a variety of

causes:

Transfer of Heat from Heat Source

Frictional Forces

Energy losses by conduction

Energy Lost through Sound

Change in entropy

Due to these factors indicated the cycle that would be considered most suitable to describe

a steam engine would be the Otto Cycle.

7

Figure 2-5 Otto Heat Cycle (P/V) & (T/S), (Electropedia, 2005)

Table 2 Steps of Otto Cycle

Change

of State

Otto Heat Cycle Processes

A – B “Compression Stroke. Adiabatic compression of air / fuel mixture in the

cylinder

B – C Ignition of the compressed air / fuel mixture at the top of the

compression stroke while the volume is essentially constant.

C - D Expansion (Power) Stroke. Adiabatic expansion of the hot gases in the

cylinder.

D - A Exhaust Stroke Ejection of the spent, hot gases.

Induction Stroke Intake of the next air charge into the cylinder. The volume of exhaust gasses is the same as the air charge.”

(Electropedia, 2005)

8

2.3 How a Steam Engine Works

2.3.1 Engine Overview

In the figure below the diagram shows the main parts of a single cylinder reciprocating

steam engine in its simplest form. It shows water in the form of steam being pushed through

and into the cylinder pushing the piston forward. When the piston is fully extended it allows

the steam that has pushed it forward to escape allowing atmospheric pressure to be

achieved in the cylinder before the mechanical work that has turned the flywheel from the

steam pushes the piston back in the cylinder closing off the gas escape valve therefore

creating pressure again in the cylinder to repeat the process. This cycle is what keeps this

engine running on the power of the pressure built up in the cylinder with steam allowing for

the heat energy to be converted into more useful mechanical energy. (Serway & Jewett Jr,

2014) As this system is not a closed system it will eventually run out of workable steam

when the water from the boiler has all been exhausted unlike a closed system that would

continue to run until the heat source stopped heating the boiler.

Figure 2-6 – Simple Diagram of a Reciprocating Steam Engine (How A Steam Engine Works, 2011)

2.3.2 Cylinder

The key to the steam engine’s reciprocating process is what happens within the cylinder. The

diagram of the cylinder below shows that the steam is injected into the steam chest where it

is directed by the slide valve to enter the cylinder. The valve rod is controlled by the previous

mechanical work done by the engine which covers and exposes the left injection valve

allowing the steam to pressurise the cylinder pushing the piston forward till the valve is

opened allowing for the pressure to be released. This is part of the engine is what is doing

the work and replacing the need for physical work by the human body. The linear cyclical

motion produced in the cylinder is converted into a rotary motion by the connected driving

rod and crank that turns a weighted flywheel. (Williams, 2009, p. 12)

9

Figure 2-7 - Diagrammatic and Perspective Section of Cylinder, Piston and Connected Slide Valve (Williams, 2009, p. 12)

2.4 Various Cylinder Designs

In the case of model steam engines - the focus of this project - there are various designs that

can be taken as a basis for the design of the engine to be used in this project. The main point

of difference on many of the model designs is the three main types of piston and cylinder.

2.4.1 Double Acting Stationary Engine Cylinder

This cylinder design as described in the previous section is the more common of the two

cylinder designs. This design has a steam chest attached in which the steam is directed to

either the left or right side of the cylinder by the sliding valve. This sliding valve works in

synchronisation with the cylinder and piston and is done so through and eccentric rod

attached to the flywheel so both the cylinder and sliding valve work at the same rpm. From

the diagram the cylinder has steam pushed in from the left pushing the piston right. This

work done from the steam pushing the piston left turns the flywheel which connected to the

eccentric rod slides the sliding D valve exposing the exhaust port allowing the steam to

escape. When the left side of the cylinder is exposed to the exhaust port the steam is then

directed into the right side of the cylinder pressurising it therefore pushing back in the left

direction. This process, when repeated, makes up the reciprocating motion needed to turn

the flywheel and creates kinetic energy.

Figure 2-8 Double Acting Stationary Cylinder Stages of Action in the Cylinder (Britannica Online, 2012)

10

2.4.2 Oscillating Cylinder Design

This variant of cylinder design is one that does not require valves or the addition of an

eccentric crank. The cylinder is instead held in place by a pivot (trunnion) that on which the

entire cylinder is able to oscillate back and forth. It is when performing this motion that the

hole in the cylinder lines up with the holes in the port face that inject and exhaust the steam

traveling from the boiler. As the cylinder lines up with the steam hole steam flows into the

cylinder expanding and pushing forward the piston. As the crank rotates the cylinder rocks

on the x-axis until it lines up with the exhaust port expelling the steam. The process then

repeats. This design is rarely used full scale and is mostly used in models due to its

simplicity. This design in order to cycle properly needs to be lined up at the same height as

the flywheel and placed in a position that allows for the piston to have a full range of

movement through the length of the cylinder. (World Heritage Encyclopedia, 2002)

Figure 2-9 Labelled Diagram of Oscillating Cylinder Design (Martin, 2007)

2.4.3 Uniflow (Unaflow) Engine

This particular type of steam engine uses the steam to push the piston past half way in the

cylinder which in turn exposes the exhaust port located in the centre of the cylinder. There

are two poppet valves controlled by a rotating camshaft that work in relation to which side

the steam enters the cylinder. When the exhaust port is exposed on one side it pushes the

piston past half way and closes the flow of steam to this side and pushes the steam through

the other poppet valve pushing the piston back until the exhaust port is exposed from the

opposite direction. From the diagram below high pressure steam enters the cylinder (red)

and exhausts after full expansion which exposes the exhaust port (yellow).

Figure 2-10 Schematic of Compression and Expansion in a Uniflow Engine (Wikipedia, 2016)

11

2.5 Boiler Design/Efficiency

The boiler is a crucial part of how the overall engine performs as this is the source of the

engines power. There have been various boiler designs for steam engines depending on the

application and heat source available to boil the water. When designing a boiler there are

several factors that must be taken into account in order for it to be fit for purpose. The

aspects that must be adhered to for model steam engine boilers in order for them to be

considered to be an acceptable design consist of:

1. Conformity to Safety UK Standards, Regulations and Considerations

2. Suitable Material for quality of water being used.

3. Calculated Design Pressures and Temperatures

4. Type of Heat Source from which the steam will be created.

5. Capacity of Steam Output Needed for Engine to function at determined Power.

6. Cost of Material Constraints. (HSE, 2000, p. 25)

2.5.1 Safety Relief Valves

A suitable safety relief valve would also be added once the boiler has been designed as

another method to ensure safety while the boiler is pressurised and performing at the

boiler’s determined working pressure. It works by automatically not allowing the boiler

system to go above the intended pressure of the boiler by releasing excess steam bringing

the pressure back down to within the intended safe limits. Most common type of safety

valve in the application of model steam engines is the spring loaded safety valve. This valve

works by having a spring of a certain compressive strength inserted into the valve housing.

The compressive strength of this spring is what affects at what pressure the valve with

release opening the value allowing steam to escape. This will in turn bring the pressure of

the boiler back down below the pressure needed to set off the relief valve, the working

pressure.

Figure 2-11 How a Spring Loaded Safety Relief Valve Functions

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2.5.2 Efficiency

There are two methods used to calculate efficiency of the boiler, direct and indirect method.

Direct method

When using the direct method, the boiler efficiency is directly defined by the exploitable

heat output from the boiler and by the fuel power of the boiler:

η =φ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

φ𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

“Where φ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 is the heat that is exploitable from the boiler after being heated by an

external source, and φ𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 is the potential fuel power of the boiler if no heat escapes into

the atmosphere.” (Teir & Kulla, 2002)

Advantages of direct method

Boiler Efficiency can be evaluated by workers rapidly.

Instrumentation needed for monitoring is minimal.

Disadvantages of direct method

Can show operator efficiency of the system but cannot specify why efficiency is

lower.

Calculations do not include losses responsible for varying efficiency levels.

Indirect method

The indirect method defines the efficiency of a boiler by using the sum of the major losses

and by fuel power of the boiler: η = 1 −φ𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

φ𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

“Where φ𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 is the sum of the major losses within the boiler, and φ𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 is the fuel power

of the boiler. The indirect method provides a better understanding of the effect of individual

losses on the boiler efficiency.” (Teir & Kulla, 2002)

Advantages of indirect method

A complete mass and energy balance can be obtained for each individual stream,

which makes it easier to identify options to improve boiler efficiency

Disadvantages of indirect method

This method of efficiency calculation is more time consuming.

Due to nature of calculations this method requires lab facilities in order for analysis

to be carried out. (Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia, 2006)

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2.5.3 Boiler Types

2.5.3.1 Pot Boiler

This type of boiler was used in the first steam engines and is by far the simplest design. The

boiler consists of one hollow chamber that is partly filled with water. Heat is applied to the

bottom of the tank and heats the water inside until it becomes steam which can then be

used to power the engine. This type of boiler is still used today in construction of model

steam engine kits as it is simplistic in design making it easy to manufacture.

2.5.3.2 Firetube

With firetube boilers, heated air known as flue gases are directed through vertical or

horizontal steel tubes that are surrounded by the water for heating, and typically go through

a number of changes in direction depending on the boiler size. The efficiency of this boiler is

an improvement when compared to a pot boiler as there is more heated surface area in

contact with the water it is trying to evaporate into steam meaning it achieves producing

steam quicker.

2.5.3.3 Water Tube

In watertube boilers, the opposite is performed from firetubes. Instead of the water being

outside the tubes, it circulates inside the tubes and is heated externally by the combustion

gases within the tank. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, which heats the water in the steam-

generating tubes. The water then rises to the steam drum where saturated steam is drawn

from the top of the drum and used in the same application. (Johnston Boiler Company ,

1995)

Figure 2-12 Comparison of Watertube Boiler and Firetube Boiler (How Stuff Works, 2008)

14

2.6 Manufacturing Methods

2.6.1 Cylinder and Piston

Pistons are usually partly manufactured using the metal cast method. Molten metal is

poured into a mould in the shape of the piston and then subjected to huge pressure. Once

cooled and ejected from mold the piston is prepped for secondary machining which allows

for more complex parts of material removal to be completed. (Feng, et al., 2002) This

process is usually used to do the finishing on the piston as to where it can be inspected and

then be deemed fit for use. Secondary machining also reduces the amount of components

that would possibly need to be reworked as they can be amended during the material

removal in the 3/5-axis milling process.

2.6.2 Boiler

When designing a boiler of a small size cold working of the chosen material is usually used.

The material must be relatively malleable and not brittle to allow it to be manipulated easily.

Popular materials for boilers of this size include copper, brass and steel due to their good

levels of conductivity. The process of using the chosen material involves using a variety of

different molds to change the shape of the material gradually from a flat piece to a hollow

cylinder. This process is called deep drawing and helps strengthen the material by strain

hardening as it is stretched gradually through a series of steps. The advantage to using this

method is that it eliminates the need for the boiler to be welded longitudinally as it is

seamless making the cylinder stronger. The wall thickness can also be reduced considerably

when compared to other methods of manufacture and the surface finish is cleaner.

Figure 2-13 Deep Drawing Manufacturing Process

15

2.6.3 Flywheel

Most flywheels in industry which are still produced today for modern engines are done so

through the die casting method. The metal– usually steel –heated to a liquid is injected into

a mold in the shape of the flywheel under great pressure where it is held until it cools. This

century old process has been modernised through use of computers allowing higher

accuracy, smaller tolerances and less rework of the casting after first injection. Molds can

also be made more complex by use of computers. The mold consists of two halves one with

the main body cavity and the other with protrusions discounting a need for extra drilling to

be done on the casting as it can be done within the mold itself. (Feng, et al., 2002) This part

is kept in the mold till it cools and it is then ejected and further treated to remove burrs and

flashes from the finished flywheel. This process is mostly the same with model steam engine

as it is with modern car flywheels. This is with the exception of possible different choices of

material depending on cost effectiveness, batch size and properties needed from the

material for that particular engine design.

Figure 2-14 Die Casting Manufacturing Method

16

2.7 Teaching Techniques

When teaching engineering as a subject a variety of teaching techniques are used to give the

student the best chance of understanding the course content as possible but studies have

proven that some teaching techniques have more impact than others.

2.7.1 Lectures

Lectures are the usually used as the point where a student will be exposed to new course

material for the first time. This is the first point of contact between the lecturer and the

student. Lectures are usually performed in front of large numbers of students making it a

rather impersonal teaching method as it is difficult to engage will all students with student

number of this size. Topics are usually presented in form of slides through power point

outlining key areas of the topics including background knowledge and examples.

2.7.2 Tutorials

The common practice of tutorials is to consolidate the topic areas covered within in the

previous lecture. This is broken into smaller groups where students have the chance to ask

questions and be given one to one feedback. The small class sizes make for a more personal

style of learning where questions and potential problems can be raised with the lecturer in a

less distant environment than that of a lecture.

2.7.3 Labs

The use of labs gives lecturers an opportunity to display techniques to students they have

learned in preceding lectures and tutorials through methods of application. This can range

from, for example, performing tests on stress concentrations of thin walled steel structures

to applying control systems to a working model car to verify its validity as an appropriate

system for its intended purpose. This method of teaching can be very effective if proper

initial guidance is given to the student and outcomes of physical testing can be appropriately

linked back to current areas of teaching in lectures and tutorials. Using labs as a launch point

for a module coursework that will involve students acquiring results from physical testing is

a method that helps quantify the knowledge the student has gained and reinforcing their

understanding. This type of teaching environment helps get students more invested in the

subject area especially coursework involves students working as part of a team. This

supports methods used in industry as projects are rarely ever carried out by a single person

meaning not only is the student learning the course content more fully but is gaining skills by

working as part of a team.

17

By reviewing the teaching techniques used by universities, studies have shown that a better

balance of the three main teaching methods used by engineering lecturers must be given to

ensure students are given the ideal opportunity to grasp the curriculum. From a study

comparing exam scores of the use of active and traditional learning techniques in STEM

disciplines it showed that students in classes with traditional lecturing were 1.5 times more

likely to fail than students in classes with active learning. (Freeman, et al., 2014) Applying

techniques learned in lectures and tutorials can improve not just student exam performance

but well-rounded understanding of the subject.

Figure 2-15 Example of Testing That could be Carried Out by Students

2.8 Corresponding British Standards

When implementing any sort of teaching aid that is to be used to supplement learning and

will be exposed to students proper standards must be adhered to. These British standards

give information as to how to make the teaching environment as safe as it can possibly be

with the appropriate control measures put in place. With model steam engines being classed

as a pressurised vessel these items must be stored properly with correct documentation and

safety checks being carried out in correspondence with Pressure Systems and Transportable

Gas Containers Regulations of 1989. (Surrey County Council , 1997). This is extremely

important with regards to safety as a model steam engine that does not have the proper

safety checks carried out on it could have the potential of causing injury to students and

lecturers. (BS4163:2014, 2014)

18

3 Methods

In order to arrive at the final outcome which is to have a full working model of a steam

engine capable of running safely in an educational environment there is numerous stages of

the design process which are outlined in the diagram below.

Figure 3-1 Steps Taken for Methods Used in Project

3.1 Design Process

The first area in which research was carried out was into model steam engines of a similar

size currently available on the market to buy as a set. The engines looked at most closely

were stationary steam engines by companies Mamod and Jensen taking their designs into

account when starting conceptual designs for this engine.

19

3.1.1 Component Design

When designing all components for this steam engine the Computer Aided Design (CAD)

software used was Creo Parametric 2.0. This software is an industry standard that gives the

user the ability to create realistic models of their design that can be easily altered and

improved as the design becomes more refined. This platform also allows for compatibility

with other software that will be useful within this project such as Ansys and

ProManufacture. This software also has the ability to convert files to be compatible with

rapid prototype 3D printing machines, crucial for refinement throughout the project all the

way to the construction and test phase if smaller parts need to be redesigned. It was

decided that all components being used in the construction of the engine would be

accurately designed using this software in order to provide a 3D model of the finished

engine for simulation and presentation.

3.1.2 Flywheel

This component was designed using Creo Parametric as the intention was to have this part

machined out of aluminium as a 3D printed alternative would be too lightweight. A

programme could be written using this software to produce the machine codes necessary to

produce this piece using Pro-Manufacture. The outer diameter was chosen to be 105mm, a

size from after research was considered suitable for a model engine of this scale. When

designing this part the intention was that every part following would be designed with

regards to this component’s scale. Therefore a 5mm hole was created in the centre of the

flywheel in which the rod connecting it to the crank would be positioned. It was imperative

at this point onwards that uniformity of parts be a main priority if the components where to

be compatible with one another. A grove in the outer radius was created with the purpose

of being the channel in which the belt connecting this flywheel to a smaller wheel would be

positioned. The channel created was 6mm X 2.5mm giving a 5mm belt enough clearance on

each side as not to cause wear from the belt touching the sides of the channel. Material was

also symmetrically removed meaning it would still run smooth lower the flywheel’s weight.

Figure 3-2 Steps Taken for Flywheel Design on Pro Engineer

20

3.1.3 Crank

When designing the crank a top heavy design was chosen to give it stability at the point of

contact with the rod connecting the crank to the flywheel. The top hole was made as 5mm in

diameter in order to line up properly geometrically with the 5mm diameter connecting rod

and centre hole of the flywheel already designed. The bottom hole was also designed as

5mm diameter to keep a uniformity of hole sizes throughout the assembly which would cut

down on need for steel rods of different diameters. This bottom hole is the connection hole

of the crank to the piston where the power will be delivered from the workable steam to

turn the flywheel.

Figure 3-3 Steps Taken for Crank Design on Pro Engineer

3.1.4 Flywheel Mount

This component had many factors that had to be incorporated into its design in terms of its

geometry. The main geometric issue that had to be addressed was that it had to fit the

flywheel designed previously. This was done so by using the flywheel as a reference model

for the construction of this component. As the centre hole of the flywheel was 5mm it was

crucial that this model have a hole diameter of at least double this. This is so this hole could

house bearings that could be force fitted into both holes to decrease work needed to turn

the flywheel that would have been lost forces of friction. Suitable sized bearings were then

be chosen with an inner diameter of 5mm to stay in line with the flywheel centre hole

dimensions.

Figure 3-4 Steps Taken for Flywheel Housing Design on Pro Engineer

21

3.1.5 Boiler

With regards to the boiler design it was decided beforehand that designing I would be too

complicated of a process. With the work and money needed to design and fully test a boiler

in correlation with external health and safety examiners it was decided the most cost and

time effective alternative would be to buy a pre-fabricated boiler. The boiler chosen would

need to satisfy various numerous specifications on relative size, material selection and safety

standards. The boiler chosen was a Mamod SE3 boiler used in model steam engine kits as it

met all specifications. This would ensure the number of tests needed to be carried out on

the boiler in order to deem it safe to use in a university environment would be minimal as it

had been purposely built by a recognised model steam engine company as a pressurised

vessel for holding steam. In order to include the boiler purchased in CAD assemblies of the

entire system it was created to exact scale in Creo Parametric taking all measurements and

placement of the 4 holes accurately straight from the physical boiler itself. When referencing

technical drawings of the boiler all measurements were given in inches meaning they all had

to be converted into millimetres to stay standard with all other components created. This

boiler consists of a 1/8” thread hole on one side for the water filling level , two ¼” threaded

holes and one threaded 3/8” hole on the top. The boiler was recreated as shown below. All

dimensions where converted from inches to millimetres to keep metrics between all

components constant.

Figure 3-5 Steps Taken for Boiler Design on Pro Engineer

It was critical that the boiler in particular be dimensionally accurate when generating it as

the Creo design was to be later exported into Ansys 16.0 software to test and produce a

heat mapped model of pressure and heat against time.

22

3.1.6 Firebox

The design of the firebox was a component of significance with regards to efficiency. A tight

fit would reduce heat escaping and keep the heat from the heat source concentrated on the

bottom of the boiler. In order to design a firebox with this key point in mind it had to be

designed to be compatible with the SE3 boiler purchased. Dimensions of the boiler were

incorporated to ensure a correct length and diameter of firebox that would be a stable

platform for when it is placed on top by sitting in place by the cavity on each end. In order to

ensure the heat source would be supplied with sufficient oxygen four 10mm holes were

created in both sides of the model to allow adequate air to flow.

Figure 3-6 Steps Taken for Firebox Design on Pro Engineer

3.1.7 Piston, Cylinder and Port Face

It was recognised early in the design process that there was a limit in tool sizes available that

would affect manufacture of specific components. Due to the lack in availability of tools

small enough for machining it was decided that both the port face and the cylinder would be

purchased from a manufacturer of model steam engine parts. In order for these components

to be suitable within this engine design a block was to be designed to house the port-face on

which the cylinder sits at the correct height.

Creating a dimensionally accurate CAD model of the purchased components would aid in the

design of the block as it is easier to visualise the component being designed in relation to the

purchased components in which it will have direct contact with. One of the key design points

that needed to be incorporated into this part was that it needed to house the port-face hole

at the exact height as the 10mm hole in the flywheel housing. This was so the full range of

motion by the piston and cylinder could be achieved or else the engine would not run

23

effectively. The figure below illustrates an exploded view of the port-face block with the

purchased components attached in the configuration they will be in on the final model.

Figure 3-7 CAD Representation of Finished Port Face Block with Attached Components

3.1.8 Model Car Chassis

In order to allow the steam engine to display how the engine can perform practical tasks by

converting steam into mechanical work, a chassis for the finished engine to sit in had to be

designed. This was the last component designed as the full finished engine had to be

assembled on Pro Engineer to confirm component placement so a decision could be made as

to what the dimensions of the chassis would need to be. After components were placed

appropriately on the stationary plinth the chassis design was able to now be constructed as

a new part.

By taking measurements of the base plinth (150mm X 130mm) a suitably dimensioned cavity

could be designed into which the engine would sit preventing it from moving. Once this was

taken into account, the next thing that needed to be incorporated into the design was the

positioning of the front and back axle and lining up the flywheel connected to the back axle

with the larger flywheel. By referring to the assembly of the stationary configuration of the

engine and performing hand calculations the cut out for the flywheel was properly

positioned.

24

Figure 3-8 3 Steps Taken for Model Car Chassis Design on Pro Engineer

Figure 3-9 Engine Chassis Sub Assembly

25

3.2 Manufacture

There were a number of various manufacturing methods exploited throughout the

construction of this model steam engine. Each component was studied individually taking

into account its application and placement with regards to other components before making

an informed decision on its chosen manufacturing process. This meant considering potential

structural loads, pressures, temperatures and resistance through friction the component

would likely come into contact with while running. After research and discussing the factors

mentioned a material would be chosen which would most likely determine the

manufacturing process. A combination of methods performed in-house and outsourced

were used including machining, rapid prototyping and fabrication in order to accumulate all

components required to have a finished working model.

3.2.1 Machining (3-Axis)

A 3-Axis milling machine was used to manufacture a select number of components. Parts

chosen to be 3-Axis machined were parts that would need to be the most hard wearing and

of a suitable refined design as to be machined using the 3-Axis milling machine located in the

engineering workshop. The milling machine available to use for the creation of components

for this project was the Dugard HSM600, a milling machine capable of both 3-Axis and 5-Axis

cutting. This particular system had been set up as a 3-Axis machine meaning suitability of

models designed would need to be reviewed. The designs had to be refined several times

until a model was created that would be fully compatible with the machine parameters and

available tools.

Figure 3-10Dugard HSM 600 set for 3 Axis Milling and Siemens Controller

26

Limitations

With regards to this 3-Axis milling machine it allows the user to create very complex models

relatively quickly and to a great accuracy. However, tool selection can sometimes limit what

can be achieved with the machine with regards to models that can be created. With 3-Axis

machining problems can occur with models of a large depth that require machining with

tools long enough to reach the bottom of the model. This is an area in which 5-Axis

machining has a much greater advantage.

With the mill itself being able to rotate as the 3 axis does but also have the work piece which

the model is attached to simultaneously able to roll either longitudinal or laterally on the a-b

axis results in a smaller tool selection required and the opportunity to create more complex

3D models. With the 3 axis machine it requires machine code with a longer cycle time when

edges need to be blended and would require further treatment and polishing when the

machining process had been completed. (CNC Cookbook Inc., 2015)

“With a fixed spindle / tilting table configuration maximum rigidity of the tool and tool

holder is achieved, whilst allowing the tool to access even the most difficult aspects of a

complicated workpiece.” (Matsuura Machinery Corporation, 2009)

Figure 3-11 Comparison of Axis between 3 and 5 Axis (CNC Cookbook Inc., 2015) P.15,17

Figure 3-12 Comparison of Tool Selection between 3/5-Axis to Express Same Result

27

Flywheel

As expressed in the design section of this investigation, a suitable material for this

component would need to be researched. It was key that the flywheel be heavy enough for

the piston cylinder pressure but not too heavy as to where the crank would not be able to

apply enough force to rotate appropriately. It was therefore decided proceed to the

manufacturing stage with the material Aluminium 6082. The weight was the prevalent

feature that helped in material selection as it would be heavier than a 3D printed plastic

equivalent but light with regards to a carbon steel or iron equivalent. Additionally, this

material was also picked due to it being purposely straightforward to machine. With regards

to material properties of Aluminium 6082 although they were researched and deemed fit for

purpose it was clearly evident that the application of this material for this project would

come nowhere near the stresses capable of possible material deformity or maximum tensile

strength and no further testing was considered to be necessary before incorporation of this

component into the final engine construction. When writing the machine code the

limitations expressed in the previous section would need to be taken into account and tools

available to carry out this process. Firstly, the raw material was cut to an approximate

diameter leaving a small amount of extra material around the outer diameter to be finished

by the machining process. In order to produce a jig, five holes were cut to allow the

workpiece to be secured tightly to eliminate and chance of the workpiece moving during the

milling process. Machining code was then created on the Siemens 840D CNC controller in

two separate programs in conjunction with technical drawing exported from Creo

Parametric. This was necessary to complete in two halves in order to complete the piece

because the workpiece would need to be flipped in order to finish the other side of the

flywheel. This was due to their needing to be the removal of material in the centre of the

flywheel on the opposite side from the machining surface that could not be reached without

taking the part out of turning it around.

Figure 3-13 Aluminium Block Prepared for Machining and After Machining of Top Side of Flywheel

28

3.2.2 Rapid Prototyping

The newest method of manufacturing components used for this engine model was the use

of rapid prototyping (3D printing). Components picked for manufacturing through this

method were chosen under the assumption they were unlikely to either be under large

amounts of stress or come into contact with high levels of heat. There are a variety of types

of 3D printers on the market; the components for this project were constructed using a

stereolithography (SL) type printer. This type of printer (SL) is currently the most commonly

used rapid prototyping process within the field of design and manufacture and is a

considerable improvement over previous types of prototyping processes. Models can be

produced to a high level of accuracy with SL, a great improvement over earlier prototyping

techniques and with very low geometrical tolerances. (Tang, 2005)

This particular type of printer follows the following steps to result in the physical

representation of the intended model:

- “A 3-D model of an object is created in a CAD program.

- The software (e.g. Lightyear, 3D Systems) slices the 3-D CAD model into a series of

very thin horizontal layers.

- The sliced information is transferred to an ultraviolet laser that scans the top layer

of the photosensitive resin, hardening it.

- The newly built layer attached to the platform is lowered to just below the surface

the distance of one layer, and a new layer of resin is then recoated and scanned on

top of the previous one. This process repeats layer by layer, with successive layers

bonding to each other, until the part is complete.” (How Stuff Works Inc, 2001)

Figure 3-14 Layout of Stereolithographic 3D Printer (Additively, 2013)

29

Limitations

When the decision was made to produce a select number of components using SL it was

critical that the material properties of the composite resin be researched. The evidence

found indicated that in order to make sure the components would function correctly they

would need to be designed with no sections of the component being below 1mm in

thickness. Any thinner than 1mm and the material would be malleable and able to bend with

a small load put upon it. This was addressed during the design phase on the CAD software.

When reviewing other components within this project there could have been others, from a

dimension perspective, within the capabilities of3D printing. However, due to the plastic

composite resin used the weight and density of the components would have been too low

for its intended purpose meaning other alternative manufacturing methods had to be

explored. (Protosys Technologies Pvt. Ltd, 2005)

Flywheel Mount

The first component that was streamed towards this method of manufacture was the mount

that would house the bearings and the machined flywheel. With acknowledgement to the

limitations in material strength, the flywheel mount’s wall thickness of 10mm and model

shape made this part fit for purpose. This method was also chosen due to the intended

placement of this component in relation to sources of heat. The only other components that

would be coming into contact with this model would be the bearings which would be used

to turn the flywheel with less resistance from friction forces.

Figure 3-15 Rapid Prototype Construction of Flywheel Mount using ProJet 1000

30

Crank

Using this method to manufacture the crank for the engine posed a considerable advantage.

Once this part had been produced first time round it was realised that the component’s

dimensions were no longer of the appropriate size to be compatible with the length of the

piston. Therefore the crank needed to be redesigned to fit with all other existing

components and ensure that the cycle of the piston in the cylinder was able to get the full

range of motion to cycle properly. Once this new design was sent to the printer and due to

the small dimensions of the component it was ready to be used in the engine assembly in

less than an hour. This therefore proves that the correct manufacturing method was chosen

for this component due to the quick turnaround that was needed to amend this part as

quickly as possible.

Figure 3-16 Concept Crank and Final Finished Crank Created with ProJet 1000

Fabrication

When constructing a component with a thin wall thickness that will be subject to high levels

of heat other methods of manufacture become awkward. 3D printing uses an acrylic plastic

which has a melting point of 52°C and comparatively low tensile and impact strength when

compared to metal. Machining, although could be done, would result in a very significant

amount of material waste as you would need to start with a block of the component’s outer

dimensions and then remove the majority of the material. For scenarios such as this

fabrication is used as an alternative. Metal is manipulated, bent and welded with a variety of

human controlled machines to create complex shapes.

This includes using a variety of techniques where human input is required at all stage. This

practice is by far the oldest method of manufacturing as computers are not used for

measurement or machining.

31

Limitations

Using this technique of construction for various components can cause a number of

problems. Firstly, this technique requires a skilled person to carry out the variety of

techniques that are used. This method is also not considered a good method for large

volumes of manufacture due to human input being needed at all sections of the process.

Boiler

As discussed earlier it was decided that magnitude of the undertaking for designing,

constructing and testing a boiler would be too ambitious with regards to the size of the

project already. The potential pitfalls with time constraints, money and health safety meant

the purchase of an appropriate boiler would be the best outcome.

The boiler purchased was from a previousmodelMamodSE3 Steam Engine chosen for its

compatible size. This boiler was constructed to safety standards outlined in British Standards

(BS ISO 16528-1:2007 , 2007) and constructed using the deep drawing method discussed

previously with the addition of brass endcaps force fitted and joined to the cylinder with

silver solder paste and then passed through an oven to soften and then harden the joints.

Figure 3-17 Deep Drawing Method

Figure 3-18 Purchased Mamod SE3 Boiler

32

Firebox

The firebox was constructed from2mm Stainless Steel metal plate. It was cut to the

dimensions conveyed in previous designs using Creo CAD software from which a detailed

technical drawing was produced for the technician. All four sides were prepared separately

with the two long sides having four 10mm diameter holes cut in each which would allow

more controlled volume of air to flow to the heat source. The two small sides, which were

each end of the firebox, had a half circle of 50mm diameter cut into them from the top edge

creating a half circle cut out. This would be the section of the firebox which would be the

point of contact with the boiler on each end to keep it in a stable position. As the firebox

was designed to be slightly wider than the boiler itself the longer sides had 5mm from the

top edges bent inwards at a 90° angle to enclose the gap between the boiler and the sides of

the box. This would ensure a cleaner and flusher finish with the boiler which would limit the

amount of heat escaping keeping it concentrated on the bottom surface of the boiler. All

four sides were then spot welded and a base plate was finally welded on to protect the

plinth on with the firebox would be positioned on in the final model.

Figure 3-19 Finished Fabricated Firebox Stainless Steel

33

3.2.3 Lathe

For the finishing of the machined flywheel the lathe was used in order to create the channel

on the part’s outer diameter. This process was chosen due to limitations within the 3 axis

machining technique used to give the flywheel its shape as it is unable to cut on that axis

accurately and to a suitable finish. In order to create this channel a small jig was produced

that would allow the flywheel to be secured to the lathe with a bolt in a manner where the

cutting face would be unobstructed. This can be seen in the figure below.

Figure 3-20 Small Jig with Threaded End to Attach Flywheel in Position to be cut by the Lathe.

The 6mm X 2.5mm channel outlined in the previous CAD drawings, for a belt to be attached

to, was measured accurately with a micrometre across the thickness of the flywheel to

ensure the channel would be central. If this channel cut was not central the engine would

become unbalanced affecting the engine performance.

Figure 3-21 Cutting of Centre 6mm x 2.5mm Channel of the Flywheel with a Lathe

34

Piston and Cylinder

As mentioned previously, these components were purchased due to limitations of tool sizes

available for use with 3 axis machining. As discussed in the literature review section these

parts were manufactured using two subsequent methods. However the secondary

machining for these parts was not completed using 3 axis machining but were instead

performed with a lathe.

The brass cylinder casting was fixed to the chuck on the lathe and was cleaned up using the

lathe tool. The material used for the piston was from a brass rod and piston head is also

worked on the lathe to machine the two channels which are there to hold lubricant keeping

the engine running smooth. The piston rod and piston head were then force fitted under

high pressure resulting in a very tight fit.

Figure 3-22 Material Removal on Cylinder on Lathe

The finished parts where then connected to ensure they were properly compatible and

ensuring a close seal between the cylinder inner diameter with the piston outer diameter.

This was crucial because if the seal was too loose then steam would escape lowering the

power in which the steam would push the piston resultantly lower the engine power.

Figure 3-23 Finished Piston and Cylinder

35

3.3 Construction

With reference to the engine assembly designed on PTC Creo the construction of the engine

was able to be completed.

Figure 3-24 Engine Components Unassembled

3.3.1 Mounting the Flywheel

Bearings

When exploring best ways to reduce friction in the

connecting rod and turning of the flywheel, using bearings

is an example of mounting a component that would result

in a reduction in friction. With bearings primary use being

to reduce the level of friction force acting upon a wheel it

was therefore logical to incorporate this into the engine

designs. Due to the flywheel having had a 10mm hole cut

out on each arm this left optimal room to install a bearing in

each to improve how smooth the flywheel would turn. With

the purchase of two small 5mm x 10 x 4mm flanged bearings greatly reduced the friction

between the walls of the flywheel mount and the flywheel connecting rod.

Figure 3-25 5 x 10 x 4mm Flanged Bearing

36

Figure 3-26 Flywheel Mounting Sub-Assembly

3.3.2 Boiler Threaded Connections

The mamod SE3 boiler purchased to act as the boiler for this engine had connections that

proved to be problematic. The boiler had three threaded connections, two ¼” British

Standard Fine (BSF) and one 3/8” BSF, and finding components with the appropriate thread

type were challenging. It was therefore decided that adapters would be manufactured in the

workshop using the lathe. For all three connections adapters were fabricated converting the

threads from BSF to British Standard Pipe (BSP), a thread type more widely used in a variety

of different component increasing options for attachments. An example of the boiler plugs

manufactured are in the figure below.

Figure 3-27 Boiler Plugs for Pressure Testing

3.3.3 Synchronisation of Cylinder/Piston

For this engine to run there was a crucial requirement for certain components to be

perfectly synchronised. The cylinder being used, as previously stated, is an oscillating

cylinder purchased from a model steam engine. Making this cylinder and piston compatible

with other manufactured engine components was an integral element that would need to

be addressed.

37

3.3.4 Component Placement

When constructing the engine placement of the key engine components was crucial in the

functionality of the system. The components most important in their placement were the

cylinder in relation to the crank. The reason these two components were so crucial to be

placed correctly was to allow for the piston to have a full range of motion within the

cylinder. Not only did the cylinder need to move along the full length of the cylinder to cycle

properly but the steam hole had to be line up as the cylinder turned. This meant having to

make sure the cylinder lined up allowing for steam injection and ejection in a full cycle with

both the steam inlet and exhaust as the cylinder swivelled between its two positions.

Figure 3-28 Moving parts of Oscillating Piston and Cylinder Design with Connected Crank

3.3.5 Component Redesign

As some components that had been purchased and were only able to be sized from pictures

before they arrived this resulted in some components not being dimensionally compatible.

The crank designed originally was for use with a cylinder and piston of a larger size and

therefore the range of motion it allowed for was too large for the piston and cylinder

purchased. Therefore by using simple maths calculating the size of this new crank was

possible.

Firstly, the internal length of the cylinder was taken, the range of motion the piston could

take.

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 40𝑚𝑚

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 10𝑚𝑚

38

When taking into account the size of the piston head this must be subtracted from the

length of cylinder the piston can travel so the piston does not come out of the end of the

cylinder while running.

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 (𝐿) = 40 − 10 = 30𝑚𝑚

This value of internal length of the cylinder is then halved to take into account the crank

position involved in a full turn when piston is fully extended. This is explained in the figure

below.

𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛(𝐿)

2

𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 =𝐿

2=

30

2= 15𝑚𝑚

39

4 Testing

In order to prove that this engine design that had now been constructed was safe to use a

variety of tests were essentially conducted. The main component of the engine system that

needed considerable levels of testing was the Mamod SE3 boiler that had been purchased.

This was to validate that this boiler was indeed fit for purpose and was well within pressure

limits with regards to the engine requirements. The key points of the boiler testing consisted

of pressure testing to validate it was within boundary conditions and that the heat source

chosen would be compatible with the boiler materials. Once this was completed a test of the

full constructed engine model was to be carried out firstly in its stationary configuration and

finally connected to the model car chassis with vbelt connected to the rear axle of the

chassis. Along with ensuring engine is running correctly engine rpm and torque were then

calculated from the physical model to determine the engine power.

4.1 Analytical Calculations for Boiler

This section focussed on inspecting how the boiler would react to three different values of

pressure calculated separately. The pressures being tested were the working pressure, three

times the working pressure that would work as a minimum factor of safety for its intended

environment as a teaching aid and finally the pressure required to make this design fail and

plasticise. In order to conduct these hand calculations material properties of the boiler

needed to be established. The material used in this boiler’s construction was Alpha Brass, a

cold worked alloy of 65% Copper (Cu) and 31% Zinc (Zn). This material is typically used in

“machined parts on automatic lathes, bushes, bearings, screws and extrusions.” (CES

EduPack, n.d.)

Figure 4-1 Alpha Brass

40

By using CES EduPack software, key material characteristics and the stress range of alpha

brass were noted. This information, along with dimensions for the boiler, allowed for

analysis to be carried out by calculating the hoop(σ𝐻) and longitudinal(σ𝐿) stresses acting

on the cylinder when under certain magnitudes of pressure. This was then compared to the

material Yield Stress (σ𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)to validate of the use of this material and design for

incorporation into the engine assembly. In order for the calculations that were to be carried

out to be accurate the formula would need to take into account any welds and soldered

joints in the cylinder. As this design has two flat end caps that were brushed with

solderpaste, force fitted and passed through a furnace to melt the solder the maximum

pressure the material could withstand is reduced when compared to a seamless equivalent

of the same material. Incorporating joint efficiency was necessary to ensure a more

accurate representation of this boiler design and for silver solder paste joint efficiency was

32.5%. (Messler, Jr, 1993)This was one of three steps taken in validating that the boiler was

indeed fit for purpose.

Figure 4-2 Boiler Dimensions for Thin Cylinder Calculations

𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟(𝐷) = 49.8𝑚𝑚 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠(ε) = 989000𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑇) = 1𝑚𝑚 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(σ𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) = 2400𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿) = 154𝑚𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 0.34

𝐽𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑠 (ɳ𝐽) = 32.5% (0.325)

41

4.1.1 Working Pressure (15psi)

The first pressure that was taken as the internal pressure of the boiler was 15psi, this was to

be the working pressure of the boiler when the engine is running at its intended pressure for

running the engine.

𝒑 = 𝟏𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟐𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂)

4.1.1.1 Hoop Stress

σ𝐻 =𝑝𝐷

2𝑡. ɳ𝐽

σ𝐻 =0.103421 × 49.8

2 × 1 × 0.2

σ𝐻 = 15.84727938

𝛔𝑯 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖. 𝟓𝑴𝑷𝒂 @ 𝟏𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊

4.1.1.2 Longitudinal Stress

σ𝐿 =𝑝𝐷

4𝑡. ɳ𝐽

σ𝐿 =0.103421 × 49.8

4 × 1 × 0.325

σ𝐿 = 7.923639692

𝛔𝑳 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟐𝑴𝑷𝒂 @𝟏𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊

When compared to the yield stress (σ𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) of the boiler material it is evident that this

pressure is well within the structural limits capable of the material as 𝛔𝑯& 𝜎𝑳 <

240𝑴𝑷𝒂 @ 𝟏𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊 .

4.1.2 Factor of Safety Pressure (45psi)

The second pressure that was taken as the internal pressure of the boiler was 45psi.

Calculations were applied at this pressure as this would give the boiler a factor of safety

rating of three making sure the boiler design was within safety limits that could be safely

used in a lab environment without risk of a catastrophic failure.

𝒑 = 𝟒𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊 (𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝑴𝑷𝒂)

42

4.1.2.1 Hoop Stress

σ𝐻 =𝑝𝐷

2𝑡. ɳ𝐽

σ𝐻 =0.310264 × 49.8

2 × 1 × 0.325

σ𝐻 = 9.42143122

𝛔𝑯 = 𝟐𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝑴𝑷𝒂 @ 𝟒𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊

4.1.2.2 Longitudinal Stress

σ𝐿 =𝑝𝐷

4𝑡. ɳ𝐽

σ𝐿 =0.310264 × 49.8

4 × 1 × 0.325

σ𝐿 = 11.88549785

𝛔𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖. 𝟗 𝑴𝑷𝒂 @ 𝟒𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊

When comparing results from when the internal pressure to the material yield stress

(σ𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) when increased to 45psi it is clear that this boiler is still well within the material

structural limits as𝛔𝑯& 𝜎𝑳 < 240𝑴𝑷𝒂 @ 𝟒𝟓𝒑𝒔𝒊. This shows a good basis in terms of safety

of the system ensuring as low risk as possible can be achieved when running this boiler as a

medium from which the steam for this model engine created.

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4.2 Analysis of Boiler with Ansys Software

FEA analysis computer programs are used as a tool by engineers to support findings, prove

theory and refine design before a model is tested physically. This program is applied to

assess structures to provide a prediction of how a chosen component will respond to

different levels of thermal and structural loads. It can make the analysis of more complex

structures quicker to evaluate and asses if a structure falls within design safety

limits/factors. It allows for changes in geometry and material type to components in order to

compare how different sizes and materials of the model can change its reaction to stresses

and loads. It also means components do not need to be physically constructed to evaluate if

a component design is valid making its quicker and cheaper for engineering to determine

whether a structure will fail or not. If used correctly it is a very useful tool to the modern

engineer saving time and money. FEA can be applied in the following ways.

Figure 4-3 Applications of Finite Element Analysis

4.2.1 Working/Destructive Pressure Testing

Before performing a hydraulic pressure test on the boiler ensuring it is safe to be used at its

working pressure of 15psi by modelling the conditions using FEA software would be key. This

would prove before performing the physical test that the boiler will in theory be fit for

purpose.

The model of the boiler created on Pro Engineer was imported into Ansys Workbench with

the addition of 3 boiler plugs that were designed to plug the 3 holes. This was to allow the

boiler to be internally pressurised to test that the dimensions and material would be suitable

44

as a pressurised vessel. In order for this test to be as accurate as possible the material

properties of alpha brass that had been researched and recorded previously were used and

applied to this model geometry. In the table below the following material properties where

used in all FEA simulations.

Table 3 Material Properties of Boiler for FEA Simulation (CES EduPack, n.d.)

Property Value Unit

Density 8350 Kgm^-3

Young’s Modulus 98.9 GPa

Poisson’s Ratio 0.34 -

Bulk Modulus 1.0302E+11 Pa

Shear Modulus 3.6903E+10 Pa

Tensile Yield Strength 240 MPa

The use of this material for performing as the boiler safely by not buckling under pressure is

an application on paper making this material fit for purpose. The material compositions of

copper and zinc give the boiler good fracture toughness with the high copper content giving

the boiler good thermal conductivity. One notable point that was assumed in this FEA model

was that there was a joint efficiency (ɳ𝐽) of 100%.

4.2.1.1 Simulation at 15psi

The first test to be carried out was subjecting the boiler to the pressure that would be the

working pressure for when the system was running, as a control. This pressure was 15psi as

this had been the working pressure from evidence gathered from other stationary engines of

comparable size. The test was carried out by applying a 15psi (0.103421MPa) uniform

internal pressure to the inside surfaces of the cylinder and then observing the solutions by

running the ansys simulation software. Upon applying this pressure the solution displayed

values for both Equivalent (von mises) Stress and total deformation of the structure of the

boiler. The equivalent stress portrayed in the figure below shows how the boiler reacts

under a uniform internal pressure of 15psi displaying through the use of heat mapping with

blue being the lowest value of stress and red the highest.

45

Figure 4-4 Boiler with Internal Pressure of 15psi showing Von Mises Equivalent Stress

With this test at 15psi completed can compared to the material yield stress it indicates that

the boiler would not encounter stresses beyond that of the yield stress of alpha brass. The

total deformation was also very low in real terms and could only be displayed when

deformation was exaggerated.

4.2.1.2 Simulation at 45psi

This test was repeated at a pressure three times the working pressure of the boiler to ensure

a good factor of safety.

With the pressure modified the boiler also showed no signs of deformation and displayed

max equivalent stress values less than that of the material yield stress.

The evidence from this pressure testing using FEA indicates that the boiler is fit for purpose

to be pressurised to the pressures tested within this test.

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4.3 Testing of Heat Sources on Boiler

4.3.1 Fuel Types

With the engine running on steam, the way in which the steam would be produced was a

factor that needed to be addressed. This required researching and testing the suitability of

numerous heat sources and coming to an informed decision through the tests performed.

With the relevant material researched three heat sources were selected for further analysis

with a focus on safety, cost and availability of material.

4.3.1.1 Hexamine (Solid Fuel)

Hexamine was examined as a possible solution to

the boiling of water to produce steam due to its

applications. This solid fuel is favoured by many in

the camping community due to its long lasting burn

with small amounts of the fuel. It has also been

applied as a heat source for model steam engine

models found during initial research carried out

into engine designs. This gives this heat source an advantage above other heat sources as it

has been used in this application previously. Therefore, hexamine was chosen to be tested

to be a potential heat source for the steam engine. With regards to safety this fuel which

comes in tablet form is relatively easy to control making it a prime candidate for use as a

small controllable heat source. The hexamine tablet chosen for testing was Esbit Solid Fuel.

4.3.1.2 Methylated Spirits (Liquid)

Another method of heating the boiler examined was researching the

use of liquid fuel in the form of methylated spirits. On further

research it was realised that this fuel had also been chosen

previously as a way to produce steam in model steam engines. With

a high volume and availability of this liquid fuel coupled with having

reactive properties that are easy to deal with in a controlled

environment makes this heat source a plausible choice for

consideration within this system. It was therefore decided that this

heat source would also be further tested in a controlled

environment alongside the solid fuel.

Figure 4-5 Solid Fuel (The Prepared Guy, 2015)

Figure 4-6 Liquid Fuel (The Paint Shed, 2016)

47

4.3.1.3 Propane Gas (Gaseous)

Finally, propane gas was inspected as a medium to boil water in the boiler to create the

steam to power the system. From the investigation conducted on the possible operation of

this source it was realised that propane had by far the highest ignition temperature at

>1000°C of heat sources shortlisted through initial analysis. As a result, the time taken for

the boiler to reach a level of pressure that would produce workable steam would be the

least from all fuel types researched.

However on further analysis and considering the application of the overall system it was

decided that no further analysis or testing was required for using propane gas to heat the

boiler. The bulk of the system that would be required to be installed as part of the engine

design would be considerably larger than the other two heat sources discussed above.

Furthermore, with ignition temperatures as high as stated there is a high possibility that

over time this would affect the structural integrity of the boiler. This is due to the boiler

being constructed of brass and temperatures reached by propane can fall within the melting

point of brass (900-940°C).

4.3.2 Test Outline

Upon narrowing down the options of the heat source for the boiler further physical testing

would need to be performed on the final two possible solutions. This entailed testing both

heat sources to determine which one would be most suitable for this particular application

of heating the boiler.

The experiment was designed to focus on several points:

- Measuring with various apparatus the working Temperature for both heat sources.

- Determining how clean the burn from the heat source is.

- Analysing the intensity and surface area of the boiler conducting heat from the heat

source.

From data collected from this test the most suitable source of heat would be chosen going

forward and be incorporated into final design requirements

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4.3.3 Risk Assessment

In order to carry out this experiment a series of health and

safety concerns and a risk assessment had to be carried

out. Due to the nature of the test and that naked flames

would present throughout a series of safety measures

would need to be taken into account with regards to

equipment. Therefore, gloves and eye protection was to

be worn at all times in order to settle health and safety

concerns and the presence of a fire extinguisher to

extinguish any potential fires was also present. The

experiment was conducted in a lab fitted with a vacuum

hood placed above the boiler evacuating potential fumes

that may be present from heat sources being tested. . This

would limit the volume of smoke that could potentially fill

the room a problem arises with any of the heat sources

being tested. This was a step outlined within the risk

assessment to reduce the hazard from smoke inhalation

to a minimum. Another safety feature from the use of the

vacuum hood that could have proven useful if needed was

that the heat source could be isolated from the rest of the room if necessary with the

shutter. This shutter along with the vacuum hood would extinguish both heat sources if the

heat source became out of control. Risk Assessment documentation for this testing is

included in appendix M. With all these safety controls in place the test was allowed to go

ahead under supervision of a technician.

4.3.4 Execution of Test

Apparatus

Apparatus used to complete this heat source test was as follows.

Boiler

Boiler Stand (Firebox)

Esbit Hexamine Solid Fuel Bricks

Methylated Spirits

Thermal Imagining Camera

Vacuum Hood

Figure 4-7 Envair Vacuum Hood

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Liquid Fuel Test

For this test 15ml of the liquid fuel methylated spirits was used filling the heat source tray

approximately 1/3 of the way. The fuel was lit and then placed underneath the boiler as

shown in the figure below. Then in order to measure the ignition temperature of the fuel the

thermal imaging camera was used as indicated in the figure below. The thermal imaging

camera was able to pick up temperatures of approximately 114°C from the liquid heat

source when placed underneath the boiler.

Figure 4-8 Methylated Spirits Test with Thermal Image Displaying Ignition Temperature of Heat Source Applied to Boiler

4.3.4.1 Solid Fuel Test

For the solid fuel test 3 Hexamine bricks where placed in the heat source tray and ignited as

shown in the figure below. This heat source proved harder to light but once lit it burned

relatively stable. When measuring the ignition temperature the thermal imaging camera was

focused on the heat source as it was placed underneath the boiler as indicted in the figure

below. The feedback from the camera displayed a high of 150°C for this particular heat

source, higher than the liquid tested previously.

Figure 4-9 Solid Hexamine Fuel Test with Thermal Image Displaying Ignition Temperature of Heat Source Applied to Boiler

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Problems Encountered during Testing

When testing both heat sources there was a problem that occurred in both tests. The tray in

which the heat sources were placed was limiting the supply of oxygen and ultimately

extinguishing the heat source after a short period of time underneath the boiler. This limited

the scope of this experiment as a section to be investigated was to measure the time taken

for the water in the boiler to reach boiling point. Even though this section of the experiment

was not completed, it helped ratify another problem. Without the use of the firebox and

boiler in this experiment the fact that the design of the tray was limiting oxygen would not

have come to light till further on in the project. The tray design was revisited cutting the

walls of the tray down to allow for better airflow. Therefore, even though problems did arise

during this test it did not limit results and conclusions gathered to the point where a

decision could not be made as to which heat source would be best to move forward with.

Figure 4-10 Heat Source Tray during Test vs After Redesign

The evidence gathered however from this test displayed sufficient evidence supporting that

using solid fuel would be the best medium in which to heat the boiler on the final model.

With a higher ignition temperature and longer burn time it was the superior choice. Other

factors also aided in this decision;

Since it is not a liquid it cannot be accidently spilled.

Solid fuel can be extinguished, dried off, and then relit later.

The solid fuel burned cleanly.

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4.4 Pressure Testing of Boiler

Due to the nature of the use of the boiler, and that using it involves coming into contact with

a pressurised vessel, it must be constructed to a high factor of safety when compared to the

systems working pressure. This means that investigation into material strength must be

made first and foremost in order to pick one most suited to withstanding high levels of heat

while also offering high levels of conduction to increase efficiency of heat transfer. The

material will also have to be corrosion resistant to increase the boiler’s lifespan and

decrease the likelihood of catastrophic failure after long periods of use. Depending on the

scale, with the design of many boilers the cost of material is a matter that must be

addressed. It should be suited to the requirements of the boiler in terms of its steam output

and heat source type at as little monetary cost as feasible.

To prove that the model created and tested on ansys software and hand calculations were

correct a physical pressure test had to be conducted on the boiler. It did not however need

to be tested to destruction but instead to a factor of safety of 3 to ensuring the boiler is

more than capable to work at its working pressure. From previous research a working

pressure was calculated to be 15psi, a pressure used by many steam engines of comparable

size. The test carried out conformed to British Safety Standards for the testing of pressurised

vessels (BS ISO 16528-1:2007 , 2007) and was carried out by the engineer and technicians.

To make this test as safe as possible the test was not conducted by heating the boiler to the

testing pressure but instead through hydrostatic testing. The boiler was filled to capacity and

then a hand pump was used to push a small amount of water into the boiler increasing the

internal pressure. This method is regarded by industry as a much safer method of testing

pressure vessels because if the vessel fails there is no risk of scalding from boiling water. As

the boiler has a working pressure of 15psi, a factor of safety of 3 meant testing the boiler up

to 45psi as shown in the figure below.

Figure 4-11 Pressure Testing of Boiler

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Evidence from this test, testing on ansys software and analytical calculation indicates this

boiler is fit for purpose and can be used safely as a pressure vessel in which to create steam.

These steps were necessary to ensure that this boiler could be safely used as a teaching aid

in the workshop environment.

4.5 Full Engine Model Tests

4.5.1 Synchronisation of Oscillating Cylinder, Piston and Crank

For the engine to have the best chance at running component placement was crucial in

allowing the piston to have the full range of motion needed to use the full length of the

cylinder. This required placing the cylinder at the optimum distance from the crank and

flywheel at a height at where it was perfectly in line with the flywheel. Then by hand the

flywheel was turned paying particular attention to the axial movement of the cylinder

oscillating on the x-axis. This attention was to observe that the steam and exhaust holes

where lining up sufficiently as the crank turned the cylinder. The figure below displays how

the oscillating cylinder moves with the turning of the crank and how this lines up with the

steam and exhaust holes.

Figure 4-12 Crank Position vs Cylinder Axial Movement

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4.5.2 Stationary Test

4.5.2.1 Compressed Air

With the cylinder, piston and crank properly aligned, one further test was completed before

using steam to run the engine. This test was to ensure that the engine would run as

intended under the same pressure that would be given by the steam created in the boiler.

The side hole of the boiler was plugged with an air compressor that would work as a safer

substitute for the steam to check that all parts components were working as intended. The

air pressure was slowly increased in the boiler until the piston was pushed out turning the

flywheel and starting the engine at a relatively slow rpm. The pressure was increased to the

engine working pressure (15psi) and left to run while observing how smoothly the engine

was running. This step was important as a safer alternative that would prove that the engine

design was valid rather than using steam. The pressure was then increased past the working

pressure to the limit in which the safety relief valve was set to go off. It was then observed

blowing at the intended pressure simulating the steam reaching this pressure.

Figure 4-13 Model Running on Compressed Air at 15psi with No Belt Attached to Rear Axle

Pressurised Boiler

With the full engine model now constructed as shown previously, with the addition of a

fully plumbed boiler, full engine system testing can be run. The boiler was filled half way

with 150ml of deionised water to allow for adequate space for the creation of working

steam. The solid fuel heat source was lit and placed on the tray and sat beneath the boiler to

allow convection from the heat source to heat the water. As the boiler’s heat began to

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increase the pressure gauge was checked to make sure it was functioning correctly by

observing a slow and steady increase in pressure by the indication on the gauge. Copper

pipes were checked for leakage of water around soldered areas to ensure a water tight seal.

All other components on the boiler were observed for leaks as the engine was running. The

boiler was the observed paying particular attention to the safety relief valve. The pressure

was allowed to rise past the working pressure to the point where the relief valve blew open

and allowed the pressurised steam to escape. This was compared simultaneously with the

pressure gauge to ensure it was blowing at the predetermined value of 20psi.

4.5.3 Test on Model Car Chassis

Once full tests had been completed on the engine in its stationary configuration the engine

was transferred onto the model car chassis. The belt was attached and secured between the

engine flywheel and the axle flywheel. The boiler was brought to working pressure and the

model car was rolled along the floor which started the engine moving.

4.5.4 Engineering Calculations from Stationary Model

With the model now running , research was carried out to highlight possible data can be

collected which was then examined. By observing all data that could be taken from the

model the following was able to be measured.

Table 4 Possible Data that can be Collected from Engine

Data Collected Method of Collecting Data

Volume of Boiler From Boiler Specification

Pressure in Boiler From Pressure Gauge

RPM of Flywheel Lightgate/Tachometer

Engine Stroke From Piston/Cylinder Dimensions

Temperature of Boiler Infrared Sensor

Temperature of Cylinder Infrared Sensor

Volume of Cylinder From Piston/Cylinder Dimensions

Mass of Flywheel Mass from Scales

By being able to measure this data by use of apparatus or otherwise, calculations would be

possible to work out the torque of the model for example.

With regards to thermodynamics, knowing the pressure, volume and temperature of the

boiler along with the volume and temperature of the cylinder indicates that the pressure in

the cylinder could be calculated with data from the model.

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5 Results

5.1 Design

With the production of all designed components using the part design section of Pro

Engineer these parts where finally brought together to produce an assembly. Through the

construction of subassemblies including the boiler with attachments and the flywheel with

the mount, connecting rod and crank a final assembly brought all parts together. The result

of this was the finished model shown in the figure below with all components included and

dimensions being consistent with all parts that were to be physically assembled during the

next stage of the project.

Figure 5-1 Finished Model Isometric View

The intention for using these computer aided designs was to display a computer aided

equivalent to the physical model and aid in component placement. This as a result meant

that when it came to mounting components of the physical model the measurements had

already been carried out and components could be placed successfully. It exhibited how

using this software was very effective when applied as it was and was an invaluable skill to

have for tackling sections of this project.

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Figure 5-2 Finished Model Top View Highlighting Path of Copper Pipe

The area that using Pro Engineer proved to be most useful was in collecting dimensions for

corresponding components disregarding then need for trial and error when assembling

components physically. Dimensions to line up the rear axle with the flywheel were made

simple using this software making the finished manufactured product very accurate.

Figure 5-3 Finished Model Rear View Showing Both Flywheels are in Line

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5.2 Manufacture

The resultant outcome of manufacture was an appropriately proportioned model. Due to

well thought out design, manufacture was conducted with relative ease. With limitations of

each manufacturing process taken into account the appropriate methods were used for each

component with regards to the conditions each part would be working under.

This meant the material on each component had been looked at on a part by part basis

before coming to a decision on manufacturing processes. Data sheets for both the 3 axis

machine and rapid prototyping 3D printer are included in appendix C.

Table 5 Component Manufacturing Processes

Component Material Manufacturing Process

Flywheel Aluminium 6082 3 Axis Machining

Piston & Cylinder Brass Die Casting/Lathe

Flywheel Mount Tricyclodecane Diemethanol

Dicrylate

Rapid Prototyping

Crank Tricyclodecane Diemethanol

Dicrylate

Rapid Prototyping

Firebox Stainless Steel (SS) Fabrication

Chassis Stainless Steel (SS) Fabrication

Axle Flywheel Tricyclodecane Diemethanol

Dicrylate

Rapid Prototyping

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5.3 Assembly

5.3.1 Sub-Assembly

With manufacture completed sub assembly of components on the engine plinth and chassis

was completed as shown in the figures below.

Figure 5-4 Chassis Sub-Assembly

Figure 5-5 Sub Assembly of Stationary Engine Configuration

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5.3.2 Full Assembly

Sub-Assemblies where then brought together and belt was attached to create full finished

model.

Figure 5-6 Side View Fully Assembled Model With Belt

Figure 5-7 Front View Fully Assembled Model With Belt

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5.4 Testing

5.4.1 Ansys Pressure Testing

The pressure testing using FEA was a useful step in the testing process. This allowed for the

engineer to validate the design of the boiler before having to attempt the physical test.

Below are the results taken from the model when subjected to an internal pressure using

Ansys software. The first test at working pressure being 15psi and the second ensuring a

factor of safety from the working pressure of 3 at 45psi.

Table 6 Results from Ansys Pressure Vessel Testing

Internal Pressure Equivalent Stress

(MPa)

Total Deformation

(mm)

Fit for Purpose

(Y/N)

15psi 10.468 3.8379e-3 Y

45psi 31.404 0.011514 Y

5.4.2 Physical Testing

With the testing of this boiler being success using FEA software it was further validated by

successful physical testing would show no visible signs of stress for this pressure vessel

design. Therefore testing of the whole system was performed.

Testing the engine firstly with compressed air was conducted to simulate steam and ensure

engine was properly synchronised. With this completed the boiler was then heated to

observe the system running on steam. The result was that the engine ran at a sufficient

speed when subjected to the working pressure.

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6 Discussion

While conducting all stages of this project, problems surfaced that had to be overcome in

order to keep progressing at a realistic pace with the project as a whole.

6.1 Part Design

After having fully assembled the components to a state where the engine was functioning

there was various aspects of the individual components design that would have worked

better if designed differently. This ranged from how components fit with each other to ease

of use. If approaching this project again, these aspects would be more closely examined to

ensure no problems would be encountered at later stages of the project.

6.1.1 Flywheel

For the most part the design of the flywheel was effective with a couple of exceptions.

Firstly, the mass of the flywheel would have been better if it was slightly lighter. The

examples looked at of similar size were all made out of mild steel and this flywheel was

made out of aluminium. It was therefore decided to make it of a slightly larger diameter due

to the material being used being lighter. This did not however take into account the removal

of material that was included in the manufacture of the other examples compared to this

one in comparison. This meant that the flywheel designed was heavier and larger making the

rpm lower for this engine due to extra work needed to turn the flywheel.

Another exception to the validity of the overall design of the flywheel was fit with the

flywheel rod connecting it to the crank. As the flywheel had already been manufactured the

rod available that was compatible with both the flywheel bore diameter and the flanged

bearings purchased that were encased in the flywheel were not a tight fit. This would not

have been a problem for the flywheel if the original design had taken this into account and

included a threaded hole perpendicular to this rod in which a grub screw could have been

placed. This would have ensured a tight fit between the rod and flywheel stopping all

instances of the flywheel being able to slip.

Figure 6-1 Inclusion of Grub Screw into Flywheel Design

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6.1.2 Flywheel Mount

The design of the flywheel mount proved to, by proxy; pose many challenges to the

assembly when coming to assemble with other components. This is due to the potential

problems not being picked up early enough with regards to how they could affect the design

of connected components when assembled. Designs completed on Pro Engineer seemed to

be compatible with all other components in terms of fit and clearances when all geometry

was assembled together. However, when the flywheel was placed in between the

supporting arms of the mount into its intended assembly position the clearance between

the outer surfaces of the flywheel and the inner surface of the support arms was <1mm. This

did not affect the flywheel turning during tests but it meant if the flywheel was to shift even

slightly along the connecting rod even slightly it would come into contact with the

supporting arms creating friction and lowering the engine performance.

If having this component manufactured again a different method would be used. The initial

reason for 3d printing this component was due to it not being under much stress apart from

being able to support the weight of the flywheel. The support arms however were able to

move slightly when force was applied to them which coupled with the small clearance

between this and the flywheel could also result in frictional forces. The manufacturing

method would most likely be 3 axis machining, the same method as the flywheel, as the

material would be more hardwearing and less easily to manipulate. After the assembly when

it came to attaching the belt this highlighted the final problem with the mount design. If

redesigning this component it would have one supporting arm in which the rod would

connect the flywheel to the crank. This would allow for belts to be easily taken on and off

without having to disassemble part of the engine. This would be valuable as it would be a

quicker method of changing the engine configuration from a stationary model the model car

variant. Although this original design did not bring the project to the point where it could not

be completed it would have made particular problems easier or even non-existent if

knowledge gained was to be applied to redesigning this component from the design stage.

Figure 6-2 Flywheel Mount Supporting Flywheel on One Side Only

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6.2 Tolerances

When looking back at a section of this project that proved to be a problem on a number of

occasions was size tolerances of components manufactured using different techniques and

how this could affect the model as a whole. Tolerances played a part in how some of the

model components fit together with either a tight fit or not. This was a problem

encountered in the workshop when working on mounting the flywheel to the flywheel

mount. The bearings used for this where 5mm bore with 5mm rod inserted through both

bearings and the flywheel. However it was assumed that this would be a tight fit but the rod

was able to move freely which was a problem as this needed to be a tight fit. To counteract

this unseen setback it was decided to knurl the rod as shown in the figure below to increase

the diameter of the rod enough so that it would now be a tighter fit allowing the rod to grip

the centre hole of the bearing that were inserted into the flywheel mount. The same was

done to the section of the shaft in contact with the flywheel centre hole as this was also

5mm in diameter affecting the grip the rod had on this component. This process in turn

corrected this problem allowing the rod to grip the components that needed to be tight

fitting on the shaft and with the bearings this ran very smooth afterwards.

Figure 6-3 Rod before and after Knurling Technique Used to Increase Rod Diameter

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6.3 Attaching the V Belt

With the solution of creating the force fit of the flywheel and rod through knurling the rod

came another problem. Once the rod had been put in place it would be a real problem

disassembling. As the flywheel was enclosed on both sides by the flywheel mount supports it

meant once it had been assembled putting a belt on the flywheel to connect with the

smaller flywheel on the rear axle would be a problem. The use of a normal rubber vbelt, as

initially intended, would not be possible as there would be no way to get the vbelt on

without either taking the flywheel assembly apart or cutting the belt and putting back

together once in place. It was decided that the solution would have to come from the type

of belt used as the driving band between the two flywheels. It was therefore decided that

using an open flat rubber belt that would be fastened together would be the solution to the

problem. This method would mean no components would need to be disassembled or

redesigned saving time to focus on other aspects of the project.

Figure 6-4 Alligator Belt Fastener

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6.4 Acquiring Suitable Components

In order to have this model run as smooth as possible the use of bearings was crucial to limit

the torsional resistance of the system through the act of friction. Early on in the project

through research of different types pillow block bearings were chosen as the bearing of

choice to run the front and back axle rods through connected to the fixed front and back

wheels. The intention being lowering the resistance of the wheels turning from the work

transferred from the piston and cylinder to the wheels that would make the model move.

However, after choosing these bearings when it came to ordering them a month later when

they were ready to be assembled the supplier was out of stock with no date as to when this

particular size of bearing would be back in stock. Due to constraints of time an alternative

solution had to be established quickly and as efficiently as possible. After finding no

alternative suppliers of bearing of a suitable geometry other suitable bearing types had to be

researched. As a result of this further research an alternative was found in the form of rod

end bearings. This provided similar properties and was able to do the same job as the pillow

block design.

Figure 6-5 Pillow Block and Rod End Bearing

This bearing design alternative came with both positive and negative aspect when

incorporation into the engine assembly. One aspect that was recognised that would possibly

be a problem later on in the assembly process was the clearance of the belt on the chassis

when using the pillow block bearings. The height of these particular bearings did not give the

small flywheel enough height to clear the chassis without having to remove material from

the chassis. This possible problem, to which no solution had been made at this point, was

subsequently solved with the use of the rod end bearings as this increased the height of the

smaller flywheel ensuring enough clearance for the vbelt when it was attached in place.

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Figure 6-6 Difference in Belt Angle between Pillow Block and Rod End Bearings with Regards to Chassis

This did however cause another problem that needed to be addressed with regards to the

clearance of the model from the ground. Before the alternative rod bearing was chosen as

the replacement for the pillow block bearing the ground clearance was less than 10mmwith

the 50mm diameter wheels from the original design. With the height of the axle rod being

increased this in turn brought the wheels height to the point where they were no longer

touching the ground and the chassis was now the lowest part of the model. This meant

acquiring new wheels that would be of appropriate diameter as to give the model sufficient

clearance from the ground with the rod bearings in place.

6.5 Manipulation of Steam Flow

With the incorporation of a solution to control the steam entering the cylinder starting and

stopping the engine during use could be made easier. This could be integrated as a boiler

attachment from which the pipe connected could include a small ball valve that can open

and close varying the volume of steam the boiler releases into the cylinder controlling the

speed of the engine.

Figure 6-7 Ball Valve Design (Spirax Sarco, 2016)

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6.6 Possible System Tests

From the model there are various tests that can be run to calculate a variety of different

data. With the data able to be extracted tests can be run on the boiler and engine power

separately or as a whole depending on the needs of the lecturer for teaching. This will teach

students to be able to extract useful data from a live model and apply this along with

analytical calculation to calculate the data not given is by use of engineering rules.

Using apparatus and equipment already available in the engineering workshops. A simple

setup to measure rpm can be achieved with a tacho probe attached to a tachometer which

would be able to be set up by students themselves to acquire the data.

Figure 6-8 Measurement of RPM on Flywheel

The inclusion of a torque sensor would also be a viable application for the model. When

connected to computer software this would allow for the creation of graphs showing torque

with regards to piston positioning. This is made possible by the addition of a DAQ which

allows for raw data collected from the engine running at working pressure to be collected.

Applications of accompanying apparatus like this example would prove effective in the

creation of coursework content by lecturers.

Due to high content of electronics with regards to testing equipment and apparatus,

knowledge of this subject had to be built from scratch in order to understand how these

electrical components functioned and how they could be applied to a mechanical model.

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Figure 6-9 Apparatus for Torque and Piston Position Results

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7 Further Work

7.1 Boiler Efficiency

When examining the boiler it is evident that it is relatively simple design. Due to its simple

design that is heated from an external source that convects heat through the conduction of

the brass outer wall is limits the boiler efficiency. Through research carried out within the

literature review it is evident that there are several other designs that could be achieved on

this model size scale that would increase the efficiency of the boiler. By using firetubes for

example these tubes would increase the surface area of the boiler that is being heated from

an external heat source. In order to achieve this, the heat source currently being used would

not change and no other components would be replaced to accommodate the new design.

Figure 7-1 Model Firetube Boiler that Would Increase Boiler Efficiency (Giandomencio, 2011)

7.2 Convection Analysis

With regards to testing the boiler using Ansys other areas could be tested as further work. A

thermal analysis of the boiler could be conducted on the model boiler. The purpose of this

thermal analysis test would be to understand how the convection in the boiler from the heat

source affects the temperature of the water. It would also measure how long it takes to heat

the water to a temperature great enough to increase the pressure to the point where it will

be producing workable steam for the engine. This would be useful for testing of different

boiler designs and materials and how they would react in terms of length of time to heat the

boiler from room temperature to where it is able to produce steam at working pressure of

the system.

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Figure 7-2 Convection Analysis of a Firetube Boiler Using FEA Software (Cosmol, 2016)

7.3 Manufacture of All Components

Another section that could be focussed on for further work would be to manufacture more

of the components used in this model in house with tools available within the university.

This idea alone could be used as a teaching aid for modules with regards to design and

manufacture as students could design these components and have them machined using

university equipment. This would show the entire process from initial component designs to

completion through the component manufacture in which the student could be a part of at

every step of the process. The student would have to design a component within certain

dimensions to be compatible with existing designs; a skill required for work in industry. The

manufacture of all components would also stop the need to design all other components

around purchased ones. All components could be made simultaneously to whatever scale

required by the module leader to assist in student learning as a teaching aid for their

required subject area.

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7.4 Inclusion of Electronics and Electrical Components

An aspect not covered by this project is the possibility of including electronic components

within the design. These could open the possibility to help students in other engineering

disciplines with understanding of their course content while in their first year.

7.4.1 RC Capability

By including a remote control capability this opens the possibility for students themselves to

program the microcontroller with the commands necessary to control the direction in which

the model car front axle would turn and assess if it is operating correctly with commands

given.

Figure 7-3 Radio Controlled Front Axle for Turning Front Wheels (Red RC Network, 2009)

7.4.2 Obstacle Avoidance

This is another capability that when coupled with the ability of RC could compliment learning

carried out by Electronics students in particular. Along with controlling the angle of the front

axle programming the microcontroller have the ability of avoiding objects placed in its path

with connected infrared sensors would teach basic understands of control systems and

programming.

Figure 7-4 Infrared Sensors attached to RC Car Controlled by Arduino Microcontroller (Peer, 2015)

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7.4.3 Flywheel Connection to Dynamo

The engine itself could be used to display other methods of work done by the conversion of

heat. One example would be the inclusion of a small dynamo which would replace the small

flywheel and model car chassis. The reasoning behind this would be to show the conversion

from heat to mechanical and ultimately to useful electrical energy that could be used to

power a lightbulb.

Figure 7-5 Dynamo Connection to the Engine Flywheel (Co., 2014)

7.5 Closed System (Rankine Cycle Design)

When inspecting the engine design as a whole there is one improvement that would make

the engine more reliable. With the introduction of a pump all steam exhausted from the

cylinder would be collected, condensed and pumped back into the boiler. This would stop

the boiler from eventually running of water and the engine would run for as long as the heat

source continued to apply heat. The solution for powering this pump could either be

through the dynamo or mechanically from connection to the flywheel depending on if the

pump was mechanical or electrical.

Figure 7-6 Rankine Cycle (Transpacific Energy, Inc, 2016)

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7.6 Masters Project

It is evident that with the inclusion of these extra areas the scope of this project could be

increased dramatically to include many other areas of the curriculum. This would require

students from different fields of engineering to work in conjunction with one another, a

scenario commonly used in industry. Adding these areas of further work could also increase

the practicality of this teaching aid allowing it to be applied to teach subjects of both

mechanical and electrical background. With addition of these areas there is more than

enough material to be considered a worthy project that could be undertaken as a Masters

project.

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8 Conclusion

When looking at the research carried out within this dissertation, it can be concluded that

the applications of this model steam engine make for a valuable potential teaching aid.

This model was handled from the initial design and concept stage for each major component

to make a well integrated assembled model. Through manufacture, testing and potential

uses for this model steam engine it can be concluded that its applications can be valuable for

the supplementation of teaching engineering modules. Research and working on the model

has presented a variety of tests that can be run for teaching thermodynamics, efficiency and

power calculations. These procedures make this engine effective in use as a teaching aid in

which first year students, with guidance from a trained technician or lecturer who has

constructed lesson plans, would capable of calculating various values from data extracted

from the physical model.

It is clear that further work would be beneficial to improving the potential applications this

system could have with the use of external apparatus for testing. Further work should also

be looked into for improvement of design for improving efficiency of the system itself. By

improving boiler design and converting the engine to a closed system an improvement in the

energy losses of the system would be witnessed.

The complete design, manufacture and testing of this steam engine has been a real

challenge from start to finish. The lessons learned from conducting this project have been

numerous and varied. From improving my CAD and computer literacy skills to improving my

knowledge of construction and manufacturing methods has been very educational. Having

the opportunity to work alongside technicians and other members of staff and adhering to

strict deadlines has proven great experience of the engineering working environment.

Being able to apply this teaching aid in the applications researched in this report clearly

indicates the value this model can have for supplementing learning of subjects that are

usually taught purely in the classroom.

74

9 References

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Available at: https://www.additively.com/en/learn-about/stereolithography#read-

more

[Accessed 21 March 2016].

2. Anon., 1999. O'Donnell Consulting Engineers, Inc. [Online]

Available at: http://www.odonnellconsulting.com/examples.html

[Accessed 10 November 2015].

3. Berger, D. J., 2001. V. Heat Engines can Never Operate at 100% Efficency, Ohio: s.n.

[Accessed 20 November 2015].

4. Britannica Online, 2012. Steam Engine, s.l.: s.n.

[Accessed 19 November 2015].

5. BS ISO 16528-1:2007 , 2007. Boilers and Pressure Vessels Part 1 : Performance Requirements. [Online] [Accessed 6 March 16].

6. BS4163:2014, B. S. P., 2014. Health and safety for design and Technoology in

Educational and Similar Establishments - Code of Practice, London: BSI Standards

Limited 2014.

7. C.E, J. M. W. M., 1891. Steam Engine Design for the use of MEchanical. New York : Ferris Bros.

[Accessed 10 March 2016].

8. CES EduPack, n.d. Brass, CuZn36Pb3, C36000, wrought (cold worked), (free-cutting brass), Cambridge: s.n.

[Accessed 12 March 2016].

9. CNC Cookbook Inc., 2015. CNC Cookbook's G-Code Course - Volume 1 : G-Code Basics, s.l.: s.n.

[Accessed 10 November 2015].

10. Co., V. D. L. S., 2014. Jensen Live Steam Model Power Plant Toy. [Online]

Available at: http://fineart.ha.com/itm/jensen-live-steam-model-power-plant-toy20-

x-17-1-2-x-17-1-2-inches-508-x-445-x-445-cm-well-preserved-vintage-

jensen/a/5181-87382.s

[Accessed 10 April 2016].

75

11. Cosmol, 2016. Multiphysics Version 4.4 - Mechanical Applications - Shell and Tube

Heat Exchanger. [Online]

Available at:

https://www.comsol.jp/press/gallery/?filter=COMSOL%20Multiphysics%20Version%

204.4

[Accessed 18 April 2016].

12. Dickinson, H. W., 1939. A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

[Accessed 12 February 2015].

13. Electropedia, 2005. Energy Conversion and Heat Engines (Wit a little bit of

Thermodynamics). [Online]

Available at: http://www.mpoweruk.com/heat_engines.htm

[Accessed 02 April 2016].

14. Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia, 2006. Assessment of Boilers and Thermic

Fluid Heaters. [Online]

Available at: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org/contactus.html

[Accessed 18 March 2016].

15. Feng, L. L., Ferrick, D. & Campbell, K., 2002. MAE 364 : Manufacturing Processes, New York: State University of New York at Buffalo.

[Accessed 10 November 2015].

16. Freeman, S., Eddy, L. S. & McDonough, M., 2014. Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics.

[Accessed 15 April 2016] .

17. Garner, R., 2015. Leading employers prefer value work experience among graduates

over grades, says new research. [Online]

Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-

news/leading-employers-prefer-work-experience-over-grades-says-new-research-

10286829.html

[Accessed 15 December 2015].

18. Giandomencio, D. R., 2011. RCDON. [Online]

Available at: http://www.rcdon.com/html/vertical_boiler_project__4_23_.html

[Accessed 19 April 2016].

76

19. Griffin, E., 2010. A Short History on the British Industrial Revolution. Basingstoke:

Palgrave MacMillan.

20. Gupta, K., 1996. A Brief History of the Beginning of the Finite Element Method.

[Online]

Available at: http://ed.iitm.ac.in/~palramu/ED403_2012/Files/FEHistory_Gupta.pdf

[Accessed 10 November 2015].

21. Hills, R. L., 2004. 'McNaught, William (1813-1881). Oxford: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

[Accessed 5 November 2015].

22. How A Steam Engine Works. 2011. [Film] Directed by Dan Izzo. s.l.: s.n.

[Accessed 16 December 2015].

23. How Stuff Works Inc, 2001. How Stereolithography (3-D Layering) Works. [Online]

Available at: http://www.howstuffworks.com/stereolith.html

[Accessed 20 March 2016].

24. How Stuff Works, 2008. Boilers. [Online]

Available at: http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-

equipment/steam2.htm

[Accessed 26 January 2016].

25. HSE, H. a. S. E., 2000. Safety of Pressure Systems. Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000 - Approved Code of Practice.

[Accessed 1 February 2016].

26. Johnston Boiler Company , 1995. Firetube / Watertube Boilers a Comparison. Chicago , s.n

[Accessed 27 October 2015]..

27. Lovland, J., 2007. A History of Steam Power Department of Chemical Engineering, NTNU.

[Accessed 10 November 2015].

28. Martin, M., 2007. Notes on the EVT Concept. [Online]

Available at: http://www.panyo.com/oscillators/

[Accessed 22 January 16].

29. Matsuura Machinery Corporation, 2009. 5 Axis Machining : Simultaneous 5-Axis

Machining (Reduced Cycle Time, Improved Machining Surface). [Online]

77

Available at: http://www5.matsuura.co.jp/english/topics/5ax/douji1.shtm

[Accessed 29 February 2016].

30. Messler, Jr, R. W., 1993. Joining of Advanced Materials. New York: Butterworth - Heinemann.

[Accessed 21 March 2016].

31. Paton, G., 2013. University Leavers Lack the Essential Skills for Work Employers Warn. [Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/10306211/University-leavers-lack-the-essential-skills-for-work-employers-warn.html [Accessed 15 December 2015].

32. Peer, R., 2015. Obstacle Avoiding Robot. [Online]

[Accessed 19 April 2016].

33. Protosys Technologies Pvt. Ltd, 2005. Rapid Prototyping. [Online]

Available at: http://www.protosystech.com/rapid-prototyping.htm

[Accessed 21 March 2016].

34. Red RC Network, 2009. RC Devil PC10H2 200mm Pan Car. [Online]

Available at: http://www.redrc.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/rcdevilpc10h2-

1.jpg

[Accessed 19 February 2016].

35. Serway , R. A. & Jewett Jr, W. J., 2014. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with

Modern Physics. Boston (Massachusetts): s.n.

[Accessed 1 December 2015].

36. Sharif, P. M. E., 2013. Thermodynamics and Fluid Dynamics [M2H120960], Glasgow, UK: Glasgow Caledonian University, School of Engineering & Built Environment.

[Accessed 10 October 2015].

37. Spirax Sarco, 2016. Introduction to Electric/Pnematic Controls. [Online]

Available at: http://www.spiraxsarco.com/Resources/Pages/Steam-Engineering-

Tutorials/control-hardware-el-pn-actuation/control-valves.aspx

[Accessed 18 April 2016].

78

38. Surrey County Council , 1997. Pressure Cookers and Model Steam Engines, Surrey: s.n.

[Accessed 17 November 2015].

39. Tang, Y., 2005. Stereolithography Cure Process Modelling , Georgia: Georgia Institute of Technology .

[Accessed 10 January 2016].

40. Teir, S. & Kulla, A., 2002. Boiler Calculations. Helsinki: Energy Engineering and Environmental Protection Publications.

[Accessed 10 November 2015].

41. The Paint Shed, 2016. Bartoline Methylated Spirit. [Online]

Available at: http://www.thepaintshed.com/products/clean-preparation-

/spirits/bartoline-methylated-spirit/c-24/c-336/p-1346

[Accessed 20 01 2016].

42. The Prepared Guy, 2015. Solid Fuel, Thoughts and Observations. [Online]

Available at: http://www.preparedguy.com/2015/06/solid-fuel-thoughts-and-

observations.html

[Accessed 20 January 2016].

43. The Transcontinental Railroad, 2012. Its All About Steam. [Online]

Available at: http://railroad.lindahall.org/essays/locomotives.html

[Accessed 15 March 2016].

44. Transpacific Energy, Inc, 2016. Innovative Energy Systems for A Cleaner World -

Organic Rankine Cycle, ORC. [Online]

Available at: http://www.transpacenergy.com/

[Accessed 18 April 2016].

45. Williams, A., 2009. How a Steam Engine Works. [Online]

Available at: http://weedensteam.com/Downloads/SteamEngine.pdf

[Accessed 19 January 2016].

46. Wisnak, J., 2006. James Watt - The Steam Engine, Beer-Sheva, Israel: Department of Chemical Engineering, Ben Gurion Univeristy of Negev.

[Accessed 10 November 2015].

79

47. World Heritage Encyclopedia, 2002. Steam Engine. [Online]

Available at: http://gejl.info/articles/Steam_engine

[Accessed 28 December 2015].

48. Wikipedia, (2016).Uniflow steam engine. [online] Available at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniflow_steam_engine

[Accessed 24 Jan. 2016].

80

10 Appendices

10.1 Appendix A - PTC Creo Pro-Engineer Component Designs

10.1.1 Piston

10.1.2 Copper Piping

10.1.3 Flywheel

81

10.1.4 Cylinder

10.1.5 Flywheel Mount

10.1.6 Crank

82

10.1.7 Firebox

10.1.8 Chassis

83

10.1.9 Rear Axle Sub-Assembly

10.1.10 Engine Final Assembly

84

10.2 Appendix B – Ansys Pressure Testing Results

10.2.1 Pressure Test 15psi

First Saved Thursday, April 07, 2016

Last Saved Thursday, April 07, 2016

Product Version 16.1 Release

Save Project Before Solution No

Save Project After Solution No

85

TABLE 1

Unit System Metric (mm, kg, N, s, mV, mA) Degrees rad/s Celsius

Angle Degrees

Rotational Velocity rad/s

Temperature Celsius

TABLE 2 Model (A4) > Geometry

Object Name Geometry

State Fully Defined

Definition

Source C:\Users\amclel200\AppData\Local\Temp\WB_LAB-NH-

7RNHD22_amclel200_7424_2\unsaved_project_files\dp0\SYS\DM\SYS.agdb

Type DesignModeler

Length Unit Meters

Element

Control Program Controlled

Display Style Body Color

Bounding Box

Length X 54. mm

Length Y 57.4 mm

Length Z 158. mm

Properties

Volume 22850 mm³

86

Mass 0.1908 kg

Scale Factor

Value 1.

Statistics

Bodies 5

Active Bodies 5

Nodes 18096

Elements 8848

Mesh Metric None

Basic Geometry Options

Parameters Yes

Parameter Key DS

Attributes No

Named

Selections No

Material

Properties No

Advanced Geometry Options

Use

Associativity Yes

Coordinate

Systems No

Reader Mode

Saves Updated

File

No

Use Instances Yes

Smart CAD

Update No

Compare Parts

On Update No

Attach File Via

Temp File Yes

Temporary

Directory C:\Users\amclel200\AppData\Local\Temp

Analysis Type 3-D

Decompose

Disjoint

Geometry

Yes

Enclosure and

Symmetry

Processing

Yes

87

TABLE 3 Model (A4) > Geometry > Parts

Object

Name

BOILER_PLUG_S

MALL

BOILER_PLUG_S

MALL

BOILER_PLUG_LA

RGE

BOILER0

01

BOILER0

01

State Meshed

Graphics Properties

Visible Yes

Transpare

ncy

1

Definition

Suppresse

d

No

Stiffness

Behaviour

Flexible

Coordinate

System

Default Coordinate System

Reference

Temperatu

re

By Environment

Material

Assignmen

t

Brass

Nonlinear

Effects

Yes

Thermal

Strain

Effects

Yes

Bounding Box

Length X 6.35 mm 9.53 mm 12. mm 54. mm

Length Y 6. mm 8. mm 3.2014

mm

57.4 mm

Length Z 6.35 mm 9.53 mm 3. mm 155. mm

Properties

Volume 157.92 mm³ 462.12 mm³ 39.854

mm³

22032

mm³

Mass 1.3186e-003 kg 3.8587e-003 kg 3.3278e-

004 kg

0.18397

kg

Centroid X 7.5946e-010 mm 1.2053e-010 mm 6.589e-010 mm -5.0156e-

008 mm

1.6048e-

002 mm

Centroid Y 25.537 mm 25.306 mm 17.5 mm 1.237

mm

Centroid Z -57. mm 16. mm -25. mm -79.562

mm

2.4201

mm

88

Moment of

Inertia Ip1

6.055e-003 kg·mm² 6.0542e-003

kg·mm²

3.5027e-002

kg·mm²

3.1736e-

004

kg·mm²

677.34

kg·mm²

Moment of

Inertia Ip2

6.0898e-003

kg·mm²

6.0888e-003

kg·mm²

3.982e-002 kg·mm² 2.3784e-

003

kg·mm²

672.27

kg·mm²

Moment of

Inertia Ip3

6.0551e-003

kg·mm²

6.0542e-003

kg·mm²

3.5011e-002

kg·mm²

2.3541e-

003

kg·mm²

107.42

kg·mm²

Statistics

Nodes 637 458 425 15939

Elements 112 226 200 8198

Mesh

Metric

None

TABLE 4 Model (A4) > Coordinate Systems > Coordinate System

Object Name Global Coordinate System

State Fully Defined

Definition

Type Cartesian

Coordinate System ID 0.

Origin

Origin X 0. mm

Origin Y 0. mm

Origin Z 0. mm

Directional Vectors

X Axis Data [ 1. 0. 0. ]

Y Axis Data [ 0. 1. 0. ]

Z Axis Data [ 0. 0. 1. ]

TABLE 5 Model (A4) > Connections

Object Name Connections

State Fully Defined

Auto Detection

Generate Automatic Connection On Refresh Yes

Transparency

Enabled Yes

TABLE 6 Model (A4) > Connections > Contacts

Object Name Contacts

State Fully Defined

89

Definition

Connection Type Contact

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry All Bodies

Auto Detection

Tolerance Type Slider

Tolerance Slider 0.

Tolerance Value 0.44141 mm

Use Range No

Face/Face Yes

Face/Edge No

Edge/Edge No

Priority Include All

Group By Bodies

Search Across Bodies

Statistics

Connections 4

Active Connections 4

TABLE 7 Model (A4) > Connections > Contacts > Contact Regions

Object Name Contact

Region

Contact

Region 2

Contact Region 3 Contact Region

4

State Fully Defined

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Contact 2 Faces 1 Face

Target 2 Faces 1 Face

Contact Bodies BOILER_PLUG_SMALL BOILER_PLUG_LARGE BOILER001

Target Bodies BOILER001

Definition

Type Bonded

Scope Mode Automatic

Behaviour Program Controlled

Trim Contact Program Controlled

Trim Tolerance 0.44141 mm

Suppressed No

Advanced

Formulation Program Controlled

Detection Method Program Controlled

Penetration Tolerance Program Controlled

Elastic Slip Tolerance Program Controlled

Normal Stiffness Program Controlled

90

Update Stiffness Program Controlled

Pinball Region Program Controlled

Geometric Modification

Contact Geometry

Correction

None

Target Geometry

Correction

None

TABLE 8 Model (A4) > Mesh

Object Name Mesh

State Solved

Display

Display Style Body Color

Defaults

Physics Preference Mechanical

Relevance 0

Sizing

Use Advanced Size Function Off

Relevance Centre Coarse

Element Size Default

Initial Size Seed Active Assembly

Smoothing Medium

Transition Fast

Span Angle Centre Coarse

Minimum Edge Length 0.50 mm

Inflation

Use Automatic Inflation None

Inflation Option Smooth Transition

Transition Ratio 0.272

Maximum Layers 5

Growth Rate 1.2

Inflation Algorithm Pre

View Advanced Options No

Patch Conforming Options

Triangle Surface Masher Program Controlled

Patch Independent Options

Topology Checking No

Advanced

Number of CPUs for Parallel Part Meshing Program Controlled

Shape Checking Standard Mechanical

Element Midside Nodes Program Controlled

Straight Sided Elements No

Number of Retries Default (4)

91

Extra Retries For Assembly Yes

Rigid Body Behaviour Dimensionally Reduced

Mesh Morphing Disabled

Defeaturing

Pinch Tolerance Please Define

Generate Pinch on Refresh No

Automatic Mesh Based Defeaturing On

Defeaturing Tolerance Default

Statistics

Nodes 18096

Elements 8848

Mesh Metric None

TABLE 9 Model (A4) > Analysis

Object Name Static Structural (A5)

State Solved

Definition

Physics Type Structural

Analysis Type Static Structural

Solver Target Mechanical APDL

Options

Environment Temperature 22. °C

Generate Input Only No

TABLE 10 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Analysis Settings

Object Name Analysis Settings

State Fully Defined

Step Controls

Number Of Steps 1.

Current Step

Number

1.

Step End Time 1. s

Auto Time

Stepping

Program Controlled

Solver Controls

Solver Type Program Controlled

Weak Springs Program Controlled

Solver Pivot

Checking

Program Controlled

Large Deflection Off

Inertia Relief Off

Restart Controls

Generate Restart Program Controlled

92

Points

Retain Files After

Full Solve

No

Nonlinear Controls

Newton-Raphson

Option

Program Controlled

Force

Convergence

Program Controlled

Moment

Convergence

Program Controlled

Displacement

Convergence

Program Controlled

Rotation

Convergence

Program Controlled

Line Search Program Controlled

Stabilization Off

Output Controls

Stress Yes

Strain Yes

Nodal Forces No

Contact

Miscellaneous

No

General

Miscellaneous

No

Store Results At All Time Points

Analysis Data Management

Solver Files

Directory

C:\Users\amclel200\AppData\Local\Temp\WB_LAB-NH-

7RNHD22_amclel200_7424_2\unsaved_project_files\dp0\SYS\MECH\

Future Analysis None

Scratch Solver

Files Directory

Save MAPDL db No

Delete Unneeded

Files

Yes

Nonlinear

Solution

No

Solver Units Active System

Solver Unit

System

nmm

TABLE 11 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Loads

Object Name Pressure Fixed Support

State Fully Defined

93

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry 2 Faces 4 Faces

Definition

Type Pressure Fixed Support

Define By Normal To

Magnitude 0.10342 MPa (ramped)

Suppressed No

FIGURE 1 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Pressure

TABLE 12 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution

Object Name Solution (A6)

State Solved

Adaptive Mesh Refinement

Max Refinement Loops 1.

Refinement Depth 2.

Information

Status Done

Post Processing

Calculate Beam Section Results No

TABLE 13 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Solution Information

Object Name Solution Information

State Solved

Solution Information

Solution Output Solver Output

Newton-Raphson Residuals 0

94

Update Interval 2.5 s

Display Points All

FE Connection Visibility

Activate Visibility Yes

Display All FE Connectors

Draw Connections Attached To All Nodes

Line Color Connection Type

Visible on Results No

Line Thickness Single

Display Type Lines

TABLE 14 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Results

Object Name Equivalent Stress Total Deformation

State Solved

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry All Bodies

Definition

Type Equivalent (von-Mises) Stress Total Deformation

By Time

Display Time Last

Calculate Time History Yes

Identifier

Suppressed No

Integration Point Results

Display Option Averaged

Average Across Bodies No

Results

Minimum 0. MPa 0. mm

Maximum 10.468 MPa 3.8379e-003 mm

Minimum Occurs On BOILER001

Maximum Occurs On BOILER001

Information

Time 1. s

Load Step 1

Substep 1

Iteration Number 1

TABLE 15 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Stress

Time [s] Minimum [MPa] Maximum [MPa]

95

1. 0. 10.468

TABLE 16 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Total Deformation

Time [s] Minimum [mm] Maximum [mm]

1. 0. 3.8379e-003

TABLE 17 Brass > Constants

Thermal Conductivity 0.111 W mm^-1 C^-1

Density 8.35e-006 kg mm^-3

Specific Heat 1.62e+005 mJ kg^-1 C^-1

TABLE 18 Brass > Isotropic Elasticity

Temperature

C

Young's Modulus

MPa

Poisson's

Ratio

Bulk Modulus

MPa

Shear Modulus

MPa

98900 0.34 1.0302e+005 36903

TABLE 19 Brass > Tensile Yield Strength

Tensile Yield Strength MPa

240

10.2.2 Pressure Test 45psi

96

First Saved Thursday, April 07, 2016

Last Saved Thursday, April 07, 2016

Product Version 16.1 Release

Save Project Before Solution No

Save Project After Solution No

TABLE 1

Unit System Metric (mm, kg, N, s, mV, mA) Degrees rad/s Celsius

Angle Degrees

Rotational Velocity rad/s

97

Temperature Celsius

TABLE 2 Model (A4) > Geometry

Object Name Geometry

State Fully Defined

Definition

Source C:\Users\amclel200\AppData\Local\Temp\WB_LAB-NH-

7RNHD22_amclel200_7424_2\unsaved_project_files\dp0\SYS\DM\SYS.agdb

Type DesignModeler

Length Unit Meters

Element

Control

Program Controlled

Display Style Body Color

Bounding Box

Length X 54. mm

Length Y 57.4 mm

Length Z 158. mm

Properties

Volume 22850 mm³

Mass 0.1908 kg

Scale Factor

Value

1.

Statistics

Bodies 5

Active Bodies 5

Nodes 18096

Elements 8848

Mesh Metric None

Basic Geometry Options

Parameters Yes

Parameter Key DS

Attributes No

Named

Selections

No

Material

Properties

No

Advanced Geometry Options

Use

Associativity

Yes

Coordinate

Systems

No

Reader Mode

Saves Updated

No

98

File

Use Instances Yes

Smart CAD

Update

No

Compare Parts

On Update

No

Attach File Via

Temp File

Yes

Temporary

Directory

C:\Users\amclel200\AppData\Local\Temp

Analysis Type 3-D

Decompose

Disjoint

Geometry

Yes

Enclosure and

Symmetry

Processing

Yes

TABLE 3 Model (A4) > Geometry > Parts

Object

Name

BOILER_PLUG_S

MALL

BOILER_PLUG_S

MALL

BOILER_PLUG_LA

RGE

BOILER0

01

BOILER0

01

State Meshed

Graphics Properties

Visible Yes

Transpare

ncy

1

Definition

Suppresse

d

No

Stiffness

Behaviour

Flexible

Coordinate

System

Default Coordinate System

Reference

Temperatu

re

By Environment

Material

Assignmen

t

Brass

Nonlinear

Effects

Yes

Thermal

Strain

Yes

99

Effects

Bounding Box

Length X 6.35 mm 9.53 mm 12. mm 54. mm

Length Y 6. mm 8. mm 3.2014

mm

57.4 mm

Length Z 6.35 mm 9.53 mm 3. mm 155. mm

Properties

Volume 157.92 mm³ 462.12 mm³ 39.854

mm³

22032

mm³

Mass 1.3186e-003 kg 3.8587e-003 kg 3.3278e-

004 kg

0.18397

kg

Centroid X 7.5946e-010 mm 1.2053e-010 mm 6.589e-010 mm -5.0156e-

008 mm

1.6048e-

002 mm

Centroid Y 25.537 mm 25.306 mm 17.5 mm 1.237

mm

Centroid Z -57. mm 16. mm -25. mm -79.562

mm

2.4201

mm

Moment of

Inertia Ip1

6.055e-003 kg·mm² 6.0542e-003

kg·mm²

3.5027e-002

kg·mm²

3.1736e-

004

kg·mm²

677.34

kg·mm²

Moment of

Inertia Ip2

6.0898e-003

kg·mm²

6.0888e-003

kg·mm²

3.982e-002 kg·mm² 2.3784e-

003

kg·mm²

672.27

kg·mm²

Moment of

Inertia Ip3

6.0551e-003

kg·mm²

6.0542e-003

kg·mm²

3.5011e-002

kg·mm²

2.3541e-

003

kg·mm²

107.42

kg·mm²

Statistics

Nodes 637 458 425 15939

Elements 112 226 200 8198

100

Mesh

Metric

None

TABLE 6 Model (A4) > Connections > Contacts

Object Name Contacts

State Fully Defined

Definition

Connection Type Contact

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry All Bodies

Auto Detection

Tolerance Type Slider

Tolerance Slider 0.

Tolerance Value 0.44141 mm

Use Range No

Face/Face Yes

Face/Edge No

Edge/Edge No

Priority Include All

Group By Bodies

Search Across Bodies

Statistics

Connections 4

Active Connections 4

TABLE 7 Model (A4) > Connections > Contacts > Contact Regions

Object Name Contact

Region

Contact

Region 2

Contact Region 3 Contact Region

4

State Fully Defined

Scope

Scoping

Method

Geometry Selection

Contact 2 Faces 1 Face

Target 2 Faces 1 Face

Contact Bodies BOILER_PLUG_SMALL BOILER_PLUG_LARGE BOILER001

Target Bodies BOILER001

Definition

Type Bonded

Scope Mode Automatic

Behaviour Program Controlled

Trim Contact Program Controlled

101

Trim Tolerance 0.44141 mm

Suppressed No

Advanced

Formulation Program Controlled

Detection

Method

Program Controlled

Penetration

Tolerance

Program Controlled

Elastic Slip

Tolerance

Program Controlled

Normal

Stiffness

Program Controlled

Update

Stiffness

Program Controlled

Pinball Region Program Controlled

Geometric Modification

Contact

Geometry

Correction

None

Target

Geometry

Correction

None

TABLE 8 Model (A4) > Mesh

Object Name Mesh

State Solved

Display

Display Style Body Color

Defaults

Physics Preference Mechanical

Relevance 0

Sizing

Use Advanced Size Function Off

Relevance Centre Coarse

Element Size Default

Initial Size Seed Active Assembly

Smoothing Medium

Transition Fast

Span Angle Centre Coarse

Minimum Edge Length 0.50 mm

Inflation

Use Automatic Inflation None

Inflation Option Smooth Transition

102

Transition Ratio 0.272

Maximum Layers 5

Growth Rate 1.2

Inflation Algorithm Pre

View Advanced Options No

Patch Conforming Options

Triangle Surface Mesher Program Controlled

Patch Independent Options

Topology Checking No

Advanced

Number of CPUs for Parallel Part Meshing Program Controlled

Shape Checking Standard Mechanical

Element Midside Nodes Program Controlled

Straight Sided Elements No

Number of Retries Default (4)

Extra Retries For Assembly Yes

Rigid Body Behaviour Dimensionally Reduced

Mesh Morphing Disabled

Defeaturing

Pinch Tolerance Please Define

Generate Pinch on Refresh No

Automatic Mesh Based Defeaturing On

Defeaturing Tolerance Default

Statistics

Nodes 18096

Elements 8848

Mesh Metric None

TABLE 9 Model (A4) > Analysis

Object Name Static Structural (A5)

State Solved

Definition

Physics Type Structural

Analysis Type Static Structural

Solver Target Mechanical APDL

Options

Environment Temperature 22. °C

Generate Input Only No

TABLE 10 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Analysis Settings

Object Name Analysis Settings

State Fully Defined

Step Controls

103

Number Of Steps 1.

Current Step

Number

1.

Step End Time 1. s

Auto Time

Stepping

Program Controlled

Solver Controls

Solver Type Program Controlled

Weak Springs Program Controlled

Solver Pivot

Checking

Program Controlled

Large Deflection Off

Inertia Relief Off

Restart Controls

Generate Restart

Points

Program Controlled

Retain Files After

Full Solve

No

Nonlinear Controls

Newton-Raphson

Option

Program Controlled

Force

Convergence

Program Controlled

Moment

Convergence

Program Controlled

Displacement

Convergence

Program Controlled

Rotation

Convergence

Program Controlled

Line Search Program Controlled

Stabilization Off

Output Controls

Stress Yes

Strain Yes

Nodal Forces No

Contact

Miscellaneous

No

General

Miscellaneous

No

Store Results At All Time Points

Analysis Data Management

Solver Files

Directory

C:\Users\amclel200\AppData\Local\Temp\WB_LAB-NH-

7RNHD22_amclel200_7424_2\unsaved_project_files\dp0\SYS\MECH\

104

Future Analysis None

Scratch Solver

Files Directory

Save MAPDL db No

Delete Unneeded

Files

Yes

Nonlinear

Solution

No

Solver Units Active System

Solver Unit

System

nmm

TABLE 11 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Loads

Object Name Pressure Fixed Support

State Fully Defined

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry 2 Faces 4 Faces

Definition

Type Pressure Fixed Support

Define By Normal To

Magnitude 0.31026 MPa (ramped)

Suppressed No

FIGURE 1 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Pressure

TABLE 12 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution

Object Name Solution (A6)

State Solved

105

Adaptive Mesh Refinement

Max Refinement Loops 1.

Refinement Depth 2.

Information

Status Done

Post Processing

Calculate Beam Section Results No

TABLE 13 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Solution Information

Object Name Solution Information

State Solved

Solution Information

Solution Output Solver Output

Newton-Raphson Residuals 0

Update Interval 2.5 s

Display Points All

FE Connection Visibility

Activate Visibility Yes

Display All FE Connectors

Draw Connections Attached To All Nodes

Line Color Connection Type

Visible on Results No

Line Thickness Single

Display Type Lines

TABLE 14 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Results

Object Name Equivalent Stress Total Deformation

State Solved

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry All Bodies

Definition

Type Equivalent (von-Mises) Stress Total Deformation

By Time

Display Time Last

Calculate Time History Yes

Identifier

Suppressed No

Integration Point Results

Display Option Averaged

Average Across Bodies No

Results

Minimum 0. MPa 0. mm

106

Maximum 31.404 MPa 1.1514e-002 mm

Minimum Occurs On BOILER001

Maximum Occurs On BOILER001

Information

Time 1. s

Load Step 1

Substep 1

Iteration Number 1

TABLE 15 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Stress

Time [s] Minimum [MPa] Maximum [MPa]

1. 0. 31.404

TABLE 16 Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Total Deformation

Time [s] Minimum [mm] Maximum [mm]

1. 0. 1.1514e-002

TABLE 17 Brass > Constants

Thermal Conductivity 0.111 W mm^-1 C^-1

Density 8.35e-006 kg mm^-3

Specific Heat 1.62e+005 mJ kg^-1 C^-1

TABLE 18 Brass > Isotropic Elasticity

Temperature C Young's Modulus MPa Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus MPa Shear Modulus MPa

98900 0.34 1.0302e+005 36903

TABLE 19 Brass > Tensile Yield Strength

Tensile Yield Strength MPa

240

107

10.3 Appendix C – Manufacture

10.3.1 Dugard Technical Information

108

10.3.2 ProJet 1000 Technical Information

10.4 Appendix D - Rod End Bearing Technical Information

109

10.5 Appendix E - Flanged Bearing Technical Information

10.6 Appendix F - Safety Relief Valve Technical Information

110

10.7 Appendix G - Pressure Gauge Technical Information

10.8 Appendix H - Testing/Evaluation

10.9 Appendix I - Boiler Material Data Sheet

Brass, CuZn36Pb3, C36000, wrought (cold worked), (free-cutting brass) General information Designation CuZn36Pb3 Condition Cold worked UNS number C36000 EN name CW603N ISO name CuZn36Pb3 JIS (Japanese) name C3600 Typical uses Machined parts on automatic lathes; bushes; bearings; screws; extrusions.

Composition overview Compositional summary Cu58-64 / Zn33-38 / Pb2.5-3.7 (impurities: Fe<0.35) Material family Metal (non-ferrous) Base material Cu (Copper)

Composition detail (metals, ceramics and glasses) Cu (copper) 58.4 - 64.5 % Fe (iron) 0 - 0.35 % Pb (lead) 2.5 - 3.7 %

Price Price * 3.33 - 3.67 GBP/kg

Physical properties Density 8.18e3 - 8.35e3 kg/m^3

Mechanical properties Young's modulus 98.9 - 105 GPa Yield strength (elastic limit) 240 - 300 MPa Tensile strength 440 - 520 MPa

111

Elongation 15 - 25 % strain Compressive strength * 240 - 300 MPa Flexural modulus * 98.9 - 105 GPa Flexural strength (modulus of rupture) 240 - 300 MPa Shear modulus * 36.6 - 38.9 GPa Bulk modulus * 107 - 113 GPa Poisson's ratio 0.34 - 0.35 Shape factor 25 Hardness - Vickers 105 - 140 HV Fatigue strength at 10^7 cycles * 188 - 210 MPa Fatigue strength model (stress range) * 122 - 161 MPa Parameters: Stress Ratio = 0, Number of Cycles = 1e7cycles

_

Mechanical loss coefficient (tan delta) * 4.4e-5 - 6.9e-5

Impact & fracture properties Fracture toughness * 42.2 - 48.7 MPa.m^0.5

Thermal properties Melting point 877 - 897 °C Maximum service temperature 97 - 110 °C Minimum service temperature -273 °C Thermal conductivity 120 - 125 W/m.°C Specific heat capacity * 376 - 378 J/kg.°C Thermal expansion coefficient 19.4 - 20.6 µstrain/°C Latent heat of fusion * 220 - 240 kJ/kg

Electrical properties Electrical resistivity 6.5 - 6.8 µohm.cm Galvanic potential * -0.34 - -0.26 V

Magnetic properties Magnetic type Non-magnetic

Processing properties Metal casting Unsuitable Metal cold forming Excellent Metal hot forming Excellent Metal press forming Excellent Metal deep drawing Limited use

Primary production energy, CO2 and water Embodied energy, primary production * 50.9 - 56.1 MJ/kg CO2 footprint, primary production * 3.41 - 3.76 kg/kg Water usage * 307 - 339 l/kg

Processing energy, CO2 footprint & water Rough rolling, forging energy * 2.34 - 2.59 MJ/kg Rough rolling, forging CO2 * 0.176 - 0.194 kg/kg

112

Rough rolling, forging water * 2.55 - 3.83 l/kg Extrusion, foil rolling energy * 4.4 - 4.86 MJ/kg Extrusion, foil rolling CO2 * 0.33 - 0.365 kg/kg Extrusion, foil rolling water * 3.43 - 5.15 l/kg Wire drawing energy * 15.7 - 17.4 MJ/kg Wire drawing CO2 * 1.18 - 1.3 kg/kg Wire drawing water * 5.92 - 8.88 l/kg Metal powder forming energy * 20.3 - 22.4 MJ/kg Metal powder forming CO2 * 1.62 - 1.79 kg/kg Metal powder forming water * 22.1 - 33.2 l/kg Vaporization energy * 9.17e3 - 1.01e4 MJ/kg Vaporization CO2 * 688 - 760 kg/kg Vaporization water * 3.82e3 - 5.73e3 l/kg Coarse machining energy (per unit wt removed) * 0.783 - 0.866 MJ/kg Coarse machining CO2 (per unit wt removed) * 0.0588 - 0.0649 kg/kg Fine machining energy (per unit wt removed) * 3.56 - 3.93 MJ/kg Fine machining CO2 (per unit wt removed) * 0.267 - 0.295 kg/kg Grinding energy (per unit wt removed) * 6.64 - 7.34 MJ/kg Grinding CO2 (per unit wt removed) * 0.498 - 0.551 kg/kg Non-conventional machining energy (per unit wt removed) * 91.7 - 101 MJ/kg Non-conventional machining CO2 (per unit wt removed) * 6.88 - 7.6 kg/kg

Recycling and end of life Recycle True Embodied energy, recycling * 11.9 - 13.1 MJ/kg CO2 footprint, recycling * 0.932 - 1.03 kg/kg Recycle fraction in current supply 40.8 - 45 % Downcycle True Combust for energy recovery False Landfill True Biodegrade False

Notes Other notes (s)=soft; (1/2 h)=half hard; (h)=hard; (xh)=extra hard; (hr) = hot rolled; (w)=soln heat-trtd; (wh)=soln heat-trtd & work hdnd; (wp)=soln heat-trtd & precip hdnd; (whp)=precip hdnd after cold-wkng; (wph)=work hdnd after precip hdng. Keywords PRYM 254, Prymetall GmbH & Co. KG (GERMANY); COLLET BRASS, American manufacture (USA); HOOKER BRASS, English manufacture (UK); HIGH LEADED BRASS 3531, Outokumpu American Brass (USA); LEDRITE 6, Olin Brass Indianapolis (USA); LEDRITE BRASS, Olin Brass Indianapolis (USA); OLIN HIGH LEADED BRASS 353, Olin Brass (USA); PRYM 261, Prymetall GmbH & Co. KG (GERMANY); ANACONDA 360, Anaconda Industries (USA); DRILL ROD BRASS, American manufacture (USA); MUELLER 3530, Mueller Brass Co. (USA); HIGH LEADED BRASS 62, Olin Brass Indianapolis (USA); BATURNAL, Birmingham Battery & Metal Co., Ltd. (UK); ;

Links ProcessUniverse

Producers Reference Shape Values marked * are estimates. No warranty is given for the accuracy of this data

113

10.10 Appendix J - Analysis of Boiler with Ansys Software

10.11 Appendix K - Heat Sources Data Sheets

10.11.1 (Hexamine Solid Fuel)

Material Safety Esbit according to Regulation (EC) no. 1907/2006, Annex II 1. Identification of substance, MIXTURE AND OF THE COMPANY 1.1 Product: Dry fuel: Esbit 1.2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture Solid Fuel Uses advised against: No 1.3. Company name Manufacturer / Supplier Rubber Noller GmbH DE-2783 Verden +49 (0) 4231/8 88-0, 49 (0) 4231/8 88-88 Contact Material Safety Data Sheet: alexandra.guenther@gmx.de 1.4. Emergency number, help desk in case of poisoning Poison control center-North: Tel .: (+49) 05 51-19 24 0 Telephone number of the company: Tel .: (+49) 0 42 31/8 88-0 2. Hazards 2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture according to Regulation (EU) 1272/2008 H 228 Flammable solid H317 may cause an allergic skin reaction 2.2. The product identification element according to Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 letters and hazard designation / s Signal word: Warning

GHS 02 GHS 07 Hazardous component / s of labelling: Methenamine

Hazard statements:

H 228 Flammable solid H317

May cause an allergic skin reaction

Safety Instructions:

P210 Keep away from heat / sparks / open flames / hot surfaces. do not smoke P261 Avoid breathing dust

P280 Wear protective gloves

P302 + P352 In case of contact with skin: Wash with plenty of water

P333 + P313 If skin irritation or rash: Get medical advice / attention Help

3. Composition and information on ingredients

Esbit is a mixture of from Hexamethylenetetramine by 2 manufacturers and wax

114

Ingredients: EG

No.:

CAS No.: Name Reach

Registration

Number

GHS

Classification

202-905-8 100-97-0 Hexamethylentet

ramin

01-2119474895-

20-0000

GHS 02, GHS 07

202-905-8 100-97-0 Hexamethylenet

etramin

01-2119474895-

20-0004

GHS 02, GHS 07

232-315-6 8002-74-2 Wax 01-2119488076-

30-0005

delated

4. First Aid Measures 4.1 Description of first aid measures General Information: Remove persons from danger area. Remove contaminated clothing immediately If accidentally occurrence of ill health doctor. Inhalation: Supply person with fresh air and consult doctor according to symptoms. Keep Data Sheet available. After eye contact: With plenty of water for several minutes. Rinse thoroughly, if necessary, seek medical attention. Keep Data Sheet available.

Skin contact: Wash with plenty of water, If skin irritation occurs (redness etc.), consult

doctor. Keep Data Sheet

After swallowing (unlikely route of exposure) Rinse mouth, spit out liquid. Immediately - drink plenty of fluids (water) - while retaining consciousness. Activated charcoal to give (3 tablespoons of activated charcoal in 1 glass of water suspended). Under no circumstances enter edible oils, castor oil, milk or alcohol. Call doctor immediately, have Data Sheet available. Notes to physician: Delayed effects from exposure can be expected. 4.2 Most important acute and delayed symptoms and effects, acute: skin-sensitizing potential Chronic: skin damage; Gastrointestinal disturbances and damage to the urine contend organs after massive oral exposure

4.3 Indication of immediate medical attention and special treatment If unconscious,

emergency alert

5. Fire Fighting Measures 5.1 Extinguishing media Suitable extinguishing media Alcohol-resistant foam, CO2, water Because safety Problems not Extinguishing agents High pressure waterjet 5.2 Substance / mixture of hazards In case of fire the following can develop: Formaldehyde Ammonia

115

Carbon oxides Nitrogen oxides Hydrocyanic acid (hydrogen cyanide) 5.3 Advice for firefighters Use self-contained breathing apparatus, use depending on size of fire protective suit Dispose of contaminated extinction water according to official regulations.

6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

6.1 Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures not keep unauthorized persons Ensure adequate ventilation. Avoid eye and skin contact. 6.2 Environmental precautions Do not empty into drains. If accidental entry into drains inform respective authorities. 6.3 Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up Record and gem mechanically. Dispose of point 13. 6.4 Reference to other sections See point 13, personal protective equipment see section 8 7. HANDLING AND STORAGE 7.1 Precautions for safe handling Tips for safe handling.: See point 6.1 Ensure good ventilation. Avoid eye and skin contact. Keep ignition sources away - Do not smoke. Eating, drinking, smoking, as well as food-storage, is prohibited in work space. Observe label and instructions for use. 7.2 Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities Requirements for storage rooms and containers: Store products only in original packing. Not to be stored in gangways or stair wells. Comply with segregation requirements. Further information about storage conditions: Protect against moisture and store closed. Storage class 4.1 B 7.3 Specific end use Solid Fuel 8. LIMITATION Of EXPOSURE/PERSONAL PROTECTION 8.1 Control parameters no

8.2 Limitation and monitoring of exposure

8.2.1 Limitation and monitoring of exposure in the workplace Provide adequate ventilation. This can be achieved by local suction or general air extraction. Applies only if maximum permissible exposure values are listed. General hygiene measures for the handling of chemicals are applicable. Wash hands before breaks and at end of work. Keep away from foodstuffs, beverages and feed. Respiratory protection: Normally not required. In case of dust formation: not to be expected due to the shape of the product when used properly Hand protection: Rubber gloves (EN 374). Eye protection: Normally not required. Body protection: Normally not required. Additional information on hand protection Selection made for mixtures according to the best available knowledge and information on the ingredients. 8.2.2 Environmental exposure no Data 9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 9.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties Physical State: Solid Color: White Odour: Ammonia pH 10%: no Data Boiling point / boiling range (° C): decomposition. Melting point / melting range (° C): 280 (subl.) Flash point (° C): no Data Flammability (solid, gaseous): Highly flammable Ignition temperature: 390 ° C Self: Ca. 410 ° C

bei1013,25hPa Lower explosion limit: no Data Upper explosion limit: no Data Density (g / ml): 1.33

Bulk density: no Data Water solubility: 100-874 g / l / 20 ° C, 844 g / l / 60 ° C Vapor Density (Air = 1):

4.84, literature

Miscibility: alcohol, chloroform 9.2 Other information Other physical and chemical data have not been determined.

116

10. STABILITY UND REAKTIVITY 10.1 Reactivity Contact with strong acids, oxidizing agents, peroxides, hydrogen halides leads to strong exothermic reaction. 10.2 Chemical stability The product is chemically stable under standard ambient conditions (room temperature). 10.3 Possibility of hazardous reactions When used Dangerous reactions are not expected 10.4 Conditions to avoid humidity strong heating 10.5 Incompatible materials aluminum tin zinc 10.6 Hazardous decomposition products See point 5.2 11. TOXIKOLOGICAL INFORMATIONS 11.1 Information on toxicological effects Acute toxicity and immediate effects Ingestion: LD50 rat oral (mg / kg): > 20000mg / kg bw. (main ingredient indication) Inhalation: LC50 rat inhalation (mg / l / 4h): no Data Skin contact: LD50 rat dermal (mg / kg): No mortality> 2000mg / kg bw.

Delayed and chronic effects Sensitization: Yes (inhalation and skin contact) Carcinogenicity:

Oral studies in rats and mice showed no carcinogenic effects up to a dose of 2500 mg / kg

bw Mutagenicity: no Data Reproductive toxicity: no Data Narcosis: no Data

Other information Classification according to calculation procedure. The following may occur: In case of sensitivity, concentrations may result already below the limit asthmatic symptoms. Irritation of the eyes Inhalation: Irritation of the nose and throat; Cough; Difficulty in breathing Ingestion: Nausea; Vomiting; Gastrointestinal complaints; Kidney damage 12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION 12.1 Toxicity Fischtoxicity: LC50/96h 41g/l Lepomis macrochirus Toxic for aquatic organisms: LC50 /48h 36g/l Daphnia Magna LC 50/96h 92,5 g/l Nitroca spinipes EC 50 14d 92,5g/l Pseudokirchnerella subcapitala Ökotoxicity: no Data 12.2 Persistence and Degradability Abiotic degradation. On contact with water hydrolysis. not ready biodegrdable. 12.3 Bioakkumulative A Bioaccumulationspotential is not excepted 12.4 Mobility in Soil Boden no Data 12.5 Ergebnisse der PBT- und vPvB-Beurteilung Gemäß den vorliegenden Angaben sind die Kriterien für die Einstufung als PBT bzw. vPvB nicht erfüllt. 13. Waste 13.1 Waste treatment methods For the product

Waste code no. EC: The waste codes are recommendations based on the scheduled use of this

product.

Because of special use and disposal circumstances at the user other waste codes may be allocated

under certain circumstances. (2001/118 / EC, 2001/119 / EC, 2001/573 / EC) 07 07 99 wastes a.n.g. 07

01 99 wastes a.n.g. recommendation: Pay attention to local and national official regulations For

example deposited in approved landfills. Eg suitable incineration plant.

For contaminated packing material Pay attention to local and national official regulations

Uncontaminated packaging can be reused. Uncleaned packaging must be disposed of like the product.

15 01 01 paper and cardboard 15 01 02 plastic packaging

117

14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION

14.1 General Information UN number:

1328

15. REGULATORY INFORMATION

15.1 Safety, health and environmental regulations / legislation specific for the substance or mixture

Technical regulations for workplaces: ASR A1.3 safety and health signs (German regulation) RL 92/85 /

EEC to EU maternity leave Maternity Protection Act. (EC) no. 1907/2006, Annex II

16. Other INFORMATION

These details refer to the product as it is delivered.

Storage class: 4.1 B

Hommel 870

10.11.2 (Methylated Spirit Liquid Fuel)

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE/PREPARATION AND THE COMPANY: PRODUCT NAME: Methylated Spirit 2. COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS: Mixture of substances listed below with non-hazardous additions. Chemical name CAS No. Symbol(s) R-phrases Contents % ethanol 64-17-5 F R11 methanol 67-56-1 T, R R11-R23/25 3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION: Hazard Description: Xn Harmful F Flammable Information concerning to particular hazards to man and environment: R11 Highly flammable. R20/22: Harmful by inhalation and if swallowed. Classification system: The classification is according to the latest editions of the EU-lists, and extended by company and literature data. 4. FIRST AID MEASURES: General: Symptoms of poisoning may even occur after several hours; therefore medical observation for at least 48 hours after the accident. Inhalation: Supply fresh air. If required, provide artificial respiration. Keep patient warm. et prompt medical attention. In case of unconsciousness, place patient stably in side position for transportation. Eye contact: Rinse opened eye for several minutes under running water. Skin contact: Immediately wash with water and soap and rinse thoroughly. Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting; call for medical help immediately. 5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES: Suitable extinguishing media: CO2, powder or water spray. Fight larger fires with water spray or alcohol resistant foam. Protective equipment: Mount respiratory protective device. Additional Information: Cool endangered receptacles with water spray.

118

Safety Data Sheet Methylated Spirit 11/12/97 2 6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES: Personal precautions: Wear protective equipment. Keep unprotected persons away. Measures for environmental protection: Environmental precautions: Prevent seepage into sewage system, workpits and cellars. Dilute with plenty of water. Do not allow to enter sewers/surface or ground water. Clean up method: Absorb with liquid-binding material (sand, diatomite, acid binders, universal binders, sawdust). Dispose contaminated material as waste according to item 13. Ensure adequate ventilation. 7. HANDLING AND STORAGE: Handling: Ensure good ventilation/exhaustion at the workplace. Keep receptacles tightly sealed. Keep ignition sources away – Do not smoke. Protect against electrostatic charges. Storage: Requirements to be met by storerooms and receptacles: Store in a cool location. Suitable material for receptacles and pipes: steel and stainless steel. Refer to Health & Safety guide HS (G) 51 for storage of flammable liquids in containers. Further information : Keep receptacle tightly sealed. Store in cool, dry conditions in well-sealed receptacles. Class according to regulation on flammable liquids: B. 8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS AND PERSONAL PROTECTION: Engineering measures: 64-17-5 ethanol OEL: 1900 mg/m³, 1000 ml/m³ 67-56-1 methanol (<4%)OEL: Short-term value: 310 mg/m³, 250 ml/m³ Long-term value: 260 mg/m³, 200 ml/m³ Additional information: The lists valid during the making were used as basis. General protective and hygienic measures: Keep away from foodstuffs, beverages and feed. Wash hands before breaks and at the end of work. Respiratory protection: In case of brief exposure or low pollution use respiratory filter device. In case of intensive or longer exposure use self-contained respiratory protective device. Protection of hands: Avoid contact with skin. Eye protection: Wear tightly sealed goggles. Safety Data Sheet Methylated Spirit 11/12/97 3 9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: Form: Fluid Colour: IMS94 = Colourless MMS = purple Odour: Alcohol-like Melting point/range: -114.5ºC Boiling point/range: 78ºC Flash point: 13ºC Flammability (solid, gaseous): Highly flammable Ignition temperature: 425ºC Self-ignition: Product is not self-igniting Danger of explosion: Product is not explosive, but formation of explosive air/vapour mixtures is possible Explosion limits - Lower: 3.5 Vol % - Upper: 15 Vol % Vapour pressure @ 20ºC: 59 hPa Density @ 20ºC: 0.790 g/cm³ Water solubility/miscibility: 1.000 g/l @ 20ºC Organic solvent content: 100% Additional information: Vapour is heavier than air 10: STABILITY AND REACTIVITY: Thermal decomposition: No decomposition if used according to specifications. Avoid intense heat.

119

/ conditions to be avoided Dangerous reactions: None known. Used empty containers may contain product gases which form explosive mixtures with air. Dangerous decomposition: Carbon monoxide. products 11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION: Skin: No irritant effect. Eye: Irritating effect. Sensitisation: No sensitising effects known. Additional information: The product shows the following dangers according to the calculation method of the General EU Classification Guidelines for Preparations as issued in the latest version. Harmful. 12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION: Do not allow undiluted product or large quantities of it to reach ground water, water courses or sewage system. 13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS: Products must not be disposed together with general waste. Do not allow product to reach sewage system. Dispose of with registered waste disposal contractors only. Unclean packaging disposal must be made according to official regulations. Recommended cleansing agent is water (together with cleansing agents if necessary). Safety Data Sheet Methylated Spirit 11/12/97 14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION: Hazard class: 3 Identification number: UN1170 Packing group: II Proper shipping name: Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol), mixture Land: ADR/RID class: 3 Flammable liquids Item: 3b Danger code (Kemler): 33 UN-Number: 1170 Hazard label: 3 Description of goods: 1170 Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol), mixture Maritime: MDG class: 3.2 Page: 3219 UN-Number: 1170 Packaging group: II EMS Number: 3-06 MFAG: 305 Marine pollutant: No Proper shipping name: Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol), mixture Air: ICAO/IATA class: 3 UN/ID Number: 1170 Packaging group: II Proper shipping name: Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol), mixture 15. REGULATORY INFORMATION: Labelling according to EU guidelines: The product has been classified and marked in accordance with EU Directives/Ordinance on Hazardous Materials. Product: Xn Harmful F Highly flammable

120

Hazard-determining components of labelling: methanol Risk phrases: R11 Highly flammable R20/22 Harmful by inhalation and if swallowed Safety phrases: S7/9 Keep container tightly closed and in a well-ventilated place S16 Keep away from sources of ignition – No smoking S36 Wear suitable protective clothing Classification according to VbF: B Technical instructions (air): Class Share in % III 100 Water hazard class 1: slightly hazardous for water. (Self-assessment) 16 OTHER INFORMATION: This information is based on our present knowledge. However, this shall not constitute a guarantee.

10.12 Appendix L -Hydraulic Pump Data Sheet

Maintenance: Keep the tank and pump system clean. The suction pipe is supplied with a

filter to

prevent dirt entering the pump pressure system. If the filter should clog, remove the dirt and

clean it with water.

121

1 6.1135

2 6.1136

3 6.1103

4 6.1104

5 6.1137

6 F8.2480

7 6.1138

8 6.1107

9 6.1108

10 6.1109

11. 6.1139

12 6.1111

13 6.1112

14 6.1113

15 6.1140

16 6.1141

17 6.1118

18 6.1119

19 6.1142

20 6.1121

21 6.1122

22 6.1123

23 6.1125

24 6.1127

25 6.1128

26 6.1143

27 6.1131

28 H9.8963

29 6.1133

30 6.1134

31 9992135Hotline Service After Sales: Tel.

+49 6195 99 52 14 Fax: +49

1. Aluminium-handle 1 61135

2. Joint shaft 1 61136

3. Joint shaft 1 61103

4. Joint shaft 1 61104

5. Y bracket 1 61137

6. Seeger-Ring M8 for joint shaft M8 3 F82480

7. Piston 1 61138

8. O-Ring 2 61107

9. Main valve housing 1 61108

10 Screw main valve housing 4 61109

11. Plastic caps 8 61139 12 screw 4 61111

13. Main bracket 1 61112

14. Brass fitting 1 61113 *

15. Rubber ball ∅ 9,5 2 1300000132

16. Non returning valve 1 61141 *

17. Non returning valve housing I.D. ∅ 6 1 61118 *

18. Brass union I.D. ∅ 6 1 61119

19. Ball valve 1 61142

20. Valve housing 1 61121

21. Rad valve wheel 1 61122

22. Manometer gauge 1 R6112300

23. Hose 1 R6112500

24. PVC-grip 1 61127

25. Tank plastic tank 1 61128

26. Screw 2 61143

27. Coil spring 1 61131

28. Grease Nipple 1 H98963

29. Handle 1 61133

30. ROTHENBERGER Label ROTHENBERGER

label 1 6113Appendix M - Risk Assessment for Heat Source Testing

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

10.13 Appendix N - Risk Assessment for Pressure Testing

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

10.14 Appendix O - BS ISO 16528-1:2007 (Testing Section)

7.5 Inspection, non-destructive testing and examination

7.5.1 General

Boilers and pressure vessels shall be examined for dimensional conformance and indications of imperfections by appropriate visual and non-destructive examinations.

7.5.2 Methods

Inspection and examination methods and any limitations shall consider material types, fabrication process, thickness, configuration, intended application, etc.

7.5.3 Procedures

Inspection and examination procedures shall be qualified by a recognized party or under a national qualification scheme or in accordance with the manufacturer’s quality programme.

7.5.4 Personnel qualification

Inspection and examination personnel shall be qualified by a recognized party or under a national qualification scheme or in accordance with the manufacturer’s quality programme.

7.5.5 Evaluation of indications and acceptance criteria

Criteria for evaluation of indications and acceptance criteria shall be consistent with material types and thicknesses, design factors and boilers and pressure vessels applications.

7.5.6 Disposition of unacceptable imperfections

Methods of dispositioning (sentencing) unacceptable imperfections in component shall be suitable for the intended design and application and shall not impair the boilers and pressure vessels. Methods may include repair, demonstrating fitness for purpose or rejection.

7.6 Final inspection and testing

7.6.1 Final inspection

Boilers and pressure vessels shall undergo a final inspection to assess visually and by review of the accompanying documents compliance with the requirements of the applicable standard.

Tests carried out during manufacture may be taken into account. When practical, the final inspection shall be carried out internally and externally on every part of the boilers and pressure vessels; when access for a final inspection is not possible, appropriate inspections shall be made during the course of manufacture.

7.6.2 Final pressure test

Final assessment of boilers and pressure vessels shall include a test for pressure containment and, when necessary, beneficial pre-stressing. When possible, a hydrostatic test is recommended. When a hydrostatic pressure test is harmful or impractical, other tests of a recognized value may be employed. For tests other than the hydrostatic pressure test,

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additional measures, such as non-destructive tests or other methods of equivalent validity, shall be applied before those tests are carried out.

7.7 Marking/labelling

Required information shall be physically marked on boilers and pressure vessels in accordance with the applicable standard. As a minimum, the information shall include

a unique identification number or type series identification,

an indication of conformity,

manufacturer’s identification,

for pressure vessels the maximum allowable pressure(s) at coincident design temperature(s), and for boilers the maximum allowable pressure and design temperature at the boiler outlet.

When physical marking is not practical, alternative means are allowed such as records traceable to the boilers and pressure vessels or a suitable label attached to the boilers and pressure vessels.

8 Conformity Assessment

Boilers and pressure vessels shall be constructed under a conformity assessment system agreed to by the parties concerned. A statement of conformity to the standard shall be supplied by the appropriate conformity assessment body or manufacturer.

Conformity assessment may be accomplished by one or a combination of the following systems:

a) Manufacturer’s use of a quality management system: Manufacturer’s use of a quality

system commensurate with the type of boilers and pressure vessels being produced and the methods of design and manufacture;

b) Third-party inspection: Inspection performed by third-party inspection bodies;

c) Inspection by users: Inspection performed by users of boilers and pressure vessels;

d) Certification of manufacturers: Certification of manufacturers responsible for conformity. In this case, it

is necessary to specify the certification programmes;

e) Inspection by manufacturer: Inspection performed by the manufacturer of the boilers and pressure vessels.

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